ANALYSIS FOR BEST CONSTRUCTION SITE IN LUCKNOW

AND THEIR IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

A Report Submitted in partial fulfilment of the Realignment

For the Degree of
AMICE (I) CIVIL SEC-B
In
Civil Engineering
By

MANU DUBEY (Membership No. 88)

SAURABH YADAV (
HANSRAJ YADAV (1110431112)

Under the supervision of

Mr. SHIVAM PATEL
H.O.D. Civil Engg
M.G. Institute of Management and Technology
School Of Engineering

BABU BANARSI DAS UNIVERSITY

LUCKNOW, INDIA

MAY-2016

Certificate
 Certified that Prashant Singh, Kulsum Mohammed, Nikhil
Malhotra, Indresh Singh, Harmeet Singh have carried out the research
work presented in this thesis entitled "Analysis for best construction site
in Lanc7.nn©w and their improvement techniques" for the award of
Bachelor off 'Technology from Babu Banarasi Das University, Lucknow
under my supervision. The project embodies result of original work and
studies carried out by the Students and the contents of the project do not
form the basis for the award of any other degree to the candidate or to
anybody else.

YOGESH SR ASTAVA Civil Engineering Dept.

LUCKNOW (U.P)

Date: 12/05/2016
ANALYSIS OF BEST CONTRUCTION SITE IN LUCKNOW AND
THEIR IMPROVEMENT 'TECHNIQUES

BY-

PRASHANT SINGH
KULSUM MOHAMMED
HARMEET SINGH
NIKHIL SINGH
INDRESH SINGH
ABSTRACT

Many a times we come across instances of settlements of structure in a

particular area. These settlements could be differential or uniform
(beyond a specific limit). This poses a threat to safety and well-being of
the residents in the vicinity, while leading to huge economic losses.

Thus this research is aimed at analyzing the characteristics of soil

samples collected from various localities in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh,
India and drawing out a comparative study of stability of structures based
on the test results and providing economical methods of ground
improvement for the areas not suitable for construction.

For the analysis Soil samples are collected from various locations in
Lucknow. These are Alambagh, Ashiyana, Gomti nagar, Cantonment,
Indira nagar and various tests such as liquid limit tests, specific gravity
tests, sieve analysis tests etc. are performed to find out the various
characteristics of soil of these areas.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We place on record and warmly acknowledge the continuous

encouragement, invaluable supervision, timely suggestions and inspired
guidance offered by our guide Assistant IlDroT, Yogesh Senstzvz,
Department Of Civil Engineering, at Babu Banarasi Das University,
Lucknow in bringing this thesis to a successful completion.

We are grateful to Associate Prof. AnupEann Mehirotrn, Head of

Department of Civil engineering for permitting us to make use of the
facilities available in the college to carry out the experiments related to
project successfully.

Last but not the least we express our sincere thanks to all of our friends
and our parents who have patiently extended all sorts of help for
accomplishing this undertaking,

Prashant Singh Kulsum Mohammed Nikhil Malhotra Indresh Singh

Harmeet Singh
TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

OUTLINE OF THESIS

1.1.2 Significance of study

1.1.3 Objective of project

1.1.4 Research questions P

AGE NO. 3 8 8 12 12 1.2

LITERATURE REVIEW

14 2. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

19 2.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS TEST

19 2.1.1 Procedure to determine particle size

20 2.1.2 Reporting of results

21 2,2 LIQUID LIMIT TEST

21 2.2.1 Scope

21 2.2.2 Apparatus Required

22 2.2.3 Preparation of sample

22 2.2.4 Procedure

22 2.2.5 Results
242.3 PLASTIC LIMIT TEST 24 2.3.1 Scope 24 2.3.2 Apparatus
Required 24 2.3.3 Preparation of samples 24 2.3.4 Procedure 25 2.4
WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION 26 2.4.1 Objective 26 2.4.2
Apparatus required 26 2.4.3 Preparation of sample 26 2.4.4 Result 27 2.5
SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST 28 2.5.1 Scope 28 2.5.2 Apparatus required
28 2.5.3 Properties of sample 28 2.5.4 Procedure 30 2.5.5 Calculation 30
2.5.6 Result 31 2.6 DIRECT SHEAR TEST 31 2.6.1 Objective 31 2.6.2
Need and Scope 31 2.6.3 Apparatus 31 2.6.4 Knowledge of Equipment
32 2.6.5 Procedure 32 2.6.6 General Remarks 33 2.7 CONSOLIDATION
TEST 34 2.7.1 Objective 32.7.2 Need and Scope 35 2.7.3 Apparatus 35
2.7.4 Principal involived 36 2.7.5 Procedure 37 METHODS 39 3.1
IMPROVEMENT OF COHESIVE SOILS 40 3.1.1 Pre-compressi©n 40
312 Sand drains 41 313 Wick Drains 42 3.1.4 Stone Columns 43 12
IMPROVEMENT OF COHENSIONLESS SOILS 44 3.2,1
Vibroflotation 45 3.2.2 Terra Probe methods 46 3.2.3 Dynamic
Compaction 47 3.2.4 Compaction by blast 48 3.2.5 Compaction blast 49
3.3 GROUND METHODS 51 3.3.1 Removal and replacement 51 3.3.2
Deep mixing 52 3.3.3 Grouting 53 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 55 4.1
OBSERVATION AND RESULTS 55 4.2 CONCLUSIONS 64 4.3
OVERALL RESULTS 66 4.4 SUGGESTIONS 66

