Journal of Modern Optics

Vol. 52, No. 12, 15 August 2005, 1657–1669

Pages from the history of quantum electronics research

in the Soviet Union*

SERGEI BAGAYEVz, OLEG KROKHIN} and

ALEXANDER MANENKOVôy
zInstitute for Laser Physics, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy
of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia
}Lebedev Physical Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
ôProkhorov General Physics Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences,
Moscow, Russia

(Received 15 March 2005)

1. Introduction

50 years of quantum electronics is an outstanding event in the history of modern

science. Having started in 1954 in two countries, the Soviet Union at Lebedev
Physical Institute and in the United States at Columbia University, with proposals
for a new concept of amplification and generation of electromagnetic radiation based
on using stimulated emission of radiation by atomic systems, this field nowadays has
become a very developed multidiscipline science with very broad applications.
Outstanding contributions of many scientists to the development of quantum
electronics and related fields were awarded with the Nobel Prize. Among these
scientists, Nikolai Basov, Alexander Prokhorov and Charles Townes, who shared
the Nobel Prize in 1964 for their pioneering works founding quantum electronics
(QE), should be emphasized especially.
Unfortunately two of QE’s co-founders, Nikolai Basov and Alexander
Prokhorov, were not present among us at this session: they passed away some
time ago, in 2001 (Basov) and 2002 (Prokhorov). For this reason the authors of
this paper, as their successorsk, take responsibility to present here the history of QE
in the Soviet Union. Of course, we understand how extremely hard it is to speak
about QE history in a brief presentation, since so many research groups and persons
in the Soviet Union contributed significantly to the development of QE. For this
reason, we will limit ourselves by speaking very briefly, almost schematically, only on

*This paper is based on an invited talk presented by A.A. Manenkov at the IQEC/CLEO
Special Symposium ‘Fifty Years of Quantum Electronics’, San Francisco, 17 May 2004.
yCorresponding author. Email: manenkov@kapella.gpi.ru
kIn particular, Alexander Manenkov was a graduate student of Professor Prokhorov at the
Lebedev Institute in 1953–1955 and collaborated with him over the following years for almost
50 years. Also Oleg Krokhin tightly collaborated with Professor Basov over a long period of
time since 1959.

Journal of Modern Optics

ISSN 0950–0340 print/ISSN 1362–3044 online # 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/09500340500165119
1658 S. Bagayev et al.

selected fragments of the history of QE in the Soviet Union. Our presentation will
include the following aspects:
(a) an initial stage of quantum electronics: key ideas, formulation of basic
principals and first experiments,
(b) development and applications of microwave EPR solid-state masers and
(c) laser research in some institutions of the Soviet Union.

2. Initial stage of quantum electronics: key ideas, formulation

of basic principals, and first experiments

At the end of the 1940s, A. Prohkorov organized at the Lebedev Physical Institute a
research group on microwave spectroscopy of gases. Very soon, in 1952–1953
A. Prokhorov and his student N. Basov came up with the ideas of using molecular
beams and stimulated emission (instead of absorption) for increasing spectral
resolution and detection sensitivity. In 1954 they published a comprehensive
analysis of these ideas and formulated a molecular oscillator concept based
on stimulated emission and electromagnetic radiation feedback [1]. As is well
known, a similar approach was independently developed by Townes and his group
at Columbia University who published their results in the same year, 1954,
demonstrating the first molecular (ammonia) oscillator operation [2]. So, these
two pioneering works [1, 2] may be considered as the starting point of QE and
1954 as its birth year.
A further significant development of QE principals was a proposal in 1955 by
Basov and Prohkorov of the electromagnetic (e-m) pumping method (so-called ‘three
level scheme’) for population inversion [3]. This method turned out to be a very
effective and universal one for population inversion in various atomic–molecular
systems in different spectral ranges, from microwaves to UV. In particular, it was
used in 1956 by N. Bloembergen in his proposal for a solid-state EPR maser [4]y and
became one of the key components of the first optical maser, demonstrated later, in
1960, by T. Maiman [5].
Electronic paramagnetic resonance (EPR) studies of crystals, including ruby
[6, 7], led A. Prohkorov and A. Manenkov in 1956 to a proposal of the ruby crystal
for solid-state EPR masers [8]. The first ruby maser, operated in cm wavelength
range, has been demonstrated in 1958 by Kornienko and co-authors [9]. Since that
time studies of solid-state EPR masers and their applications as low-noise amplifiers
were a significant part of research programs headed by Prohkorov, whereas Basov
and his group mostly concentrated at that time on ammonia molecular beam masers
and their applications as frequency standers and atomic clocks.

