Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Samuel Enajero
Department of Social Sciences
University of Michigan-Dearborn
4901 Evergreen Road
Dearborn, MI 48128
senajero@umd.umich.edu
ABSTRACT
MBA programs. In some departments, managerial economics is the only upper level
from a liberal arts or social science approach using algebra and graphs.
The fact that economics departments in some universities are in a college of arts
and sciences while in others, economics departments are in the school of business, lends
support to the need to separate the teaching contents of economics in these two different
business course (Dean & Dolan, 2001), but to draw up teaching contents tailored to suit
economic theories are applied in many spheres of life to derive efficiency (e.g., in
taught purely from a liberal arts perspective. Without injecting comparable business
content, students assume that economics is not a business course and their interest in
Little wonder that many business departments are struggling to retain economics
as a major (Gregorowicz & Hegji ,1998; Siegfried, 2007). “One familiar hypothesis
suggests that majoring in economics is a reluctant choice for students more interested in a
business major” (Kasper, 2008, pp. 457-472). Effectively, business students convey
sufficient links to related business contents leaves conceptual gaps in the minds of
Cements combined with sands, gravels or granites and rods are mixtures for
concrete that forms a building foundation. This mixture remains concrete with the power
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to form a concrete foundation for a business curriculum, a course such as managerial
Otherwise, except for students who apply mastery1 goal in learning (Baron &
Harackiewicz, 1997, 2001), business concepts will be fragmented in the minds of many
students even after graduation. Thus, the potential exists for some students to be
monopoly, monopolistic competition, oligopoly, factor markets and game theory (Baye,
2006; Hirschey, 2006; Mansfield, 1993; Boyes, 2004; Samuelson & Mark, 2005; Allen,
et al, 2005). These topics covered in intermediate microeconomics appear and are taught
in the same form in managerial economics. Some texts have more business content than
others. Nonetheless, such business content is not enough to adequately equip the student
professor can inject business content into discussions to enable students appreciate the
organizational behavior. Interlinking these courses would give students the choice of
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Furthermore, many professors of managerial economics may not have a business
business schools, as per AACSB (Gooding, Cobb & Scroggins, 2007). Since economics
PhDs are most likely to come from Arts and Sciences, they are inclined to approach the
teaching of managerial economics and other economics courses from a purely social
science perspective, irrespective of the department. Business students are left to figure
out by themselves the links between social science illustrations and business applications.
industrial organization, antitrust and regulation, money and banking, and international
finance, just to name a few—there are numerous areas where business content can be
injected during the course to the benefit of the students. These additions could stimulate
the imagination and experiences of the students, thereby providing students good reasons
For instance, are there similarities between isocosts, isoquants and production
curve in economics the same as linear total cost in business? Does the degree of
combinations of fixed and variable costs as derived in economics? These and many other
questions that leave gaps in the minds of the students could be answered by proper
economics and management science; section III analyzes a cost function in economics
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and its specific application (relevant range and DOL) in business; section IV illustrates
typical economics course and Part B shows the business counterparts. Part C (and D
when necessary) integrates both parts. These are all managerial economics topics that
could be extended to enable students to gain deep appreciation for economics while
A – Economics Analysis
outputs from limited or scarce resources. Firms maximize profits and revenues and also
minimize costs. All economic agents including the firm are faced with constraints.
of K (capital) and L (labor) that yields the optimal level of output, Q. A given output
level could be produced using more K and less L or less K and more L, taking into
account prices of the inputs, r and w. The optimal units of K and L are derived from the
equation is the objective function the LP tries to minimize given the Q function.