REITERENC

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTIION

Whenever construction of any structure such as tower, buildings,

roadways, dams, embankments, tunnels etc. is planned in an area, the first
and foremost step is to check the soil conditions of the area or site so as to
find out whether the soil is capable of bearing the load of the structure.

The soil conditions which are favourable for construction of any structure
on any site are-

 High bearing capacity

Bearing capacity is the capacity of the soil to support the loads

applied to the ground. In technical terms the bearing capacity of soil is
the maximum average contact pressure between the foundation and the
soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil. High bearing
capacity of the soil will thus enable the soil to bear large amount of
loads without leading to settlement or failure. There are 3 modes of
failure that limit the bearing capacity: general shear failure, local
shear failure and punching shear failure. The general shear failure is
the one normally analyzed The values of safe bearing capacity of
different types of soil is mentioned in the table provided below-

 High shear strength.

Shear strength is the term used to describe the magnitude of the

shear stress that a soil can sustain, The shear resistance of soil is a result
of friction and interlocking of particles. Due to interlocking particles
expand or contract in volume, If soil expands in volume, the density
of the particles will decrease and the strength will decrease. The shear
strength of soil depends upon effective stress (the average normal
inter-granular contact force per unit area), the drainage conditions,
the density of the particles and the direction of strain. Factors
controlling shear strength of soil include soil composition, structure of
soil, loading conditions and state of soil (state comprises of terms
such as loose, dense, over consolidated, normally consolidated,
stiff, soft etc.)

 High permeability/ high soil infiltration rates

It is a measure indicating the capacity of soil to allow fluid to pass

through it.

Permeability is affected by the following factors-

o Particle size- permeability of coarse grained soil is very

large as compared to fine grain soils.

o Impurities in water- reduce the effective voids and thus

also the permeability of the soil. Thus impurities in water
should be minimized.

o Degree of saturation- permeability of partially saturated

soil is less than that of fully saturated soils.

o Entrapped air and organic matter- reduce the permeability

of the soil considerably.
Permeability is often represented by the permeability coefficient (k)
through the Darcy equation-

V= k*I

Where v is apparent fluid velocity through the medium, I is the hydraulic

gradient and k is the permeability coefficient in m/s.

 Low consolidation settlements

Consolidation is a process by which soils decrease in volume by

expulsion of pore water pressure under long term static loads. It occurs
when stress is applied to a soil that causes the soil particles to pack
together more tightly, therefore reducing its bulk volume.

The total consolidation settlement consists of three components-

o Immediate settlement- also called elastic settlement and occurs

immediately after the load is applied due to distortion at constant
volume.

o Primary consolidation settlement- it is due to expulsion of pore

water pressure from the voids of a saturated soil. It is a major component
of settlement of fine grained saturated soils and can be estimated from
the theory of consolidation.

o Secondary consolidation settlement- it is change in volume of a

fine grained soil due to rearrangement of soil particles at constant
effective stress. Its rate is very slow when compared to primary
consolidation.

Further, analysis of soil is very important because if construction is

carried out on soils such as collapsible soils, expansive soils, liquefiable
soils or marshy and soft soils etc. Then there will be large settlements in
the structure leading to huge economic and personal loss of life and
property. These soils are explained below briefly

Collapsible soil: those soils which have tendency to collapse upon

loading -_171e to reasons such as capillary stresses, stable or unstable
meta-structure or nullification etc. When partially saturated soils come in
contact with water, reduction in volume in soil takes place which results
in collapse of soil. Liquefiable soils: they are essentially sandy soils
which have a tendency for liquefaction under the influence of impact
loading like earthquakes. It can also be called quick sand condition in
soils which is nothing but static liquefaction. When effective stress in soil
becomes zero, soil losses all its strength and behaves as a liquid. These
soil particles then rearrange themselves which leads to large
consolidation of soil and settlement of the structure.