yThe outstanding contributions of Professor Nicolaas Bloembergen to quantum electronics

was recognized by awarding him, jointly with Professor Arhur Schawlow, the 1981 Nobel
Prize for the development of laser spectroscopy.
 Pages from the history of quantum electronics research in Soviet Union 1659

Figure 1. Molecular oscillator (ammonia maser) builded at Lebedev Physical Institute

(September 1995).

Figure 2. First ruby maser (lsignal ¼ 15 cm, lpump ¼ 2.21 cm) built at Lebedev Physical
Institute (1958): left-General view of an experimental setup for testing of the maser
right-Fragments of the maser: signal and pump wave guides, two-frequency cavity.
1660 S. Bagayev et al.

3. Development and applications of microwave EPR masers

Studies of EPR masers carried out at the Lebedev Physical Institute have shown
that ruby is the most effective material for maser amplifiers over a wide microwave
range. In particular, a series of ruby maser amplifiers operated at several wavelengths
in the cm–mm range have been created and installed on radio astronomical and
far-space communication antennas [10].
Many R&D laboratories in the Soviet Union were involved in these works under
the general supervision of Professor Prohkorov. Application of these maser ampli-
fiers in radio astronomy and planet radar has provided significant scientific results.
In particular, a detailed study of Galactic hydrogen radiation at 21 cm and the
discovery of new radiation lines in the 8 mm range of highly-exited hydrogen
(R. Sorochenko et al., 1969) [11] has given valuable data on the distribution and
characteristics (temperature, density and dynamics) of hydrogen in the Galaxy.
Observation of maser radiation from space at 1.35 cm (L. Matvienko et al., 1980
[12–14], after the discovery by C. Townes et al., 1969 [15]) has given very interesting
data on the water content in some space sources.
Maser amplifiers were also used in radar studies of Mercury, Venus, Mars and
Jupiter allowing one to obtain new data on characteristics of these planets
(V. Kotelnikov et al., 1962–1964) [16].

4. Transition from maser to laser

Successful development of microwave masers stimulated advancement of maser

principals to shorter wavelength domain. A significant step in this direction was
a proposal by A. Prokhorov in 1958 of the ‘open resonator’ for e-m feedback
at short wavelengths [17]. This type of resonator was analysed in detail by
A. Shawlow and C. Townes for an optical range [18]. Using this type of resonator
in combination with two other key maser components, an e-m pump and ruby as
an active medium, T. Maiman successfully demonstrated in 1960 the first optical
maser [5] named later as a laser. (Note that before the first ruby laser was
demonstrated N.G. Basov and his co-authors considered in 1958 semiconductor
materials as a laser medium [19]. The significance of their approach is that it
permitted employing an electric current as a direct pump source for a population
inversion.)
Since that time many academic, university and R&D laboratories in the Soviet
Union were involved with laser research in various directions, including physics of
different types of lasers, the search for new laser materials and their technology,
development of high-power lasers, physics of the laser–matter interaction, nonlinear
optics and various practical applications. Significant contributions to these direc-
tions were performed by many Soviet institutions. However, here it is impossible,
of course, to describe, even briefly, all such contributions. For this reason we will
point out below only some of the most significant pioneering results, in our view,
obtained at several Soviet academic institutions.
 Pages from the history of quantum electronics research in Soviet Union 1661