In economics, isoquants, meaning equal quantity and isocosts, equal cost, are used
constraint functions. Capital (K) is normally graphed as the production input on the
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vertical axis and labor (L) on the horizontal axis. The isoquants are generally convex to
the origin (since inputs are not perfect substitutes) and the isocosts are linear, intersecting
along the isoquant changes the combinations of K and L and this is dictated by the slope
of the isoquant. The slope of the isoquant is the marginal rate of technical substitution of
labor for capital (MRTSLK), which equals the marginal product of labor (MPL) divided by
Isoquants have four main properties: they are convex to the origin; isoquants further from
the origin denote larger level of outputs; they sloped downward; and isoquants never
intersect.
constraint is illustrated by the isocost. The isocost line reflects all combinations of K and
L the firm can employ in production for a given budget. The isocost line is depicted by
TC = wL + rK, where TC is the total costs, w equals price of labor (wage rate) and r
equals cost of capital (interest rate). The absolute value of the slope of the isocost line
equals the relative prices of the inputs, K and L, which is w/r. Efficiency (least costly
method of production) requires that firms employ the units of capital and labor where the
slopes of the isoquant and isocost lines are equal. That is where:
Graphically, at the optimal point, the isoquant is tangent to the isocost. By cross
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(MPL)/w = (MPK)/r (2.3)
The producer’s least-cost input combination golden rule is for the manager operating in a
competitive input market to employ inputs such that the marginal product per dollar
spent is equal across all inputs applied. Isolating K in objective function (TC = rk +
wL),
K isocost
TC/r
isoquant
L
TC/w
As the scale of production expands, there will be a family of isocosts and isoquants as
producing two outputs, X and Y, using K and L as inputs would maximize output, Q(X, Y)
= pQ(X,Y) – TC, that is, [pxQ(X)+pyQ(Y)] – (rKx + wLx + rKy+ wLy), where px and py
economy. LP constraint maximization for the firm can be graphically depicted by the
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PPF—the boundary between output attainable and unattainable using available resources
and technology. The PPF is bowed off from the origin due to the increasing opportunity
PPF
The slope of the PPF is the marginal rate of transformation (MRT). As producers
in the economy transfers resources from the production of Y (a capital good for example)
If equal units of resources are exchanged in the production of both goods, the PPF would
be linear. It is emphasized that an economy cannot produce outside the PPF, because
resources or inputs are fixed. The production possibility frontier is constrained by fixed
The most common method applied in illustrating optimization using linear or non-
linear programming is the use of the Lagrangian technique (See Appendix A for
reasonable background in linear algebra to solve for optimal levels of unknown variables.
B – Business Analysis
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In business courses, such as management science, quantitative methods or
Although the model is the same as in economics, the approach is prescriptive and the
analysis is more applied. The objective function and constraints containing the decision
variables are stated. It could be total profits for maximization or total costs for
Suppose a dietician in a home for the elderly is faced with the objective of
providing her residents with two meals, m1 and m2 . Each meal should be rich in vitamin
C, iron and zinc. The prices of the meals and nutritional contents of vitamin C, iron and
The problem facing the dietician is to determine what combination of the two
meals will satisfy the minimum daily needs and at the same time incur the least cost. The
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Figure 2.3 below shows the graphical optimal solutions to the dietician’s problem and the
m2
6
a
5 12m1+5m2=27
vitamin C border
4
b, C =0.75(1)+1(3)=$3.75
3
4m1+4m2=16
2 iron border
1 c, C=0.75(3)+1(1)=$3.25
2m1+8m2=14. (zinc)
d
0 m1
1 2 3 4 5 6
There are four extreme points—a, b, c and d. The area to the right of the extreme points
is the feasible region. Owing to the positive food requirements for both meals, only
points b and c are of importance to the dietician. The optimal solution to this simplified
minimization problem is at extreme point c where the dietitian would prepare 3 lb and 1
lb of meals 1 and 2, respectively, and spend $3.25 per day for both meals. A similar
problem. Mansfield (1993) has a good example of linear programming for a multiple-
product firm. Suppose XXX Auto Company can produce sedan and sport cars using four
facilities: sedan assembly plant, engine assembly plant, sheet metal stamping plant and
sport car assembly plant. Each sedan car that is produced per hour uses 4.5% of the
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sedan assembly capacity and each sport car utilizes 4% of the sport car assembly plant.
Other percentage requirements per hour for engine and sheet metal stamping are
Table 2.2 – Percentage of XXX Auto Company Fixed Capacity Needed per Hour
Let QSD and QSP be units of sedan and sport cars, respectively, produced per hour, and
equals total contribution margin per hour. The maximization problem would be:
Graphically and algebraically we can find the optimal combined units of sedan
and sport cars this company can produce with available resources.
