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E b
 ANTENNAS

Thus the maximumeffectiveapertureis

:+
A"^(O,d)
D
(5.54)
r'''"
"aY

: 1.5sin2g3
4 ' , 1l{-=
4n
12
: ?o@'o)
+n

wherewe have substitutedthe directivegain of the Hertzian dipole

R,
D ( 0 ,0 \ : 1 . 5s i n 20 (5.s5)
and0 is the directionof the incomingwave.Observethat the maximumeffective
-[
aperatureof an antennais not necessarily relatedto its "physical aperture."
It can be shown that the result in (5.54)is a generalresult valid for more
generalantennas;that is, the maximum effectiveapertureof an antennaused
Antenna
for receptionis relatedto the directivegainin the directionof the incomingwaue
of that antennawhenit is usedfor transmission as [1,3-61:
5.10 The antennaI
FIGURE

G(0,
O):HA"(0,O) (s.56)
uoltageat the antenna term

The directionfor ,4"- (the directionof the incomingincidentwavewith respect

to the receivingantenna)is the directionof the gain G (the gain of the antenna AF:I
in thisdirectionwhenit is usedfor transmission).
We haveintirchangeddirective
gain D and power gain G on the assumptionthat the antennasari lossless.
:u
l
5.4.3 AntennaFactor This is frequentlyexPresse
The abovepropertiesof antennasare more commonlyusedin the area of the
AFou: dBPV/m (
use of antennasfor communicationsuch as signal transmissionand radar
applications.In the area of their use in EMc a more common way of
or
characterizingthe receptionpropertiesof an antennais with the notion of its rj

antennafactor. Considera dipole antennathat is usedto measurethe electric

li, dBpV/m (inciden
,,ij[' I field of an incident,linearly polarizeduniform plane wave as shown in Fig.
il 5.10(a).A receiversuchas a spectrumanalyzeris attachedto the terminalsof
i Note that the units of the
this measurement antenna.The voltagemeasuredby this instrumentis denoted
ignored, and the antenna ft
as ?,"".It is desiredto relatethis recJivedvoltageto the incidentelectricfield.
furnished by the manufact
This is donewith the antenna'santennafactor, which is definedas the ratio of frequenciesin the range of i
the incidentelectricfield at thesurfaceof the measurementantennato thereceiued such plot provided bY the

{{
,t
 OF ANTENNAS
CHARACTERIZATION
rfl[
rdii
(5.54)

-t l-------1
Rrad+ jx I
(5.s5)
f

effective voc + - rec - rec

rture."
br more Spectrum
ma used
ing waue L_ "':"1____r
Antenna I
L__11':i
(b)

FIGURE5.10 The antenna factor AF: (a) general circuit; (b) equivalent circuit.

(s.56) 't

uoltageat the antennr terminals:

r respect
antenna AF:
V/minincidentwave
V received
(in 1/m) (5.57) it
I
'$t
directive
ssless. : lE,."l
lt,*l
in dB as
Thisis frequentlyexpressed

raof the AFo" : dBpYlm (incidentfield)- dBpV (receivedvoltage) (5.58a)

d radar
way of or
rn of its
electric dBpYlm(incidentfield) : dBpV (receivedvoltage)+ AFdB (5.58b)
in Fig.
rinalsof Notethat the units of the antennafactor are llm. The units are frequently
denoted ignored,and the antennafactor is statedin dB. The antennafactor is usually
ric field. furnishedby the manufacturerof the antennaas measureddata at various
ratio of in the rangeof intendeduseof the measurement
frequencies antenna.A typical
receiued suchplot provided by the manufacturerof a biconicalmeasurementantenna
2M ANTENNAS

