# Classification of Organisms

1. Aristotle is called the Father of Biology.

2. The Term Biology was first pronounced by two scientists Lamarck (France) and Traverses
(Germany) in 1801.
3. Theophrastus is called the Father of Botany.
4. Aristotle is called the Father of Zoology.
5. Carlos Linnaeus is called the Father of Taxonomy.
6. Linnaeus classified the entire organism into two Kingdoms- plant Kingdom and animal
kingdom.
7. Later in 1969 R.H Whittaker came with Penta-kingdom which is used now days.
8. Five Kingdoms are-
 Monera- In this Kingdom creatures with prokaryotic cells are kept whose nucleus is
still in developing stage. Under this kingdom Bacteria, Blue Green Algae etc. have
been kept.
 Protista- Unicellular creatures with eukaryotic cell which are aquatic like amoeba
are kept in this Kingdom whose nucleus is fully developed.
 Plantae- All color Multicellular Plants which exhibits the process of Photosynthesis
and the cell have vacuole have been kept in this. The organisms like moss (Plant),
algae, and almost all the plants are part of this.
 Fungi- The cell of the organisms is eukaryotic and the process of photosynthesis
does not occur in this. The Phenomenon of Nutrition is done by the absorption
and so cells are heterotrophic. Thus these are saprophytes or parasites. The cell
walls of such cells are made from Chitin.
 Animalia- All Multicellular creatures with Eukaryotic cells have been kept in this. These
are basically consumers and that is the reason these are called Motazoa. The
creatures like Hydra, Jellyfish, Starfish, Reptiles, Amphibians, Birds, Mammalia,
etc. are the part of this kingdom.
9. Hippocrates is the father of the medicine.
10. Euglena is an Organism which exhibits the characteristics of both plant and animal and
has been kept under the Protista Kingdom.
11. There is lack of Chlorophyll in Fungi and thus heterotrophic nutrition takes place and food
is stored up in the form of Glycogen.
12. The Fungi born on the Gabor (waste residue of animals) is called the Coprophilous Fungi.
13. A substance Aflatoxin which is deadly poisonous (toxin) is obtained from Fungi namely
Aspergillum Flavus.
14. Binary System of Nomenclature for the Organism uses first Generic name then Species name and
last taxonomer name.
15. Some organisms scientific name-
Man- Homo Sapiens Dog- Canis Familiaris
Mango- Magnifera Indica Housefly- Musca Domestica
Cow- Bos Indicus Cat- Felis Domestica
 Wheat- Triticum Aaestivum Gram- Cicer Articticum
Rice- Oriza Sativa