Expansive soils: they are mostly found in Declan plague and in parts of
Andhra Pradesh and are prone to large volume changes due to excessive
swelling and shrinkage. Depending upon the supply of moisture in the
ground, these soils experience changes in volume up to 30% or more. If
these soils are used as foundation soils they will heave causing lifting of
structure during period of high moisture. Conversely during period of low
moisture these soils will collapse leading to settlement of the structure.

Marshy and soft soils: shear strength, bearing capacity and permeability
of these soils is very low and consolidation settlements are very high thus
creating conditions which are impossible for construction of any
structure.
1.1.2 SIEGNIFICANCE OIF STUDY

It is imperative to determine the stability of a structure such as an

overhead tank or a building constructed at a particular place, based on
preliminary tests conducted on the soil collected from the site. This
ensures the safety of not only the residents of the particular residential
establishment under consideration but also for people of the
neighbourhood.

it also enables the constructors to choose a better locality for construction

of houses or building, to fend of the economic losses due to subsequent
settlement. It also helps to reduce the cost involved in construction, due to
extrication of cost involved in ground improvement.

Furthermore it also helps to determine the corrective measure to be

employed in a particular construction site.

OBJECTIVE/ AIM OF THE PROJECT

To collect soil samples from various localities in Lucknow and to

determine best area for construction based on tests conducted.

To determine the worst construction site in Lucknow based on tests

conducted.

To provide economical remedial measures for ground improvement,

where needed.

The sites chosen for the project were —

Alambagh- (26.8080° N, 80.8980° E)
Ashiyana- (26°53'30"N 80°57°37"E)
Gomti nagar-(25.5449° N, 81.0095° E)
Cantonment- (26°48'40"N 80057'18"E) I
ndira nagar- (12.9699° N, 77.6499° E)