However,from the
that antennait is c
sameas was usedt
On the other ha
ideal antenna such
aperture,etc.for th
€20 2 , " " : ( 5 0+ i 0 ) C )
e
!
o
circuitof Fig.5.10(
o
Ioad, 2r"" : Rr"d -
2o r s result to obtain t
I
o
r<
equivalent circuit i
r.
o
U and from that the
ru
d
As an examPle <
consider the calibri
incident, linearlY P
the electric field al
60 dBpV/m. A 30
antenna to a 50 Q s
FrequencY in MHz
Since the antenna
baseof the antenna
FIGURE S.11 The antenna factor versus frequency for a typical biconical EMC at the base of the
measurement antenna (courtesy the Eaton Corporation). frequency of the ir
be added to the s1
terminals of 41.35
is shownin Fig. 5.11.A known field is providedby somestandardantennaat
a calibratedtestsitesuchasthe National Instituteof Standardsand Technology
(NIST) in Boulder,Coloradoin the US (formerlyknown asthe National Bureau
of Standardsor NBS). The ratio of the known valueof the incidentfield to the
measuredvoltageat the terminalsof the antennain dB accordingto (5.57)or
(5.58)is plotted for the antennaversusfrequency.The reciprocalof the antenna It is a simPlen
factor is referredto as the antennaffictiue heighth" l3-6f . of incidentfield; r
Thereare severalimportant implicit assumptionsin thesemeasuredantenna
factor data.If any of theseimplicit assumptions are not adheredto in the course
of using this antennafor measurement then the measureildata are inualid.The
first important assumptionis that the incidentfield is polarizedfor maximum
responseof the antenna.For a dipole or other wire-typeantennathis means
that the responsewill be the component of the incidentfield that is parallelto the
antennaaxis.Ordinarily this is what is desired,sincethe antennawill be typically
usedto measurevertical and horizontal fieldsin testingfor complianceto the
radiatedemissionregulatorylimits. The secondimportant implicit assumption
has to do with the input impedance of the receiuerthat is usednot only to make
themeasurement but alsoto calibratetheantenna.The most commonimpedance
is the typical input impedanceto virtually all spectrumanalyzers,and that is
50 O. Nevertheless,the antenna manufacturershould explicitly state what
termination impedancewas used in the calibration.Note that this doesnot FIGURE5.12 AN
qssumethat the receiueris matchedto the antenna,and usually it will not be. received voltage.
 OF ANTENNAS
CHARACTERIZATION 205

However, from the standpoint of using the antenna factor calibration chart for
that antenna it is only important to use a termination impedance that is the
sameas was used to calibrate the antenna.
On the other hand, supposewe wish to calculate the antenna factor of an
ideal antenna such as a dipole from the field equations, maximum effective
aperture,etc. for that antenna. Since the spectrum analyzer input impedance is
2,"": (50 + j0)C) and is therefore not matched, we must use the equivalent
circuit of Fig. 5.10(b)to obtain this. First compute 4ec,matched
assumingamatched
load,2,"": R,"d - jX, using the results in the previous sections.Then use this
result to obtain the open-circuit voltage toc: 2t,"".^ut"h"d.Then use the
equivalent circuit in Fig. 5.10(b) to compute the actual received voltage t,"",
and from that the antenna factor.
As an example of the use of measured data to determine the antenna factor,
considerthe calibration of a measurementantenna shown in Fig. 5.12. Aknown,
incident, linearly polarized, uniform plane wave is incident on the antenna, and
the electric field at the position of the antenna in the absenceof the antenna is
60 dBpV/m. A 30 foot length of RG-58U coaxial cable is used to connect the
antennato a 50 Q spectrum analyzer.The spectrum analyzermeasures40 dBpV.
Since the antenna factor relates the incident electric field to the uoltage at the
baseof the antenna,we must relate the spectrum analyzer reading to the voltage
I biconicalEMC at the base of the antenna. The coaxial cable has 4.5dB/100feet loss at the
frequencyof the incident wave, 100 MHz. Thus the cable loss of 1.35dB must
be added to the spectrum analyzer reading to give the voltage at the antenna
rdardantennaat terminals of 41.35dBpV. Therefore the antenna factor is ,,;ir;
andTechnology
NationalBureau ,;r i. AFo" : dBpYlm - 4r.3sdBpV ?iir
identfield to the ::
_ 1 8 .65dB r j,J .",,