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Qsport
60
Engine border
D
E
0 Qsedan
20 40 60
Points ABCDE are the extreme points. The feasible region is defined by
0ABCDE. Maps of isoprofit lines can be drawn to determine sedan and sport car units
that generate the largest profits (per hour) for XXX Auto Company. Algebraically, the
feasible solutions for the extreme points are presented below on table 2.2. The optimal
point set that gives the maximum profit is at C, where XXX Auto Company produces
approximately 14 sedan and 22 sports cars per hour, assuming that there are customers
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Linear programming problems with more than two decision variables are
that might usurp the students’ concentration, many business departments make use of
solving for optimal values, Excel’s Solver produces Answer, Sensitivity and Limits
Reports (Ragsdale, 2001). These reports are important for a manager in the day-to-day
The first part of Answer Report provides the final values, which are the optimal
solutions to the LP (linear programming problem). The last part has formula, status and
slack columns. The formula columns have spreadsheet cell keys showing upper or lower
bounds (see Table A1 at the end). The status column indicates binding and nonbinding
constraints. Slacks are associated with the status column. Slacks are unutilized
resources. A binding constraint has zero slack and a nonbinding constraint has positive
information on how much the objective function coefficient could change without
affecting the optimal solution of the LP. This report contains allowable increase and
decrease of the objective and constraint coefficients (see Tables A2 and A3 at the end).
If prices change or the costs of production change, profits change as well. The sensitivity
“shadow price.” The shadow price for a constraint shows how much the optimal
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solution would change with some changes in available resources (the b’s in Appendix A).
increasing the factor within the allowable increase would increase the optimal solution to
the LP’s objective function and vice versa. A zero shadow price indicates that the
available resources have no further impact on the optimal solution. Thus, the shadow
price of a nonbinding constraint is always zero. Shadow price would be useful when the
organization is concerned with relevant cost or faced with divisional transfer pricing. Is
the shadow price related to the concept of opportunity cost as used in economics?
The Limits Report shows upper and lower limits. That is, it shows the largest and
smallest values each variable can take, while the values of all other variables are held
constant.
C – Interdisciplinary Approach
economics is shown in part A. The way linear programming is taught in courses such as
department is shown in part B. If the same group of students is enrolled in both courses,
most of them might not adequately relate the two approaches, even though both are linear
or nonlinear programming.
Take Figure 2.3 for example, reproduced here as Figure 2.3C. The dotted parts of
the borderlines depicting the constraints are removed and we have the solid-line parts
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m2
6
a
5 12m1+5m2=27
vitamin C border
4
b, C =0.75(1)+1(3)=$3.75
3
4m1+4m2=16
2 iron border
1 c, C=0.75(3)+1(1)=$3.25
2m1+8m2=14.
d
0 m1
1 2 3 4 5 6
The student should understand the equivalent illustrations in parts A and B of this
differentiable and convex to the origin isoquant; the equivalence in management science
is a rugged and kinked feasible boundary line constructed by fixed input constraints.
the isocost is tangent to the slope of the isoquant; this is mathematically expressed as in
For the dietician, this ratio is 0.75, the price of meal 1 divided by the price of meal 2.
which is also equal to the slope of the objective function, ¾, and the slope of the feasible
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Third, while economics students would mistake the constraints for the isocost, the
isocost is different, as can be seen in Figure 2.3C. In fact, the LP constraints are
determinants of the feasible region (isoquant). Fourth, the properties of the isoquant
would be more memorable to the students using the constructs responsible for the shape.
For example, two of the properties say, isoquants further from the origin reflect greater
output and isoquants do not intersect. This could be explained by the fact that higher
feasible regions are constructed by higher and different levels of input constraints.