1:2 LITERATURE, REVIEW

 Ground improvement techniques are given the utmost importance

in present days to adapt week ground/soil into the appropriate
competent stable ground for different civil engineering
applications. It started with Henri Vidal (1960) and became
familiar with the pioneer work of Binquet and Lee.
 Dynamic Compaction was invented and promoted by Louis
Menard. Menard and Broise (1975) developed an empirical
equation in which the depth of influence, D, was a function of the
square root of the impact energy. Menard performed his first
dynamic compaction projects using 80 kN pounders that were
dropped from 10 m. Menard then developed and manufactured his
own rigs that were able to lift 250 and more than 1,700 kN
pounders. The major innovation in dynamic compaction was the
development of the Menard Accelerated Release System (MARS)
which is able to release the pounder from the lifting device as the
pseudo free fall commences.
 Compaction Grouting has been used to support deep excavation
into soft ground for a case in Shanghai (Liu et al 2005). A few
more examples are given by Welsh and Burke (2000). An
alternative compaction grouting technique has also been proposed
by Naudts and Van Impe (2000) in which gee-textile bags are used.
 Chemical grouting has been used for some major hydraulic or darn
constructions in China including the three Gorges Darn and other
projects (Tao et al. 2006). chemical grouting has also been used for
 the repair of an underwater road tunnel in Montreal, Canada by
Palardy et al. (2003) and a field trial of the use of colloidal silica
grouting for mitigation of liquefaction (Gallagher et a1.2007).
 Case histories of soil improvement projects using the dynamic
replacement method have been presented by Lo etc. (1990), Wong
and Lacazedieu (2004), Ong et al. (2007) and Godlewski et al.
(2007). The Dynamic replacement method was also adopted for the
KAUST (King Abdullah University of Science and Technology)
project for the treatment of Sabkas soil. DR columns with an
average diameter of 2.5m were installed on a square grid of 3.80 m
x 3.80 m into the top Jiouse sand to very soft Sabkas soil of up to 9
m.
 Vibro Compaction was used to compact loose granular soils and
etc achieve uniform level of densification on Jurong inland in
Singapore, where The Universal Terminal, one of the world's
largest and Asia's biggest independent oil storage facility( consists
of 73 tanks, ranging in diameter from 13.6m to 78.6m and having
heights between 15m and 22.3m) was being build. The soil on site
was made up of loose to medium dense reclaimed land fill having
thickness between 20m and 35m.vibro compaction was executed
using both single and twin vibro set-up. Vibro Compaction works
of approximately 200,000m2 area which incl des areas to be used
for construction of tanks, manifolds and pump stations, was
completed within a short duration of 6 months between December
2005 and May 2006 using three twin vibro rigs and two single
vibro rigs.
 Indian Oil Corporation Limited has developed the Paradeep Haldia
Crude Oil Pipeline Project for which a tank farm was proposed to
be built at Paradeep, Orissa. The tank farm consists of 15 nos. of
floating roof crude oil storage tanks with 60,000mA3 capacity,
having 79m internal diameter and 13.5m height. The subsoil
consisted of loose to medium dense fine sands to a depth of 10m. A
silty clay layer of 1.5m thickness was sandwiched between sand
layers at 3m depth. Below 10m, dense sand layers (SPT N30 >25)
were found. The top 3m Consist of recently reclaimed fill material.
The purpose of the ground improvement was to limit the settlement
of the tanks to 200mm at the end of the hydrostatic tests. In
addition, it was required to achieve a bearing capacity of 16t/m2.
Vibro stone columns of 800mm diameter were installed at a
triangular grid spacing of 2m c/c to a depth of about 10m in order
 to fulfill the technical requirements. The treatment area included a
zone extending 6m beyond the tank footprint to ensure the
adequate edge stability of the tank. The success of the ground
improvement by vibro replacement was underlined by the
monitored final settlement at the end of the hydrostatic test, which
did not exceed 100mm.
 A Sewage Treatment plant was construction in Penang Island and
which caters for an ultimate capacity of 1.2 million population
equivalent. The project serves as a centralized sewage treatment
facility and includes 12 nos. of Sequential Batch Reactor (SBR)
tanks and associated process tanks. The site was originally
reclaimed from the sea and approximately, half of the SBR tanks
area was covered by former domestic landfill (3m to 5m thick)
waste dumps (where Vibro Concrete Columns were constructed as
the rubbish dumps cannot mixed using DSM technology). in the
remaining half of the SBR tanks area (where DSM technique is
used), the subsoil primarily consists of 3m to 5m thick reclaimed
fill followed by 5m to 7m thick soft marine clay. This is followed
by stiff to very stiff cohesive deposits to over 50m depth. Ground
improvement techniques (Vibro Concrete Columns and Deep Soil
Mixing) were utilized to support the SBR tanks. Vibro Concrete
Columns (VCC) were constructed for 3 nos. of twin tanks in the
former landfill area, forming concrete pile-like elements by
displacing the domestic waste dumps rather than requiring
removal. Deep Soil Mixing columns were constructed for
remaining 3 nos. of twin tanks in the marine clay outside the
landfill area which increased strength of marine clay by more than
40 times.
 The National Hydro Power Corporation Ltd developed Teesta Low
Dam (Stage-IV), Hydro Power Plant at Kalijhora, West Bengal,
India. The Construction of the darn required to form a Permeation
Grout curtain in the coffer dam, to allow the excavation works and
the construction activities of the proposed darn. The Soils of the
coffer darn consisted of a typical river bed material with boulders
intermixed with silty sand. The permeability of the coffer dam
formed with these natural soils was in the range of 10-3 to 10.4
m/sec and the target permeability was set to be 10-6 m/sec. The
trial grouting works were carried out to establish a grid pattern
suitable to the existing soil conditions in order to achieve the
desired imperviousness, before commencement of the actual
works. The grout curtain was formed from the coffer dam surface
and socketed lm into the bed rock. For this purpose a total of 1,420
holes were drilled in the coffer dam in three rows. The height of
the grout curtain ranged from about 20m at the dyke portion and
reduced to 5m towards the up-stream. The variation is due to the
non-uniformity in the rock head levels. The grouting was carried
out from bottom to the surface progressively at predetermined
steps, pressures and grout volumes which were established after the
initial site trial. Basic grout material consisted of cement in the
outer rows and Silica gel in the middle row with some additives.
The effectiveness of the grout curtain was demonstrated by means
of in-situ permeability tests, which recorded the average
permeability values to be about 10-7 m/sec.
 Penetrative ground improvement techniques such as vibro stone
columns can generate potential pathways for contaminant
migration. An innovative approach to address this issue has been
the development of "vibro concrete plug" technology,
incorporating the introduction of lean mix concrete into the basal
section (toe) of the stone column, thereby isolating any pathways
for downward migration of contamination via the stone columns.
The technique has been implemented successfully for a vibro stone
column ground improvement project in Kidderminster, UK.
Adopting "vibro concrete plug" technology in this way avoids
pollutant linkages being formed from contamination/pollutants in
the soils through which the stone columns are installed. The
technique has also been used to bridge thin creep-prone organic
horizons such as peat.
 CHAPTER-2

TESTS

The following tests have been performed to judge the soil parameters and
its characteristics so that it can efficiently be used for construction.