5. Contribution of some Soviet institutions to laser fields

5.1 Lebedev Physical Institute and General Physics Institute

Among the most significant contributions to the development of laser fields (besides
those mentioned in previous sections) done at the Lebedev Physical Institute and
General Physics Institutey, we would like to point out the following.
(1) New methods for population inversion in different laser media have been
proposed:
(a) carrier injection through a p-n junction in semiconductors (N. Basov,
O. Krokhin, Yu. Popov, 1961 [20]): this method became the most
effective one for population inversion in semiconductor lasers (diode
lasers);
(b) electron beam pumping of different media (N. Basov et al., 1961 [21]):
usage of this method resulted in the creation of excimer lasers [22],
semiconductor lasers [23] and high-pressure gas lasers [24];
(c) photodissociation in molecular gases (S. Rautian and I. Sobel’man, 1961
[25]);
(d) heating-fast cooling of molecular gases—‘thermal pump method’
(N. Basov and A. Oraevsky, 1963 [26]).
(2) New types of lasers were proposed and realized:
(a) a high-power cw gas dynamic laser which combines a fast flow of an
active medium through an optical resonator and the thermodynamic
method of population inversion (Konyukhov and Prohkorov, 1966–1971
[27, 28]);
(b) various types of chemical lasers (N. Basov, A. Oraevsky, et al.,
1963–1971 [29–32]);
(c) a high power molecular laser, based on photodissociation by a shock
wave-produced radiation at an explosive blasting, with the output laser
pulse energy up to 1 MJ (N. Basov, O. Krokhin, V. Zuev, S. Kormer,
G. Kirillov, et al., 1969) [33, 34].
(d) a large variety of new solid-state lasers based on rare earth and iron
group-doped glasses and crystals (A. Prokhorov, E. Dianov, V. Osiko,
I. Scherbakov, et al. [35–38]);
(e) high-efficiency solid-state dye lasers based on the dye-impregnated bulk
modified polymers (A. Manenkov, G. Matyushin, V. Nechitailo, et al.,
1980–2000 [39]) and polymer-filled nanoporous glass (S. Dolotov,
M. Koldunov, A. Manenkov, et al., 1992–2003 [40]).

yThe General Physics Institute was established in 1982 by Professor A.M. Prokhorov on the
base of the Oscillation Laboratory of the Lebedev Physical Institute. In honour of its founder,
it has been named since 2003 as the A.M. Prokhorov General Physics Institute.
1662 S. Bagayev et al.

(3) Significant results were obtained on high-power laser–matter interaction and

in nonlinear optics:
(a) a laser-induced heating of nuclear targets was proposed for inertial
confinement fusion (N. Basov and O. Krokhin, 1963) [41];
(b) fundamental mechanisms of laser-induced damage in transparent
solids (bulk optical materials, surfaces and coatings) at various laser
parameters (radiation frequency, pulse width, etc.) and experimental
conditions were determined on a basis of comprehensive experimental
and theoretical studies (A. Prokhorov, A. Manenkov, Yu. Danileiko,
A. Epifanov, M. Koldunov, et al., 1970–2003, see reviews [42, 43]);
(c) a possibility was pointed out of a wave guiding propagation and elim-
ination of geometric and diffractional divergence of an electromagnetic
beam in gases and plasma—a phenomenon called self-focusing
(G. Askar’yan, 1961 [44]);
(d) an adequate theory of self-focusing of laser beams in nonlinear media—
multi-focus and moving foci models—was developed [45, 46] and
experimentally verified [47, 48] (V. Lugovoi, A. Prokhorov, et al.,
1967–1970);
(e) phase conjugation of laser beams in nonlinear media (at
stimulated light scattering) was discovered (Ragul’sky, et al.—
experimental observation, 1971 [49], Zel’dovich, et al.—theoretical ex-
planation, 1972 [50]);
(f) first ideas on sub-Doppler narrow nonlinear spectral resonance
(saturated absorption inverted Lamb dip) and laser trapping of cold
atoms in a standing wave were proposed (N. Basov, V. Letokhov, 1967–
1968) [50–53].

5.2 Moscow State University

Professors Rem Khokhlov and Sergei Akhmanov organized in the 1960s at
Lomonosov Moscow State University a research school which is well known in
the quantum electronics community for pioneering works on nonlinear optics
and laser physics. Among many outstanding results of this school we would like
to point out the following.
(a) Various schemes for optical parametric amplifiers and oscillators with a
smoothly tunable frequency were proposed and realized (Khokhlov,
Akhmanov, Kovrigin, et al. [54–56]).
(b) Coherent light scattering active spectroscopy with use of tunable lasers was
developed and successfully applied for studies of intermolecular interaction
in different media including biological objects (S. Akhmanov, et al. [57]).
(c) A new direction in nonlinear optics—nonlinear polarization optics—was
developed (S. Akhmanov, et al. [58–60]).
A significant contribution of MSU to the organization of the International
Conferences on Coherent and Nonlinear Optics, initiated by Rem Khokhlov in 1965,
 Pages from the history of quantum electronics research in Soviet Union 1663

should be noted. Since that time these conferences have become very popular,
with a high-quality reputation international forum in the field of Nonlinear Optics.
The next XVIII Conference of this series will be held in May 2005 in St. Petersburg,
Russia.