There are families of isoquants that are either linear for perfect substitutes or L-
shaped for perfect complements. The business counterparts and industries that display
such input characteristics and generate these types of feasible regions would be of interest
The same argument applies to a firm’s PPF and a maximization problem as shown
in Figure 2.4. Figure 2.4C reflects the feasible region, area 0ABCDE, for the XXX Auto
company problem. The dotted parts of Figure 2.4 depicting sedan, sport cars, sheet metal
and assembly constraints are removed. Instead of a concave, continuous and increasing
PPF as illustrated in economics (Figure 2.2), the solid line ABCDE becomes a kinked
PPF showing the possible combinations of sedan and sport cars XXX Auto Company can
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Qsport
60
40
E
0 Qsedan
20 40 60
If properly drawn to scale, the slope of the isoprofit line tangent to the optimal feasible
sport cars. At point C, the optimal feasible set, the company can produce approximately
14 sedans and 22 sport cars. At point D, it produces roughly 22 sport cars and 6 sedans.
If the company decides to produce at any points other than point C, the opportunity cost
of making such decision would be equal to the profits forgone. In this case, it would be
The best learners as described in learning motivation literature are students who
link what they learned from one course to other courses. (Harackiewicz, Barron & Elliot,
1997, 2001; Ames & Archer, 1988; Hidi & Harachiewicz, 2000; Barron & Harackiewicz,
2001). The question remains whether the student can relate the materials as learned in
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described in part C in managerial economics would contribute to the students’ overall
comprehension of the topic. Knowing that the objective and constraint functions in LPs
are created from unit revenues and unit costs, efficiency which is the tenet of economics,
Production costs are common topics both in economics and business courses.
These costs are the same but are discussed differently. As in Section II above, Part A
illustrates the general approach used in teaching production costs in economics, and part
B shows how costs are explained in accounting. Parts C and D discuss the links.
A – Economics Analysis
The production function depends on fixed and variable inputs. Output (Q) is
expressed as a function of inputs or factors, such as capital, labor and materials. That is,
Q = f(K, L, M). Capital usually is the fixed input while labor and materials are the
variable inputs. Short-run and long-run periods are distinguished. A short run is a
production period when the amount of at least one production input is held fixed. In the
Economic costs are comprised of explicit and implicit costs, which are the
opportunity costs; that is, the next best alternative use of these resources. Total costs
(TC) equal total fixed cost (TFC) plus total variable cost (TVC). In the short-run,
variable costs change with output but total fixed costs do not vary as output varies.
Average cost (AC) equals TC divided by quantity (Q) produced. Average variable cost
(AVC) is TVC divided by quantity (Q) produced. AFC is TFC divided by Q produced.
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Next, marginal cost (MC) is the change in cost associated with a one-unit change in
quantity (output) produced. MC = dTC/dQ, the first order derivative of total cost.
Cost
TC
TVC
TFC
Output
differentiable. It has concave and convex segments. Economists are concerned with the
inflection points. How do costs behave with increases in output? Initially, MC falls with
an increase in output, and starts to rise again as output increases. The declining and
rising parts of the MC curve are caused by the shape of the TVC, which makes the ATC
and AVC curves convex. Thus, the ATC, AVC and MC are U-shaped. This also reflects
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The long-run average total cost (LRAC) curve is the envelope of the short-run
average cost curves. Long-run involves plant expansion. Cost elasticities and economies
B – Business Analysis
Total cost (TC) is also comprised of fixed and variable costs. Business class
discussions are less mathematical and the graphical representations of these costs are
different from those displayed in part A of this section. Linear graphs rather than curves
Figure 3.2
Cost
TC
TVC
TFC
Output
Here, costs are further decomposed into direct and indirect costs. Direct costs are
costs of labor and materials that can specifically be identified with an object. In this case,
the object is the output. Indirect costs are shared and also called overhead costs. Direct
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and indirect costs can be fixed or variable. Supervisory employees’ salaries, for
instance, are direct fixed costs; labor wages are direct and variable costs since they
cannot discuss variable cost without referring to product and period costs; that is
absorption (full) costing and variable costing, respectively. Variable costing assigns
variable manufacturing costs (direct labor, direct material and variable manufacturing
overhead) to the product. Absorption costing assigns full costs including fixed
overhead is a period cost while under absorption costing; fixed manufacturing overhead
is a product cost.
