Final Exam Bio

1. Discuss the Origin of Life on Earth

The origin of life is one of the great mysteries in the Universe. To determine the origin of life, scientists
are investigating the problem in several different ways. Some scientists are studying life on our own
planet. Some scientists are seeking out life or fossil life on other planets or moons in our solar system.
And other scientists are trying to detect life in other solar systems, either by measuring life's effects on
the atmospheres of distant planets or by measuring artificial radiation like radio signals that may be
produced by advanced life.

Thus far, the most fruitful approach has been to examine life on our own planet. However, even in
our own backyard, it is difficult to determine life's origins because it began at least 3.5 billion years ago.
We know that life began at least 3.5 billion years ago, because that is the age of the oldest rocks with
fossil evidence of life on earth. These rocks are rare because subsequent geologic processes have
reshaped the surface of our planet, often destroying older rocks while making new ones. Nonetheless,
3.5 billion year old rocks with fossils can be found in Africa and Australia. They are usually a mix of
solidified volcanic lavas and sedimentary cherts. The fossils occur in sedimentary cherts.

Chemical traces of life have also been detected in slightly older rocks. In Greenland, a series of ancient
metamorphosed sediments have been found. Analyses indicate the sediments were deposited about
3.8 billion years ago. They also revealed carbon isotope signatures that appear to have been produced
by organisms that lived when the sediments were deposited.

In all cases, life as we understand it must have water. This general rule is true on Earth and is thought
to be true elsewhere in the solar system. Currently, life is being sought on Mars where water may have
once flowed on the surface and Europa where a subterranean sea of water may exist beneath its icy
surface.

2. What is the most acceptable theory about the Origin of Life? Support your answer

There are 2 main hypotheses for the origin of life:

1. Abiogenesis/panspermia - Purely naturalistic increasing complexity collection and assembly of

fundamental elements into organic molecules with a wide range of options for development from
external resources: carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, sulfur, phosphorus. and other elements.

2. Transcendent extra-natural, transdimensional designer/creator of universe caused the elements to

combine and form complex biochemical assemblies that included all cellular functions, and ended with a
single or group of living organisms.

Hypothesis 2 is not being investigated by conventional science.

 Hypothesis 1 is made up of many theories and hypotheses that have not proven any aspect of
the required processes and structures required for the origin of life. Nevertheless, what came first is a
wide array of abiotic compounds, assemblies and structures that must form in the same location at the
same time. The simplest level of elemental reactions to produce polymers, sugars and amino acids are
the logical first biochemical assemblies to form. But the process of chemical evolution to accomplish this
is a myth like Darwinian "warm little ponds," chemical evolution, or Oparin-Haldane primordial soup.
The critical amino acids are the 4 used in the genetic code, which all organisms contain. There are about
20 types needed throughout the cell and can only be made through the cellular machines that result
from metabolic operations related to the genetic code. The amino acids must be 100% left-handed to
function properly and there are no natural mechanisms that can accomplish this. Within a living cell it is
normal practice. The pentose sugars must be right-handed 100% to attach to the amino acids and form
the nucleotide chain that specifies how to build proteins, the fundamental building blocks of all
organisms.

All the necessary assemblies and structures must be assembled at the same time for the next
critical assembly of lipids and proteins, the cell membrane, to encapsulate them and prevent
contamination while allowing key materials to enter and exit as needed to support the cell.

The result is proteins, nucleotide chains of sugars and amino acids, polymers that provide
structure, metabolic and reproductive elements, lipids, and a supply of essential nutrients must all come
together to assemble all the elements necessary for a living entity, but what actually causes this
assembly of materials to come to life is not known as it does not directly follow that combining all the
necessary chemicals will produce a living organism.

Hypothesis 2 is the only plausible one because it answers all of the issues relative to all aspects
of requirements for the origin of life.

God is the explanation for the initial creation of matter, space, time and energy, the fine-tuning
of all physical laws and constants, the design of the progression of the universe to create planets and
stars, the creation of life, the bioforming of the planet through increasingly more complex and larger
organisms that eventually led to conscious humans. There is no other plausible theory to explain all the
universe issues. God did this with love to create conscious, free willed humans who could understand
and love him. Your purpose is to know him, seek him, allow him to lead you, and live with him for
eternity.

How did life begin? There can hardly be a bigger question. For much of human history, almost
everyone believed some version of "the gods did it". Any other explanation was inconceivable.
 That is no longer true. Over the last century, a few scientists have tried to figure out how the
first life might have sprung up. They have even tried to recreate this Genesis moment in their labs: to
create brand-new life from scratch. So far nobody has managed it, but we have come a long way. Today,
many of the scientists studying the origin of life are confident that they are on.

Life on Earth began more than 3 billion years ago, evolving from the most basic of microbes into
a dazzling array of complexity over time. But how did the first organisms on the only known home to life
in the universe develop from the primordial soup? One theory involved a "shocking" start. Another idea
is utterly chilling. And one theory is out of this world! the right track – and they have the experiments to
back up their confidence.Inside you'll learn just how mysterious this all is, as we reveal the different
scientific theories on the origins of life on Earth.

3. Enumerate the six kingdoms of life. discuss each.

Every living creature on Earth belongs to a kingdom. Scientists debate how many kingdoms there are,
but most agree there are six. Here is how the six kingdoms are organized.

Archaea bacteria

Archaebacteria are bacteria with internal membrances and are found in deep-ocean thermal vents, hot
springs in Yellowstone, and brine marine environments.