5.3 Institute of Spectroscopy

The Institute of Spectroscopy, Russian Academy of Sciences, Troitsk, Moscow
Region has been involved in laser research since its foundation (1968). Among the
important contributions of this institute to laser physics, we would like to point out
the pioneering works performed by V. Letokhov and co-authors in the 1970s on the
trapping and cooling of atoms by laser light: trapping spectroscopy of laser-cooled
atoms [61], a theory of Doppler cooling of atoms [62] and the first experiment on
laser cooling of atoms [63].

5.4 Institute of Laser Physics, Siberia

A research activity in quantum electronics in Siberia started at the beginning of
the 1960s, practically just after the first ruby laser demonstration. At first a laser
group (Drs G.V. Krivoschekov, V.P. Chebotayev, et al.) was organized at the
Institute of Radioelectronics, Siberian Branch of USSR Academy of Sciences
(Director Professor Yu.B. Rumer) and then, in 1991, Professor Veniamin
Chebotayev established the Institute of Laser Physics (since 1992 headed by
Professor S. Bagayev).
Among many pioneering works, done by scientists of this institute in
quantum electronics and laser physics, investigations resulting in the creation of
a new direction in optical spectroscopy—nonlinear super high-resolution laser
spectroscopy—should be emphasized especially. They proposed and realized several
methods for nonlinear laser spectroscopy: saturated absorption [64, 65], two-photon
absorption in standing wave fields [66], separated optical fields [67], and others
(see [68]). These methods became basic ones for creating ultra stable laser frequency
standards (see the review paper [69]). In 1972 they demonstrated the most
monochromatic source of coherent electromagnetic radiation with a line width of
0.05 Hz [70]. With the use of super high-stability lasers, unique optical experiments
were carried out for the first time which resulted in the observation of the recoil
effect [71], the quadratic Doppler effect [72], a selection of cold atoms in gases
with very low effective temperature (
10 mK) [73, 74] and the anomalous Zeeman
effect [75]. In 1981 Siberian scientists created for the first time in the world an optical
clock with an accuracy of 1014 [76]. Further development of these works resulted
recently in the creation of femtosecond optical frequency standards with the highest
accuracy 1015–1016 [77].

5.5 Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute

Among the significant works carried out in the field of quantum electronics
at the Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute, Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) we
would like to point out especially the works of Professor Zheres Alferov and
1664 S. Bagayev et al.

Figure 3. Nobel prize winners of 1964 in physics: (on the left) Ch. Townes, A.M. Prokhorov,
N.G. Basov

Figure 4. A.M. Prokhorov (left), C.H. Townes (center) and N.G. Basov in the Lebedev
Physical Institute (1965).
 Pages from the history of quantum electronics research in Soviet Union 1665

Figure 5. Rem Khokhlov (left) and Sergey Akhmanov in the office at the Moscow State
University (1965).

Figure 6. Rem Khokhlov (centre), Sergey Akhmanov (left), Nicolas Bloembergen,

Sasha Kovrigin (right) in the Nonlinear Optics Lab. (MSU 1965).

his collaborators on semiconductor heterostructures [78] which became the

basis for the development of modern electronics, including various types of
semiconductor lasers (quantum well and quantum dots lasers, etc.). For
achievements in this field Professor Zh. Alferov was awarded the Nobel Prize
in 2000.
1666 S. Bagayev et al.

Figure 7. N.G. Basov (center) with his laboratory co-workers (from left to right):
O.N. Krokhin, E.G. Gamaly, Yu.V. Afanasyev, V.B. Rozanov (1970).

Figure 8. Alexander Prokhorov and Charles Townes (center) among the participants of the
Conference on laser Optics (St. Petersburg 1995) Sergey Bagayev (left), Tina Karu and
Alexander Manenkov (right).
 Pages from the history of quantum electronics research in Soviet Union 1667

5.6 Institute of Physics, Byelorussia

Byelorussian physicists contributed considerably to the different directions of
quantum electronics and laser physics. In particular, A.N. Rubinov, B.I. Stepanov
and V.A. Mostovnikov, of the Institute of Physics, Minsk, proposed and realized
in 1965–1966 [79] the first dye lasers (independently from P. Sorokin et al. and
P. Schafer et al. [80, 81]).