Economics Classification
A - Fixed Costs (K) B - Variable Costs (L)
Accounting Assignment Accounting Assignment
1.Machine (dep)* Indirect 1.Material Direct
2.Buildings (dep) Indirect 2.Labor Direct
3.Cost of capital Indirect 3.Utilities Indirect**
4.Plant Supervisor* Direct/indirect^ 4.Factory Supplies Indirect**
5.Plant Maintenance* Indirect 5.Sales Commission Indirect
6.Insurance Indirect 6.Delivery Charges Indirect
7.Property Taxes Indirect 7.Labor Fringe3 Indirect**
8.Advertising Indirect
9.Mngment Salaries Indirect
^Plant supervisor’s pay could be indirect if (s)he supervises more than one plant.
*Fixed manufacturing overhead. **Variable manufacturing overhead.
Apparently, the definitions of fixed and variable costs are the same in economics
and accounting, but the conceptualizations are different. Fixed costs are costs that remain
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constant in total as volume changes. All items in column A qualify as fixed costs. For
instance, once a company makes a budget for advertising, it is unlikely to change much
commission and delivery charges are variable selling costs. Cost of capital is the normal
profit that the firm planned to pay its investors, including bond, preferred and common
stocks holders. Plant maintenance covers maintenance contracts, janitors and guards. The
size of each of these items is different across industries, but the nature is similar whether
the firm is operating an airline, manufacturing autos, or is involved with health care,
conceptualizes them as property, plant and equipment due to their constant behaviors as
volume changes. It classifies column B items as variable costs, and oftentimes, for
simplicity, identifies them as labor. A course such as managerial economics should not
follow suit. While a course in economic theory is more concerned with deriving the
We can see the importance of integrating the economic illustration with real
accounting terms by analyzing different market scenarios. Business students would find
shutdown. Let’s use ATC, AVC and MC curves as defined in part A of this section.
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Figure 3.3 – ATC, AVC and MC
$ MC
ATC
g a
AVC
b
e
c
0 q
d f
profits by producing where price (MR) equals MC. At price g, point a on Figure 3.3, the
neo-classical firm is making positive economic profit. Positive economic profit is a huge
accounting profit that is partly distributed to shareholders and partly kept as retained
earnings. Retained earnings, which is placed on the stockholders’ equity section of the
firm’s balance sheet, signals great performance and appears favorable on Wall Street.
If there is high competition and the price of the product drops to e, point b, this
firm makes zero economic profit but makes normal accounting profits that cover the cost
of capital. Investors and financial analysts could live with this level of profit. Below
point c, it pays the firm to shut down because total revenue is less than variable costs and
the firm is operating at a loss. If the firm shuts down at point c, it bears losses equal to its
fixed costs. Point c upward along the marginal cost (MC) is the short-run supply curve of
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If revenues exceed variable costs, between points b and c, the firm is making
operating income and it may pay the firm to remain in business because it can afford all
variable costs and parts of its fixed costs. Due to competition and economic downturns, a
typical firm in many industries is more likely to find itself in this section of the graph.
Economic analyses assume that fixed costs must be paid in the short run
regardless of whether the firm continues operation or shuts down. The question is, which
of those fixed costs on Table 3.1, column A are unavoidable in the short run? Clearly,
the firm can avoid all items in column B if it stops operating. In order to answer this
efficiency and the liquidity of the current operating cycle. Between points b and c, if
current assets exceed current liabilities, it indicates a company has enough cash flow to
cover its current obligations. On the other hand, if current assets are less than current
liabilities and the firm cannot pay its creditors, suppliers and employees (items in column
B, Table 3.2), the firm would be forced to file for Chapter 11. Therefore, the key to
survival between points b and c in Figure 3.3 would be proper working capital
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All items on Table 3.1 would siphon cash in column A or increase all items in
column B, Table 3.2. Financial analysts often use current ratio, inventory turnover and
accounts receivable turnover ratios to assess the ability of the firm to pay current costs in
Table 3.1. In column A, Table 3.1, items numbered 1 and 2, depreciation expense, is not
a cash item; however, sometime in the past the firm borrowed to set up plants, properties
and equipment. Some of the borrowed principals are matured and reflect on column B,
Table 3.2. Item 3, column B on Table 3.1 also increases interest payable on Table 3.2.