 Sieve analysis test

 Liquid limit test
 Plastic limit test
 Water content determination
 Specific gravity test
 Direct shear test o Consolidation test

2.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS TEST

Sieve analysis helps to determine the particle size distribution of the

coarse and fine aggregates. This is done by sieving the aggregates as per
IS: 2386 (Part I)-1963. In this we use different sieves as standardized by
the IS code and then pass aggregates through them and thus collect
different sized particles left over different sieves. The apparatus used
are—
  A set of IS Sieves of sizes — 80mm, 63mm, 50mm,
40mm,31.5mm, 25mm, 20mm, 16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm,
6.3mm,4.75mm, 3.35mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600m, 300m,
15011m and 751.m.
 Balance or scale with an accuracy to measure 0.1 percent of the
weight of the test sample. The weight of sample available should
not be less than the weight given below:-

Maximum size present in Minimum weight of sample

substantial proportions despatched for lesting
(mm) (k.g)
63 100
50 100
40 50
25 50
20 25
12.5 12
10.0 6
6.3 3

The sample for sieving should be prepared from the larger sample either
by quartering or by means of a sample divider.

2.1.1 PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE PARTICLE SIZE

DISTRIBUTION

 The test sample is dried to a constant weight at a temperature of

110 + 5°C and weighed.
 The sample is sieved by using a set of IS Sieves o .On completion
of sieving, the material on each sieve is weighed.
  Cumulative weight passing through each sieve is calculated as a
percentage of the total sample weight.
 Fineness modulus is obtained by adding cumulative percentage of
aggregates retained on each sieve and dividing the sum by 100.

2.1.2 REPORTING OF RESULTS

The results should be calculated and reported as:

 The cumulative percentage by weight of the total sample

 The percentage by weight of the total sample passing through one
sieve and retained on the next smaller sieve, to the nearest 0.1
percent. The results of the sieve analysis may be recorded
graphically on a semi-log ,graph with particle size as abscissa (log
 scale) and the percentage smaller than the specified diameter as
ordinate.

2.2 LIQUID) LIMIT TEST

2,2.1 SCOPE

This test is done to determine the liquid limit of soil as per IS: 2720 (Part
5) — 1985. The liquid limit of fine-grained soil is the water content at
which soil behaves practically like a liquid, but has small shear strength.
Its flow closes the groove in just 25 blows in Casagrande's liquid limit
device.

2.2.2 AIPIPAIRATUS USED

 Casagrande's liquid limit device

 Grooving tools of both standard and ASTM types
 Oven
 Evaporating dish o Spatula
 IS Sieve of size 425p.m
 Weighing balance, with 0.01g accuracy
 Wash bottle
 Air-tight and non-corrodible container for determination of
moisture content

2.2.3 PREPARATION OF SAMPLE

 Air-dry the soil sample and break the clods. Remove the organic
matter like tree\roots, pieces of bark etc.
 About 100g of the specimen passing through 425p.im IS Sieve is
mixed thoroughly with distilled water in the evaporating dish and
left for 24hrs. For soaking.
2:2.4, PROCEDURE

 Place a portion of the paste in the cup of the liquid limit device. o
Level the mix so as to have a maximum depth o-f 1 cm.
 Draw the grooving tool through the sample along the symmetrical
axis of the cup, holding the tool perpendicular to the cup.
 For normal fine grained soil: The Casagrande's tool is used to cut a
groove 2mm wide at the bottom, 11 nmi wide at the top and 8mm
deep.
 For sandy soil: The ASTM tool is used to cut a groove 2mm wide
at the bottom, 13.6mm wide at the top and 10mm deep.
 After the soil pat has been cut by a proper grooving tool, the handle
is rotated at the rate of about 2 revolutions per second and the no.
of blows counted, till the two parts of the soil sample come into
contact for about 10mm length.
 Take about 10g of soil near the closed groove and determine its
water content.
 The soil of the cup is transferred to the dish containing the soil
paste and mixed thoroughly after adding a little more water. Repeat
the test.
 By altering the water content of the soil and repeating the
foregoing operations, obtain at least 5 readings in the range of 15 to
35 blows. Don't mix dry soil to change its consistency.
 Liquid limit is determined by plotting a 'flow curve' on a semi-log
graph, with no. of blows as abscissa (log scale) and the water
content as ordinate and drawing the best straight line through the
plotted points.
2.2.5 RESULTS

Report the water content corresponding to 25 below, read from the 'flow
curve' as the liquid limit.

2.3 PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

2.2.1 SCOPE

This test is done to determine the liquid limit of soil as per IS: 2720 (Part
5) -1985. The plastic limit of fine-grained soil is the water content of the
soil below which it ceases to be plastic. It begins to crumble when rolled
into threads of 3mm diameter.
2.2.2 APPARATUS USED

 Porcelain evaporating dish about 120 mm dia.

 Spatula
 Container to determine moisture content
 Balance, with an accuracy of 0.01g
 Oven
 Ground glass plate 20crn x 15cm
 Rod — 3mm dia. and about 10cm long

2.3.3 PREPARATION CIF SAMPLE

Take out 30g of air-dried soil from a thoroughly mixed sample of the soil
passing through 425gm IS Sieve. Mix the soil with distilled water in an
evaporating dish and leave the soil mass for maturing. This period may be
up to 24hrs.