6. Conclusions

Summarizing the above review we would like to conclude the following. Soviet
scientists contributed significantly to quantum electronics including the foundation
of its basic principals, creation and development of different directions of this very
wide field of science and engineering. Provided with relevant references to original
publications this brief review gives, as we believe, some general view on this
contribution.
We would like to point out also that the huge progress in quantum electronics
during its 50 year history has been due to the contribution and international
cooperation of scientists and engineers of many countries. In this context a stimu-
lating role of International Conferences on Quantum Electronics (IQEC) established
by C.H. Townes in 1959, and many ‘daughter conferences’, like CLEO and QELS,
conducted in the US, and similar conferences, conducted in Europe and in the Pacific
Rim, should be especially emphasized.

Acknowledgments

During the preparation of this paper we discussed historical aspects of quantum

electronics with many of our colleagues. We would like to thank all of them,
particularly Professors V. Letokhov, V. Makarov, Yu. Popov, A. Rubinov and
R. Sorochenko, for their comments. V. Letokhov and V. Makarov are also
appreciated for providing some photographs.

Note

Figures 1–8 inserted to the text above show the retrospective photographs related to
some events, mentioned in the text of the history of quantum electronics. We believe
that figure captions explain sense of the events clearly enough. The photographs were
reproduced from institute’s archives and from private collections.

References

[1] N.G. Basov and A.M. Prokhorov, JETP 27 431 (1954).

[2] J.P. Gordon, H.J. Zeiger and C.H. Townes, Phys. Rev. 95 282 (1954).
[3] N.G. Basov and A.M. Prokhorov, JETP 28 249 (1955).
1668 S. Bagayev et al.

[4] N. Bloembergen, Phys. Rev. 104 324 (1956).