Except for items 6 and 7, which may be prepaid, items 4 through 9 are fixed costs, which
The only unavoidable fixed costs, if the firm shuts down, are the undepreciated
(carrying values) parts of items 1 and 2 of Table 3.1. Depending on the industry, these
items could be significant on the firm’s balance sheet. Thus, between points b and c of
figure 3.3, some firms would survive longer than others during bankruptcy protection,
separating these costs in Table 3.1 into indirect and direct costs. Direct costs are costs
that can be traced directly to the object, while indirect or overhead costs are allocated to
different objects. Also, some of the costs on Table 3.1, especially material, labor and
supervisory costs, raise the product’s intrinsic values; the quality of the product can
directly be traced to the material and labor used. Advertising, on the other hand, conveys
information to the consumer and may only reflect on the consumer’s perception of the
product. These costs are indirect, because they cannot directly be identified with the
product.
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Whether or not a firm commits more resources to such indirect costs depends on
the management’s philosophy about a product. For instance, management that believes
that a product is 90% perception may commit more resources to indirect costs such as
Some curious students, however, might also be baffled by the curved TC and
TVC (Figure 3.1) learned in economics courses and the linear TC and TVC graphs
(Figure 3.2) learned in business courses. There is a large conceptual gap between this
region of costs as learned in economics and as learned in business courses. This gap
The relevant range appears among the last chapters of some management
accounting texts (Hansen & Mowen, 2003, p. 671). The instructor might not get to that
chapter by the end of the course. However, relevant range is completely nonexistent in
most economics texts. Business analyses assume that there is a portion of the TC and
TVC where both costs and revenues are linear. It is the current operating range for which
the linear cost and revenue relationship are valid (Hansen & Mowen, 2003). See Figure
3.4.
Linearity properties of total revenue and total cost are among important
derived. Other important terms within this range are contribution margin (CM), margin
of safety and operating leverage. Breakeven quantity is the level of production where
total revenue and total cost are equal and could also be derived by dividing TFC by unit
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CM. CM equals sales minus variable costs. Therefore, at breakeven (BE), point b on
figure 3.3, contribution margin (CM) equals total fixed costs (column A Table 3.1).
Margin of safety is the sales or revenue expected above the breakeven quantity.
Figure 3.4
Cost
TC
TVC
TFC
Output
Operating leverage is the relative combination of fixed and variable costs and the
use of fixed assets (costs) to generate revenue. In an operation where fixed costs (fixed
assets) can be substituted for variable costs (labor), a firm can raise its CM by investing
more in fixed assets and lowering variable costs. In this case, the firm uses fixed cost as
a lever to increase its contribution margin. As the firm invests in fixed costs, it also
acquires more risks. The degree of operating leverage (DOL) is a measure of this risk as
shown in equation 3.5 below. Table 3.3 illustrates CVP income statement.
ZZZ COMPANY
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PROFORMA CVP INCOME STATEMENT
FOR THE MONTH ENDING MAR 31, 20XX
1000 sold Per unit 1100 sold 1100 sold 900 sold
Sales $600,000 $600 $660,000 $660,000 $540,000
VC (400,000) (400) (440,000) (385,000)* (315,000)
CM 200,000 200 220,000 275,000 225,000
FC (200,000) (200) (200,000) (235,000) (235,000)
Net Income 0 0 20,000 40,000 (10,000)
CM ratio 33.33% 33.33% 42%
*FC are substituted for some VC; VC now $350 per unit DOL = 6.875%
is, dividing a percentage change in sales into a percentage change in profit. Given that Q
equals quantity sold, P equals price of the good, AVC equals unit variable cost, TFC is
The higher the TFC4 (items in column A, Table 3.1), the greater is the DOL for
the firm. Thus, if TFC denotes only costs associated with properties, plants and
equipment, excluding a host of other items that meet the definitions of fixed costs, the
A higher level of operating leverage magnifies profits in times of high sales and
magnifies losses during recession. For example, on Table 3.3, with 6.875 DOL, a drop in
sales by 200 units reduces profit from a positive $40,000 to a loss of $10,000. Higher
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isoquant and isocost (equations 2.2 and 2.3) in section II. While the level of production
firms using operating leverage are bestowed, however, with the power to produce at any
level. The firm production point might not take into consideration scale diseconomies.