dingto (5.57)or
al of the antenna It is a simple matter to convert the spectrum analyzer readings to the value
of incident field; add the antennafactor in dB to the spectrum analyzer reading
reasured antenna
I to in the course
are inualid.The
rcdfor maximum 1,2f|tr-

ennathis means 60 dBpV/m

1 0 0M H z
is parallelto the
awill be typically Spectrum
cmplianceto the analyzer
plicitassumption
notonlyto make 5oo
Read
nmonimpedance 40 dBpV
L o s s : 1 . 3 5d B
/zers,and that is Vant: 41.35 dBpV ( 4 . 5d B / 1 0 0f t @ 1 0 0M H z )
icitly state what
{i l ' l , '
nt this doesnot FIGURE5.12 An example illustrating the use of the antenna factor to compute the ' i

ly it will not be. received voltage.

{'
:
r$ i
j l .

1
,i
f l
i!
 ';rc
ANTENNAS

in itBpV and ailil the connectionlossin dB to giue the inciilentelectricfield in

dBpVlm:
E (dBpv lm) : AF (dB) * Vsn(dBpv)* cable Loss(dB) (5.59)

Observethat the connectioncablelossmust be addedand not subtracted,since

the antennafactor is with respectto the base of the antennaand does not
include any connectioncable loss (unlessexplicitly stated by the antenna
manufacturer).

5.4.4 Effectsof Balancingand Baluns

The ideal antennasthat we are consideringare inherentlybalancedstructures.
Thereare numerousdefinitionsof this conceptof balancedstructure.Generully,
but not always,theseseeminglydifferentdefinitionslead to the sameresult.
For example,considerthe long dipole antennashownin Fig. 5.3(a).In the
analysisof this antennawe assumedthat the currenti(zr) at a point zr on the
.rpp.t arm is the samein magnitudeasthe currentat the correspondingposition
on the lower arm, - zt (a point that is the samedistancefrom the feedpoint
asthe point on the upperarm).From this standpointof symmeffyof theantenna
currents,the antenni ir inherentlya balancedstructure.This also inherently
assumesthat the current enteringone terminal of the antennais equal but
oppositeto the current enteringthe other terminal.Nearby metallic obstacles
ru.tr ur ground planescan upset this balance,causingthe pattern to deviate
substantiallyfrom the ideal pattern that was obtainedfrom the assumptionof
balancedcurrentson the arms of the antenna[7].
Other factorscan upsetthe balanceof the currentson the antennastructure.
The most common type of feedlinethat is usedto supply signalsto antennas FIGURE5.13
is the coaxial cable.Under ideal conditions,the current returns to its source of a discrete
on the interior of the overall shield.If this type of cable is attachedto an bazooka bal
inherently balancedstructuresuch as a dipole antenna,some of the current
may flow on the outsideof the shield.This current will radiate,whereasthe
transmissio
curient going down the interior wire and returning on the insideof the shield
betweenPo
will not. The amount of currentthat flows on the outsideof the shielddepends
betweenth
on "the impedanceto ground" betweenthe shieldexteriorand the ground,2o,
There a
along with the excitationof the shieldexterior(unintentionalexcitation).
block this
The commonway of preventingunbalancedue to a coaxialfeedcableis the
ferrite bea
use of a balun,which is an acronym for BAlanced to UNbalanced,referring
Fig. 5.14(
to the transitionfrom an unbalancedcoaxialcableto a balancedantenna.The
accomplis
balun is insertedat the input to the antenna,as shownin Fig. 5.13(a).In the
caseof the coaxialfeedcable,the intent of the balun is to increasethe impedance [5]. The
ffi "widebanc
betweenthe outsideof the shieldand ground.A commonform is the "bazooka
nffiil balun" shownin Fig. 5.13(b).A quarter-wavelength
over the shield of the original cable, and these
sectionof shieldis inserted
are shorted together a
the upPer
balun wot

ffi{, quarter-wavelength from

transmissionline is formed
the feed point.
between the
A quarter-wavelength,
outer coax and the
short-circuited
inner coax. We
so that its
Furthe

'fil*,r found in the previous chapter that a short-circuited, quarter-wavelength factor in t

{*l
l, rk