[5] T.H. Maiman, Br. Commun. Electr. 1 674 (1960); Nature 187 493 (1960).
[6] A.A. Manenkov and A.M. Prokhorov, JETP 28 762 (1955).
[7] A.A. Manenkov, Paramagnetic resonance in some compounds of iron and rare earth
elements. PhD dissertation, Lebedev Physical Institute, USSR Academy of Sciences,
Moscow (1955).
[8] A.M. Prokhorov and A.A. Manenkov, In High Power Lasers—Science and Engineering,
edited by R. Kossowsky, et al., pp. 585–601 (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
1966).
[9] G.M. Zverev, L.S. Kornienko, A.A. Manenkov, et al., JETP 34 1661 (1958).
[10] A.A. Manenkov and V.B. Shteinshleiger, In 1977 Annual of Comprehensive Soviet
Encyclopedia, No. 21, edited by A.M. Prokhorov, pp. 566–569 (Soviet Encyclopedia,
Moscow, 1977).
[11] See M.A. Gordon and R.L. Sorochenko, Radio Recombination Lines: Their Physics
and Astronomical Applications (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 2002) and
references therein.
[12] L.I. Matveenko, L.R. Kogan, L.S. Chesalin, et al., Pis’ma Astronom. Zh. 6 662 (1980)
[Sov. Astron. Lett. 6 347 (1980)].
[13] T.S. Giufrida, P.E. Greenfield, B.F. Burke, et al., Pis’ma Astronom. Zh. 7 358 (1981)
[Sov. Astron. Lett. 7 198 (1981)].
[14] L.S. Matveenko, D.A. Graham and P.J. Diamond, Sov. Astron. Lett. 14 468 (1988).
[15] A.C. Cheung, D.M. Rank, C.H. Townes, et al., Nature 221 626 (1969).
[16] See V.A. Kotelnikov, O.N. Rzhiga, Yu.N. Alexandrov, et al., in Problems of Modern
Radio Engineering and Electronics, edited by V.A. Kotelnikov (Nauka, Moscow, 1980)
[English translation, General Editorial Board for Foreign Publications, Nauka
Publishers, Moscow, 1985].
[17] A.M. Prokhorov, JETP 34 1658 (1958).
[18] A.L. Schawlow and C.H. Townes, Phys. Rev. 112 1940 (1958).
[19] N.G. Basov, B.M. Vul and Yu. M. Popov, JETP Pis’ma 37 587 (1959).
[20] N.G. Basov, O.N. Krokhin and Yu.M. Popov, JETP 13 1320 (1961).
[21] N.G. Basov, O.N. Krokhin and Yu.M. Popov, Vestnik Acad. Nauk SSSR 3 61 (1961).
[22] N.G. Basov, V.A. Danilychev, Yu.M. Popov, et al., JETP Pis’ma 12 473 (1970).
[23] N.G. Basov, O.V. Bogdankevich and A.G. Devyatkov, Dokl. AN SSSR 155 783 (1964).
[24] N.G. Basov, E.M. Belenov, V.A. Danilychev, et al., JETP Pis’ma 14 421 (1971).
[25] S.G. Rautian and I.I. Sobel’man, JETP 41 2018 (1961).
[26] N.G. Basov and A.N. Oraevsky, JETP 44 1742 (1963).
[27] V.K. Konyukhov and A.M. Prokhorov, JETP Pis’ma 3 436 (1966).
[28] V.K. Konyukhov, Proc. Lebedev Phys. Inst. 113 50 (1979).
[29] A.N. Oraevsky, JETP Pis’ma 45 177 (1963).
[30] N.G. Basov, L.V. Kulakov, E.P. Markin, JETP Pis’ma 9 613 (1969).
[31] N.G. Basov, N.G. Basov, E.P. Markin, A.N. Oraevsky, Dokl. AN SSSR 198 1034 (1971).
[32] N.G. Basov, A.S. Bashkin, V.I. Igoshin, et al., Chemical Lasers (Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
Heidelberg, New York, 1990).
[33] V.S. Zuev and V.A. Katulin, Kvantovaya Elektron. 24 1105 (1997).
[34] V.S. Zuev, J. Rus. Laser Res. 19 23 (1998).
[35] M.M. Bubnov, I.M. Buzhinsky, E.M. Dianov, et al., Kvantovaya Elektron. 4 113 (1973).
[36] E.V. Zharikov, V.V. Osiko, A.M. Prokhorov, et al., Izv. AN SSSR 48 1330 (1984).
[37] Kh.S. Bagdasarov, V.I. Zhekhov, V.A. Lobachev, et al., Izv. AN SSSR 48 1765 (1984).
[38] V.V. Osiko, Laser Materials (Selected Papers) (Nauka, Moscow, 2002).
[39] K.M. Dyumaev, A.A. Manenkov, A.P. Maslyukov, et al., Proc. Gen. Phys. Inst. 33 1 (1991).
[40] H.R. Aldag, S.M. Dolotov, M.F. Koldunov, et al., Kvantovaya Elektron. 30 1055 (2000).
[41] N.G. Basov and O.N. Krokhin, The conditions of plasma heating by the optical
generator radiation. Proceedings of the 3rd Conference On Quantum Electronics, Paris
(11–15 February 1963); JETP 46 171 (1964).
[42] A.A. Manenkov and A.M. Prokhorov, Usp. Fiz. Nauk 148 179 (1986).
 Pages from the history of quantum electronics research in Soviet Union 1669

[43] A.A. Manenkov, Kvantovaya Elektron. 33 639 (2003).