Linearity assumption, the relevant range and operating leverage, therefore must be linked
and contrasted with the golden rule of inputs combination as discussed in economics if
Note also that the variables used under the topics of isocosts and isoquants, which
are capital and labor (fixed and variable costs, respectively), are the same units used in
management science or operations management. The same variables are used in the
a finance course. Furthermore, these topics are heavily tested in professional business
examinations such as CPA, CIA and CMA. Students would improve their performance
A – Economics Analysis
A firm incurs costs to produce. Production function is the other side of the coin to
the cost function. In the region where the marginal cost is increasing, the marginal
product curve is decreasing and vice versa. Thus, the short-run total product curve is a
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mirror image of the short-run total costs curve as shown in Figure 3.1 in Section III. The
law of diminishing marginal returns applies where the total cost curve is rising quickly
management and factor addition and reduction. The efficiency rule is to hire factors until
revenues brought in by a factor equals the cost of hiring the factor. That is, marginal
Revenue (R) be a function of output Q, R = f(Q). By the chain rule, we can find the
marginal revenue product of capital (MRPk) and marginal revenue product of labor
From equations (4.1) and (4.2), (dR/dQ) is the marginal revenue (MR) and (dQ/dK) and
(dQ/dL) are the marginal physical product of capital (MPk) and the marginal physical
this section of the paper, equals MR x MPk. In adding capital, economic efficiency
requires that MRPk is set to equal the unit costs of acquisition of physical capital or factor
price (PF).
B – Business Analysis
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While economics is concerned with productivity of physical capital such as plants
and other assets, a course in finance would be concerned with the funds to acquire these
plants. Firms finance their assets with different combinations of sources of financing
known as capital structures. These are the selling of common stocks, preferred stocks,
bonds, the use of retained earnings, etc., generally classified into debt and equity. The
Thus, the heuristic approach in capital budgeting is for firms to invest in capital
projects until the rate of return from the project is equal to the cost of capital or an
ongoing interest rate. This efficiency rule is theoretically equivalent to the rule derived in
The appropriate rate of return for any capital project, nonetheless, is controversial.
The desired or required rate of return (RRR) might be a good estimate—that is, the
minimum rate an investor would accept on a project of a comparable nature. Some call it
a hurdle rate. Determining these benchmark rates can be a breathtaking exercise. Others
believe that the cost of capital would be an appropriate threshold for the rate of return.
Combining different sources of financing, the cost of capital may not be readily
available. The after-tax cost of debt is the firm’s borrowing rate less applicable taxes.
The cost of preferred stocks is related to the dividends paid. The cost of equity financing
oftentimes is based on estimates. Theoretically, most commonly used for cost of equity
are the dividend growth model and CAPM (capital assets pricing model). The weighted
average of these three sources of financing (debts, preferred stocks and equity) is
generally known as the weighted average cost of capital (WACC). Whether CAPM is the
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appropriate measure of the cost of equity and WACC is the accurate measure of the
Perhaps applying a marginal capital productivity rate set equal to the factor price
as in economics might give a better measure for the rate of return and the unit cost of
by MPk. Assuming the firm is operating in a perfectly competitive industry, thus facing a
perfectly elastic demand curve, marginal revenue (MR) is equal to the price (P) of the
good the firm produces. The market price (P) is known. The price (P) multiplied by the
MPk would give MRPk which could be compared to industrial rates to give an accurate
measure of the rate of return of acquired capital. The productivity rate (PR) could be
derived
= (P x MPk)/TR = (P x MPk)/(P x Q)
Equation (4.5) is the percentage change in production and could be considered the
economic version of return on investment (ROI) or return on assets (ROA). The firm
would first equate its MRPk to the PF (actual acquisition cost) in order to select the
Suppose a given company can invest in units of capital. The cost of renting one
unit is $130.00 and the product sells for $5.00. Table 4.1 contains total product (TP),
marginal product (MP), marginal revenue product (MRP) and the productivity rate (PR)
of capital. With a unit cost of capital $130, efficiency requires that this company invest
33
in 3 units of capital that yield 18% productivity. If the cost of acquisition drops to
$120.00, the firm gains by investing in 4 units of capital earning productivity rate of 13%.