Eubacteria

Eubacteria are single-celled organisms that don’t have a nucleus. Bacteria make up the entire kingdom.
There are more forms of bacteria than any other organism on Earth. Some bacteria are beneficial to us,
such as the ones found in yogurt. Others can cause us to get sick.

Protists

Protists are mostly single-celled organisms that have a nucleus. They usually live in water. Some protists
move around, while others stay in one place. Examples of protists include some algae, paramecium, and
amoeba.

Fungi

Fungi are usually motionless organisms that absorb nutrients for survival. They include mushrooms,
molds, and yeasts.

Plants
Plants contain chlorophyll, a green pigment necessary for photosynthesis, a process in which plants
convert energy from sunlight into food. Their cell walls are made sturdy by a material called cellulose,
and they are fixed in one place. Plants are divided into two groups: flower- and fruit-producing plants
and those that don’t produce flowers or fruits. They include garden flowers, agricultural crops, grasses,
shrubs, ferns, mosses, and conifers.

Animals

Animals are the most complex organisms on Earth. Animals are multi-celled organisms, eat food for
survival, and have nervous systems. They are divided into vertebrates and invertebrates and include
mammals, amphibians, reptiles, birds and fish.

4. What is cell theory? enumerate the proponents of cell theory and their discoveries

In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms
are made up of cells, that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all organisms, and that all
cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic
unit of reproduction. With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification
technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery is largely attributed to
Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, also known as cell biology. Over a century later,
many debates about cells began amongst scientists. Most of these debates involved the nature of
cellular regeneration, and the idea of cells as a fundamental unit of life. Cell theory was eventually
formulated in 1839. This is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. However,
many other scientists like Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory. It was an important step in the
movement away from spontaneous generation.

5. Describe the structure of cell membrane. Give its functions

The cell membrane (plasma membrane) is a thin semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the
cytoplasm of a cell. Its function is to protect the integrity of the interior of the cell by allowing certain
substances into the cell, while keeping other substances out. It also serves as a base of attachment for
the cytoskeleton in some organisms and the cell wall in others. Thus the cell membrane also serves to
help support the cell and help maintain its shape.

Another function of the membrane is to regulate cell growth through the balance of endocytosis
and exocytosis. In endocytosis, lipids and proteins are removed from the cell membrane as substances
are internalized. In exocytosis, vesicles containing lipids and proteins fuse with the cell membrane
increasing cell size. Animal cells, plant cells, prokaryotic cells, and fungal cells have plasma membranes.
Internal organelles are also encased by membranes.
 6. Differentiate animal, plant and bacterial cell

An animal cell is eukaryotic and has

· A nucleus containing the DNA

· Mitochondria that produce the cell’s energy currency – ATP

· ER where proteins are made

· The golgi apparatus where molecules are sorted and packaged for transportation

· Lysosomes that break down unwanted molecules

· A cell membrane that lets things in and out

A plant cell is also eukaryotic and has everything an animal cell’s got as well as

· A vacuole- a space for storing sugars

· A cell wall to provide structure and to protect the cell

· Chloroplasts that photosynthesise and transform light energy into chemical energy in the form of
sugars (like glucose)

A bacterial cell is prokaryotic and has

· No nucleus (instead the DNA is in the middle of the DNA as a nucleoid, with other small plasmids
around it)
· A cell wall to protect the cell and stop it shrinking or bursting

· Flagella that rotate and propel the bacterium along

· Ribosomes to make proteins

7. What is genetic engineering? Enumerate some genetic engineering techniques. discuss each

Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the direct
manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology. It is a set of technologies used to change the
genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce
improved or novel organisms. New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material
of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising the DNA. A construct is usually
created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism. The first recombinant DNA molecule was
made by Paul Berg in 1972 by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with the lambda virus. As
well as inserting genes, the process can be used to remove, or "knock out", genes. The new DNA can be
inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome.

The creation of a genetically modified organism involves multiple steps. Genetic engineers must first
choose what gene they wish to insert, modify or delete.

For gene insertions, the gene must then be isolated and incorporated, along with other genetic
elements, into a suitable vector. These genetic elements are generally a promoter and terminator region
as well as a selectable marker gene. This vector is then inserted into the host organism's genome. For
animals, the gene is typically inserted into embryonic stem cells. This can be accomplished with
microinjection, viral vectors, Agrobacterium-mediated recombination, biolistics[1] or using the
organism's natural processes. Further tests are carried out on the resulting organism to ensure stable
integration, inheritance and expression. First generation offspring are heterozygous, requiring them to
be inbred to create the homozygous pattern necessary for stable inheritance. Homozygosity must be
confirmed in second generation specimens.

8. What is cloning? Why do they do animal cloning?

Cloning is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical individuals that occurs
in nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects, plants or animals reproduce asexually. Cloning in
biotechnology refers to processes used to create copies of DNA fragments (molecular cloning), cells (cell
cloning), or organisms (organism cloning). Beyond biology, the term also refers to the production of
multiple copies of a product such as digital media or software.
 The term clone, invented by J. B. S. Haldane, is derived from the Ancient Greek word κλών klōn,
"twig", referring to the process whereby a new plant can be created from a twig. In botany, the term
lusus was traditionally used.[1] In horticulture, the spelling clon was used until the twentieth century;
the final e came into use to indicate the vowel is a "long o" instead of a "short o".[2][3] Since the term
entered the popular lexicon in a more general context, the spelling clone has been used exclusively.

9. Discuss sugar, as the chemistry of life