2.3.4 PROCEDURE

 Take about 8g of the soil and roll it with fingers on a glass plate.
The rate of rolling should be between 80 to 90 strokes per minute
to form a 3mm diameter.
 If the diameter of the threads can be reduced to less than 3mm,
without any cracks appearing, it means that the water content is
more than its plastic limit. Knead the soil to reduce the water
content and roll it into a thread again.
 Repeat the process of alternate rolling and kneading until the
thread crumbles
 Collect and keep the pieces of crumbled soil thread in the
container used to determine the moisture content.
  Repeat the process at least twice more with flesh samples of
plastic soil each time.

2.4 WATER CONTENT DETER INATIUN

2.4.1 OBJECTIVE

This test is clone to determine the water content in soil by oven drying
method as per IS: 2720 (Part II) — 1973. The water content (w) of a soil
sample is equal to the mass of water divided by the mass of solids.

2.4.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED-

  Thermostatically controlled oven maintained at a temperature of
110 ± 5°C
 Weighing balance, with an accuracy of 004% of the weight of the
soil taken
 Air-tight container made of non-corrodible material with lid o
Tongs

2.4.3 TIRIEIPARKTION OF SAMPLE

The soil specimen should be representative of the soil mass. The quantity
of the specimen taken would depend upon the gradation and the
maximum size of particles as under:

Procedure to determine Water Content in Soil by Oven Drying

Method

 Clean the container, dry it and weigh it with the lid (Weight 'W1').
 Take the required quantity of the wet soil specimen in the container
and weigh it with the lid (Weight 'W2`).
 Place the container, with its lid removed, in the ove till its weight
becomes constant (Normally for 24hrs.).
 When the soil has dried, remove the container from the oven, using
tongs
 Find the weight 'W3‘of the container with the lid and the dry soil
sample.
2.4.4 REPORTING OF RESUILM

The water content is given by-

w = [[𝑊2 -𝑊3 ] / [𝑊3 - 𝑊1 ]]x100%

Where,

WI, W2, W3 have the same meaning as discussed earlier

2.5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST

As per :S: 2720 (Part-3)/Sec.i-l987

2.5.1 SCOPE

This standard (Part III/Set 1) lays down the methods of test for the
Determination of the specific gravity of soil particle of fine grained soils.
2.5.2 APPARATUS

 Two density bottles

 Vacuum desiccator
 Drying oven
 Spatula
 Wash bottle

2.5.3 PREPRATION 01F SAMPLE

 Disturbed soil sample is enough for the test.

 Take pulverized soil passed through 2 mm IS Sieve.

2.5.4 PROCEDURE

a. Clean and dry the density bottle

b. Wash the bottle with water and allow it to drain.

c. Wash it with alcohol and drain it to remove water.

d. Wash it with ether, to remove alcohol and drain ether.

e. Weigh the empty bottle with stopper (W1).

f. Take about 10 to 20 gm of oven soil sample which is cooled

in a desiccator. Transfer it to the bottle. Find the weight of the
bottle and soil (W2).

g. Put 10m1 of distilled water in the bottle to allow the soil to

soak completely. Leave it for about 2 hours.

h. Again fill the bottle completely with distilled water put the
stopper and keep the bottle under constant temperature water
baths (T2). Take the bottle outside and wipe it clean and dry note.
Now determine the weight of the bottle and the contents
(W3).

i. Now empty the bottle and thoroughly clean it. Fill the bottle
with only distilled water and weigh it. Let it be W4 at temperature
(Tx° C).

j. Repeat the same process for 2 to 3 times, to take the average

reading of

2.5.5 CALCULATIONS

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 27 𝐶
Specific gravity of soil =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

(𝑊2−𝑤1)
=(𝑊4−𝑊1)−
(𝑊3−𝑊2)

(𝑊2−𝑊1)
= (𝑊2−𝑊1)−
(𝑊3−𝑊4)

2.5.6 RESULT

Unless or otherwise specified specific gravity values reported shall be

based on water at 27°C. So the specific gravity at 27°C = K (Sp, gravity
at 𝑇𝑥 °𝐶).

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇°𝑥 𝐶

where K =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇°𝑥 𝐶

2.6 DIRECT SHEAR TEST

2.6.1 OBJECTIVE

To determine the shearing strength of the soil using the direct shear
apparaus.

2.6.2 NEED AND SCOPE

In many engineering problems such as design of foundation, retaining

walls, slab bridges, pipes, sheet piling, the value of the angle of internal
friction and cohesion of the soil involved are required for the design.
Direct shear test is used to predict these parameters quickly. The
laboratory report cover the laboratory procedures for determining these
values for cohesionless soils.