This efficiency rule could also be applied to determine the performance of human
capital such as CEOs or professional athletes to ascertain if the additional revenue they
Investment). Substituting the productivity rate (PRk) into RI equation for the rate of
return,
measure in the literature, can also be altered by substituting (4.5) into the EVA equation:
reference to Part B would leave many students unable to reconcile theoretical concepts in
34
economics courses with finance courses. This would affect abstract analytical and
decision-making skills and graduates during their careers may generally rely on non-
VI CONCLUSION
production costs and marginal revenue product of capital are all economics topics, which
are also topics in management science or quantitative methods, accounting, and finance.
business school counterpart. Part C (and D when necessary) links and tries to integrate
shown that presenting these topics in a business department from a pure social science
perspective isolates economics theories from the other business courses. There are
conceptual gaps that dampen business students’ interest in economics and in turn deprive
in many business departments could bridge the conceptual gaps between economics
taught as a social science in liberal arts settings, and operation management, accounting
and finance taught as business courses. Students would generate more interest in
majors from business schools, students would develop more skills and be exposed to
35
Tables
Notes
These styles of learning are grouped into mastery and performance goals.
Students who apply mastery style of learning put in more effort. They are
considered deep learners and apply thorough study habits. When pursuing
new knowledge and skills. These students compare and relate what they learn
from one course to another (Harachiewicz, Baron & Elliot, 1997, 2000; Ames
& Archer, 1988). Students who pursue performance goal, on the other hand,
are found to be shallow learners. The main objective of students who apply
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performance strategy is to outperform other students and earn higher grades.
revenue minus total variable costs. Gross Margin is the appropriate term
when absorption costing is used. Gross margin equals revenues minus cost of
goods sold. The latter includes beginning and ending finished goods
3. Labor fringe includes social security, life insurance, health insurance, pension,
training, vacation, sick leave, overtime and idle time. Some companies
classify these as indirect costs and others as direct. Many of these items are
expressed as a percentage of labor hours; therefore, they fit into variable costs.
Knowing which items in the firm’s financial statements are fixed, variable,
fixed costs, as shown in Table 3.1, the firm’s DOL increases as well as the
37
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Ames, Carole and Jennifer Archer. 1988. Achievement Goals in the Classroom:
Students’ Learning Strategies and Motivation Process.” Journal of Educational
Psychology. Vol. 80, No. 3, 260-267.
Baye, Michael R. 2006. Managerial Economics and Business Strategy, 5th edition.
Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Boyes, William. 2004. The New Managerial Economics. Boston, MA: Houghton.
Binger, Brian R. and Elizabeth Hoffman. 1998. Microeconomics with Calculus, 2nd
edition. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
Dean, D.H. and Dolan, R.C. 2001. Liberal Arts or Business: Does the Location of
Economics Department Alter the Major? Journal of Economic Education, Vol. 32, No.
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Gooding, Carl, Richard Cobb and William Scroggins. 2007. The AACSB Faculty
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Hidi, Suzanne and Judith M. Harachiewicz. 2000. Motivating the Academically
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Appendix A
The objective function and the constraints are stated. The first and second
derivatives are taken, the former are set equal to zero (necessary conditions), and the
and non-negativity requirements, X1, X2, …, and Xn are >= 0. The Lagrangian
becomes:
Equation (A2.1) is the objective function to the more general form f(X1, …, Xn)
for a non-linear programming problem. Equations (A2.2) to (A2.4) are the constraints.
The X’s are the decision variables. The a’s are the fixed resource requirements per unit
decision variable in the equations (A2.5) including the Lagrangian multiplier () is
solved in terms of other coefficients and constants (a’s, b’s and c’s) for the optimal
values. The Lagrangian multiplier is then interpreted as the marginal effect on the
objective function from one unit increase or decrease of the constraint variables.
40
A further breakdown is to carry out a comparative static analysis to check the
effect of any changes in the exogenous parameters, the coefficients and the constants, on
the optimal solutions. In some cases, the professor may extend the illustration to include
mind. Envelope theorem and Kuhn-Tucker conditions (Binger & Hoffman, 1998; Chiang
& Wainwright, 2005) are other techniques the professor might apply in solving
41