[44] G.A. Askar’yan, JETP 42 1567 (1962).
[45] A.L. Dyshko, V.N. Lugovoi and A.M. Prokhorov, JETP Pis’ma 6 655 (1967).
[46] V.N. Lugovoi and A.M. Prokhorov, JETP Pis’ma 7 153 (1968); see also a comprehensive
review by V.N. Lugovoi and A.M. Prokhorov, Usp. Fiz. Nauk 111 203 (1973).
[47] V.V. Korobkin, A.M. Prokhorov, R.V. Serov, et al., JETP Pis’ma 11 153 (1970).
[48] N.I. Lipatov, A.A. Manenkov and A.M. Prokhorov, JETP Pis’ma 11 444 (1970).
[49] See V.V. Ragul’sky, Wave Front Conjugation at Stimulated Light Scattering (Nauka,
Moscow, 1990) and references therein; see also editorial remarks on history of wave
front conjugation in Opt. Spectrosc. 85 997 (1998).
[50] B.Ya. Zel’dovich, V.I. Popovichev, V.V. Ragul’sky, et al., JETP Pis’ma 15 160 (1972); for
other references on the problem see B.Ya. Zel’dovich, N.F. Pilipetsky and V.V. Skhunov,
Wave Front Conjugation (Nauka, Moscow, 1985).
[51] V.S. Letokhov, JETP Pis’ma 6 101 (1967).
[52] V.S. Letokhov, JETP Pis’ma 7 272 (1968).
[53] N.G. Basov and V.S. Letokhov, Usp. Fiz. Nauk 96 585 (1968).
[54] S.A. Akhmanov and R.V. Khokhlov, JETP 43 351 (1962).
[55] A.G. Akmanov, S.A. Akhmanov, R.V. Khokhlov, et al., IEEE J. Quantum Electron.
QE-4 828 (1968).
[56] S.A. Akhmanov, A.S. Chirkin, K.N. Drabovich, et al., IEEE J. Quantum Electron. QE-4
598 (1968).
[57] S.A. Akhmanov and N.I. Koroteev, Methods of Nonlinear Optics in Light Scattering
Spectroscopy (Nauka, Moscow, 1981).
[58] S.A. Akhmanov and V.I. Zharikov, JETP Pis’ma 6 644 (1967).
[59] S.A. Akhmanov, B.V. Zhdanov, N.I. Zheludev, et al., JETP Pis’ma 29 294 (1979).
[60] S.A. Akhmanov, G.A. Lyakhov, V.A. Makarov, et al., Optica Acta 29 1359 (1982).
[61] V. Letokhov, Science 190 344 (1975).
[62] V. Letokhov, V.G. Minogin and B.D. Pavlik, JETP 72 1328 (1977).
[63] S. Andreyev, V. Balykin, V. Letokhov, et al., JETP Pis’ma 34 463 (1981).
[64] V.N. Lisitsyn and V.P. Chebotayev, JETP 54 420 (1968).
[65] S.N. Bagayev, V.P. Chebotayev, Yu.D. Kolomnikov, et al., IEEE J. Quantum Electron.
4 868 (1968).
[66] A.S. Vasilenko, V.P. Chebotayev and A.V. Shishayev, JETP Pis’ma 12 161 (1970).
[67] E.V. Baklanov, B.Ya. Dubetsky and V.P. Chebotayev, Appl. Phys. 9 171 (1976).
[68] V.S. Letokhov and V.P. Chebotayev, Nonlinear Super-high Resolution Laser Spectroscopy
(Nauka, Moscow, 1990).
[69] S.N. Bagayev and V.P. Chebotayev, Usp. Fiz. Nauk 148 143 (1986).
[70] S.N. Bagayev, E.V. Baklanov and V.P. Chebotayev, JETP Pis’ma 16 344 (1972).
[71] S.N. Bagayev, V.P. Chebotayev, A.K. Dmitriyev, et al., Appl. Phys. 10 231 (1976).
[72] S.N. Bagayev and V.P. Chebotayev, JETP Pis’ma 16 614 (1972).
[73] S.N. Bagayev, V.P. Chebotayev, L.S. Vasilenko, et al., JETP Pis’ma 3 202 (1977).
[74] S.N. Bagayev, A.E. Baklanov, V.P. Chebotayev, et al., Appl. Phys. B, 48 31 (1989).
[75] S.N. Bagayev, M.V. Belyayev, A.K. Dmitriev, et al., JETP Pis’ma 32 661 (1980).
[76] S.N. Bagayev, V.G. Goldort, A.S. Dychkov, et al., Kvantovaya Elektron. 9 453 (1982).
[77] S.N. Bagayev, S.V. Chepurov, V.M. Klement’yev, et al., Laser Phys. 11 1094 (2001).
[78] For a review and references see Nobel Lecture, Double heterostructures: concept and
its applications in physics, electronics and technology, by Zh.I. Alferov, Usp. Fiz. Nauk,
172 1068 (2002); for English translation see Phys. Usp. 45 (2002).
[79] B.I. Stepanov, A.N. Rubinov and V.A. Mostovnikov, JETP Pis’ma 5 144 (1967).
[80] P.P. Sorokin and Y.R. Lankard, IBM J. Res. Develop. 10 162 (1966).
[81] F.P. Schafer, W. Schmidt and I. Volse, J. Appl. Phys. Lett. 306 (1966).