2:63 APPARATUS

1. Direct shear box apparatus

2. Loading frame (motor attached).

3. Dial gauge.

4. Proving ring.

5. Tamper.

6. Straight edge.

7. Balance to weigh up to 200 mg.

8. Aluminium container.

9. Spatula.
2.6.4 KNOWLEDGE OIF EQUUMIEN'T

Strain controlled direct shear machine consists of shear box, soil

container, loading unit, proving ring, dial gauge to measure shear
deformation and volume changes. A two piece square shear box is one
type of soil container used.

A proving ring is used to indicate the shear load taken by the soil initiated
in the shearing plane.

2.6.5 PROCEIDUIRE

1. Check the inner dimension of the soil container.

2. Put the parts of the soil container together.

3. Calculate the volume of the container. Weigh the container.

4. Place the soil in smooth layers (approximately 10 mm thick). if a

dense sample is desired tamp the soil.

5. Weigh the soil container, the difference of these two is the weight
of the soil. Calculate the density of the soil.

6. Make the surface of the soil plane.

7. Put the upper grating on stone and loading block on top of soil.

8. Measure the thickness of soil specimen.

9. Apply the desired normal load.

10. Remove the shear pin.

11. Attach the dial gauge which measures the change of volume.
12. Record the initial reading of the dial gauge and calibration values.

13. Before proceeding to test check all adjustments to see that there is
no connection between two parts except sand/soil.

14. Start the motor. Take the reading of the shear force and record the
reading. 15. Take volume change readings till failure.

16. Add 5.kg normal stress 0.5 kg/cm2 and continue the experiment till
failure

17. Record carefully all the readings. Set the dial gauges zero,
before starting the experiment

2.6.6 GENERAL REMARKS

 In the shear box test, the specimen is not failing along its weakest
plane but along a predetermined or induced failure plane i.e.
horizontal plane separating the two halves of the shear box. This is
the main drawback of this test. Moreover, during loading, the state
of stress cannot be evaluated. It can be evaluated only at failure
condition i.e. Mohr's circle can be drawn at the failure condition
only. Also failure is progressive.
 Direct shear test is simple and faster to operate. As thinner
specimens are used in shear box, they facilitate drainage of pore
water from a saturated sample in less time. This test is also useful
to study friction between two materials one material in lower half
of box and another material in the upper half of box.
 The angle of shearing resistance of sands depends on state of
compaction, coarseness of grains, particle shape and roughness of
grain surface and grading. It varies between 28° (uniformly graded
 sands with round grains in very loose state) to 46° (well graded
sand with angular grains in dense state). O The volume change in
sandy soil is a complex phenomenon depending on gradation,
particle shape, state and type of packing, orientation of principal
planes, principal stress ratio, stress history, magnitude of minor
principal stress, type of apparatus, test procedure, method of
preparing specimen etc. In general loose sands expand and dense
sands contract in volume on shearing. There is a void ratio at which
either expansion contraction in volume takes place. This void ratio
is called critical void ratio. Expansion or contraction can be
inferred from the movement of vertical dial gauge during shearing.
 The friction between sand particles is due to sliding and rolling
friction and interlocking action. The ultimate values of shear
parameter for both loose sand and dense sand approximately attain
the same value so, if angle of friction value is calculated at ultimate
stage, slight disturbance in density during sampling and preparation
of test specimens will not have much effect.

2.7 CONSOLTEDATION TEST

2.7.1 OBJECTIVE

To determine the settlements due to primary consolidation of soil by

conducting one dimensional test.

2.7.2 NEED AND SCOPE

The test is conducted to determine the settlement due to primary

consolidation.

To determine:
  Rate of consolidation under normal load.
 Degree of consolidation at any time.
 Pressure-void ratio relationship.
 Coefficient of consolidation at various pressures.
 Compression index.

From the above information it will be possible for us to predict the time
rate and extent of settlement of structures founded on fine-grained soils. It
is also helpful in analyzing the stress history of soil. Since the settlement
analysis of the foundation depends mainly on the values determined by
the test, this test is very important for foundation design.

2.7.3 APPARATUS

 Consoled meter consisting essentially

 A ring of diameter = 60mm and height = 20mm
 Two porous plates or stones of silicon carbide, aluminium oxide or
porous metal.
 Guide ring.
 Outer ring.
 Water jacket with base.
 Pressure pad.
 Rubber basket.
 Loading device consisting of frame, lever system, loading yoke
dial gauge fixing device and weights.
 Dial gauge to read to an accuracy of 0.002mm.
 Thermostatically controlled oven.
 Stopwatch to read seconds.
 Sample extractor.
  Miscellaneous items like balance, soil trimming tools, spatula,
filter papers, sample containers.