# Cytology (cell, its structure and functions)

16. The structural and functional of all organisms and living beings is called cell .
17. The shape and size of the cell completely depends on the metabolic activities while their
numbers depends on the size of the organ and body of the organisms.
18. The cell was first invented by Robert Hooke in 1665 and he asserted that the cell is the
lifesaving substance.
19. Later in 1939 J.E Purkinjee pointed out that this life saving substance is Protoplasm
which is the physical base of the life and it is formed with 80% of water.
20. Protoplasm is of two types- cytoplasm and Nucleoplasm.
21. Cytoplasm present in between Nucleus and cell membrane whereas Nucleoplasm is
present inside the Nucleus.
22. Cell Theory is jointly propounded by a Botanist Scheden and Zoologist Schwann in
1838-39.
23. Main points regarding the cell theory were-
 Every organism originates from a cell.
 The body of every organism is made up of one or more cells.
 The cell is a self-independent unit, although it takes part in the metabolic activities and
with other cells forms an organism.
 The process through which the cell is formed is a complex mechanism but the core of
the cell is Nucleus.
24. Almost all cells have three main components which are- cell membrane, Nucleus and
Nucleoplasm.
1. Cellular Components
25. Cell Membrane- it is the outer layer of the cell and basically a semipermeable membrane. It
controls the molecular activities between the cell and its outer medium which interacts with the
cell.
26. Cell Wall-it is only found in the plants. The cell walls are made up of the non-living
substance. The cell wall of the algae and developed green plants are made up of Cellulose,
whereas of bacteria and fungi is made from the carbohydrates. The main function of the cell wall
is to protect the Nucleoplasm and cell membrane from the external invasion (attack).
27. Nucleus-it is found by the Robert Brown in 1831. This is confined near the cellular center of
the cell and it is the controlling center of almost all the activities taking place inside the
cell.
28. There are various components of the Nucleus of the cell which are Nuclear Membrane,
Nucleoplasm, Nucleolus, Nuclear Network, etc.
 Nuclear Membrane- It is made of the two layer’s membrane through which the nucleus
of the cell is surrounded. The layer’s membrane is made up of Protein and fat. In every
 membrane micro holes exist through which the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm exchange
in the cell. The outer layer of the membrane is connected through the endoplasmic
reticulum of the cell.
 Nucleoplasm-it is present inside of the Nucleus of the cell. It is basically made from Protein,
phosphorous and nucleic acid.
 Nucleolus-There is one or more spherical structures inside the nucleus of the cell is called
Nucleolus. The main function of the Nucleolus are-
1. To synthesis r-RNA in the nucleolus.
2. To assist in the synthesis of the r-RNA and in the transportation of it from
nucleolus to another place.
3. To collect ribosome inside the nucleolus.
 Nuclear Network-The main body of the nucleolus is like a network structure in which
thick particles are found which are called Chromatin. According to the modern geneticists
Chromatin is a genetic substance found in the cell and it is basically composed of
Histone (a type of Protein), DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) and RNA (Ribose Nucleic
Acid). In Chromatin the main component is DNA which causes the genetic characters in
the organism. During cell division Chromatin is shrinked and divided into various smaller thick
and consolidated forms, and these are called chromosomes. Nucleus has definite number of
Chromosomes. Human has 23 pair of chromosomes.
 Chromosomes-Every chromosome exist a dense jelly like substance called Matrix and in
it two mutually thin interconnected coiled shape structures seems to appear which is called
chromonemata. Every Chromonemata is called Chromatids, thus every chromosomes is
composed of two Chromatids. Also two Chromatids mutually meet at a point which is called
Centromere. On chromosomes various genes are located and this gene is functional unit
of DNA. Thus genetic characteristics of DNA are caused by the gene. Thus chromosomes are
called vehicles of the heredity.
 Structure of RNA and DNA- DNA is polynucleotide and almost all the amount of it is
confined in the nucleus of the cell but a very small amount is also present in the
mitochondria and green plastids.
 In 1953 Watson and Crick propounded a comprehensive Double Helix Model. Both
stands of this Double Helix are in the opposite parallel direction and each Helix has a
diameter of nearly 20 Degree Angstrom.
Polynucleotide chain

Nucleotide (Monomer)

Nucleoside Phosphate

Sugar Base

Sugar Base
 Purine Pyrimidine

(Adenine= A and Guanine= G) (Thymine= T and Cytosine= C) A= T, G= C

 DNA controls are the genetic activities and its basic unit is gene. It also regulates the
Protein synthesis.
 Normally RNA is single stranded but in some viruses it has double stranded structure
like in reovirus. The main function of RNA is protein synthesis but in some plants and viruses it
acts like a carrier of genetic substances. Thus in viruses the genetic substance is generally
RNA or DNA but both never.
 In fact RNA is synthesis through DNA. Here on the behalf of nitrogen base Thiamine Uracil
comes into existence. Usually RNA is of three types-
1. Ribosomal RNA (r-RNA)-it is attached on ribosome and helps in the protein synthesis
and it forms from the DNA in the nucleus of the cell. The r-RNA is 80% of total RNA.
2. Transfer RNA (t-RNA) - it brings all the type of amino acid on the ribosome where
protein is formed. It is 10-15% of the total RNA.
3. Messenger RNA (m-RNA) - It carries the information of the protein synthesis from DNA
of the nucleus to ribosome. It is 3-5% of total RNA. It also helps in the selecting of amino acid.

Difference between DNA and RNA

DNA
Deoxyribose sugar is present in the DNA
In DNA base adenine, guanine, thymine and
cytosine are found.
Almost all the DNA is to be found in the nucleus of
the cell.
RNA
Ribose sugar is present in the RNA
In RNA on the behalf of thiamine base of Uracil
comes into existence.
RNA is mainly found in the Cytoplasm.

29. Cytoplasm- this is the part of the plant other than nucleus which has various components like
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosome, mitochondria, ribosome, centrosome,
plastids, leucoplast, chromoplast, chloroplast, vacuoles, etc.
30. Endoplasmic Reticulum- It is spread between the nuclear membrane and cell membrane in the
cytoplasm which is of two types-
Smooth walled ER- At it no ribosome is to be found and it is respondent to the lipid secretion.
Rough walled ER- At it ribosome is to be found which helps in protein synthesis.
31. Golgi apparatus or Golgi bodies-

Human Disease

1. On the basis of its nature, character and causes of its spreadness the disease of two types-
Congenital disease and Acquired disease
2. Congenital disease-
Congenital heart defects-Hole in the atrial septum, atrial septum is membrane which is used
to separate the two heart chambers.
 Erythroblastosis foetalis- The hemolytic disease which causes the blood group incompatibility
between the mother and foetus of the newborn baby.
Other congenital diseases are Harelip, Cleft palate, Sickle cell anemia, Albinism,
Phenylketonuria, Club foot, etc.
3. Deficiency disease-
 Protein deficiency disease
Kwashiorkor- This disease is caused by the deficiency of amino acids which are needed for the
synthesis of protein.
Marasmus-This disease is caused by the muscle degeneration.
 Mineral deficiency disease
Goiter- This disease is caused by the deficiency of the Iodine which is needed for the synthesis
of the thyroxin hormone of the thyroid gland.
Anemia- This disease is caused by the deficiency of the iron which causes the hemoglobin
deficiency in the blood.
Hypokalemia- It is caused by the deficiency of the potassium.
Hypernatremia- It is caused by the deficiency of the sodium.
 Vitamin deficiency disease
Night blindness- Caused by the deficiency of the vitamin A.
Beriberi- caused by the deficiency of the Vitamin B1 (thiamine).
Ariboflavinosis- caused by the deficiency of the B2 (riboflavin).
Pellagra- caused by the deficiency of the nicotine acid (niacin) , a vitamin of the B-complex.
Pernicious anemia or Megalycitic anemia- caused by the deficiency of the vitamin B12
(Cabalamin).
Scurvy- deficiency of vitamin C (ascorbic acid).
Rickets- caused by the lack of calcium or phosphorus metabolism which indirectly caused by the
deficiency of the vitamin D.
Ostemalacia- caused by the deficiency of vitamin D.
 Bacterial Disease-
Cholera (caused by Vibriocholerae) - this disease is transmitted through the contaminated
food and water and mainly spread by the housefly. In it the water level of human body is
diminished and blood circulation is slowed down.
Diphtheria (caused by corynebacteium diphtheria) - this disease is transmitted through the
droplets sprayed from mouth and nose during talking, coughing, etc.
Tuberculosis (caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis) - this disease is transmitted through
the air or milk, mouth and throat discharge from the person suffering from the active stage of
the disease. The preventive measure of it is Bacillus Calmat Guerin (BCG) vaccination, by taking
the injection of streptomycin. The newly invented drug of the tuberculosis is velicine.
Leprosy (caused by mycobacterium leprae) - this is not a hereditary disease and it only
transmits through the prolonged contact with the diseased parts in which the tissue starts to
damage (decay). The remedial measures of this disease are to use medicine like streptomycin,
sulphones MDT etc.
Tetanus (caused by clostridium or bacillus tetanic) - this disease directly or indirectly
transmits and causes by the inoculation of the wound.
Typhoid (caused by salmonella typhi or typhosa) - This disease transmits through the
contaminated food and water and which causes swelling in the spleen and intestine glands. This
disease is also called the fever of intestine. The suffering persons of the typhoid should inoculate
the injection of chloromycetin.
Plague (caused by Yersinia or bacillus pestis) – This is an infectious disease which transmits
through the fleabite or accidental contact with the infected rats. In the body of the fleas the
bacteria of plague resides which easily transmits in the human body. The Xanopsylla Cheopis is
the most deadly flea which directly enters in the human body and causes plague.
Whooping Cough (caused by nemophilus or haemophilus pertussis) – This disease is directly
transmits through the air and chiefly occurs among the infants and children.
Pneumonia (caused by dipolococcus pneumoniae) – This disease transmits through the air borne
droplets and the affected people suffer from a chronic fever and respiratory problems.
Syphillis (caused by treponema pallidum) – This disease is caused by the sexual intercourse made
through the infected persons and thus it is basically a sexual contact disease.
Gonorrhoea ( caused by Neisseria genorrhoea) – This disease transmits through the sexual
intercourse of the infected person in which the mucous confined between the urine-
reproductive tract becomes infected.
Viral disease-
Influenza-