2,7A IPIRINCIIDAL INVOLVED

When a compressive load is applied to soil mass, a decrease in its volume

takes place, the decrease in volume of soil mass under stress is known as
compression and the property of soil mass pertaining to its tendency to
decrease in volume under pressure is known as compressibility. In a
saturated soil mass having its void filled with incompressible water,
decrease in volume or compression can take place when water is expelled
out of the voids. Such a compression resulting from a long time static
load and the consequent escape of pore water is termed as consolidation.
Then the load is applied on the saturated soil mass, the entire load is
carried by pore water in the beginning. As the water starts escaping from
the voids, the hydrostatic pressure in water gets gradually dissipated and
the load is shifted to the soil solids which increases effective on them, as
a result the soil mass decrease in volume. The rate of escape of water
depends on the permeability of the soil.

From the sample tube, eject the sample into the consolidation ring. The
sample should project about one cm from outer ring. Trim the sample
smooth and flush with top and bottom of the ring by using a knife. Clean
the ring from outside and keep it ready from weighing.

Re-moulded sample:

 Choose the density and water content at which samples has to be

compacted from the moisture density relationship.
 Calculate the quantity of soil and water required to mix and
compact.
  Compact the specimen in compaction mould in three layers using
the standard rammers.
 Eject the specimen from the mould using the sample extractor.

2.7,5 PROCEDURE

 Saturate two porous stones either by boiling in distilled water about

15 minute or by keeping them submerged in the distilled water for
4 to 8 hrs. Wipe away excess water. Fittings of the Consoled meter
which is to be enclosed shall be moistened.
 Assemble the consoled meter, with the soil specimen and porous
stones at top and bottom of specimen, providing a filter paper
between the soil specimen and porous stone. Position the pressure
pad centrally on the top porous stone.
 Mount the mould assembly on the loading frame, and center it such
that the load applied is axial.
 Position the dial gauge to measure the vertical compression of the
specimen. The dial gauge holder should be set so that the dial
gauge is in the begging of its releases run, allowing sufficient
margin for the swelling of the soil, if any.
 Connect the mould assembly to the water reservoir and the sample
is allowed to saturate. The level of the water in the reservoir should
be at about the same level as the soil specimen.
 Apply an initial load to the assembly. The magnitude of this load
should be chosen by trial, such that there is no swelling. It should
be not less than 50 g/cm3 for ordinary soils & 25 g/cm2 for very
soft soils. The load should be allowed to stand until there is no
change in dial gauge readings for two consecutive hours or for a
maximum of 24 hours.
 Note the final dial reading under the initial load. Apply first load of
intensity 0.1 kg/cm2 start the stop watch simultaneously. Record
thedial gauge readings at various time intervals. The dial gauge
readings are taken until 90% consolidation is reached. Primary
consolidation is gradually reached within 24 hrs.
 At the end of the period, specified above take the dial reading and
time reading. Double the load intensity and take the dial readings at
various time intervals. Repeat this procedure fir successive load
increments. The usual loading intensity are as follows: 0.1, 0.2, 0.5,
1, 2, 4 and 8 kg/cm2.
 After the last loading is completed, reduce the load to of the value
of the last load and allow it to stand for 24 hrs. Reduce the load
further in steps of the previous intensity till an intensity of 0.1
kg/cm2 is reached. Take the final reading of the dial gauge.
 Reduce the load to the initial load, keep it for 24 hrs. And note the
final readings of the dial gauge. O Quickly dismantle the specimen
assembly and remove the excess water on the soil specimen in
oven, note the dry weight of it.
 CHAPTER-3

METHODS

The geotechnical engineers design foundation and other structures on the

ground after investigation of the type of soil, its characteristics and its
extent. if the soil is good at a shallow depth below the ground surface,
shallow foundation, such as footings and rafts, are generally most
economical. However, if the soil just below the ground surface is not
good but a strong stratum exists at a great depth, deep foundations, such
as wells and caissons, are required. Deep foundations are quite expensive
and are cost effective only In the case where the structure to be supported
is quite heavy and huge. Sometimes, the soil conditions are very poor
even at a great depth, and it is not practical to construct even deep
foundations. In such cases, various methods of ground improvement can
be used to improve the ground conditions. Although the ground
improvement techniques are also quite expensive, yet they may be prove
to be cost effective in many cases. The main objective of the ground
improvement is to improve the characteristics of the soil at the site. It
usually consists of increasing the shear strength and decreasing the
compressibility of the soil so that the bearing capacity of the soil is
increased and the settlements of the structures built on it are reduced.
Sometimes, the aim is to decrease the permeability of the soil. The
methods of compaction and soil stabilization respectively are used for soil
improvement. They are mainly used for the improvement of soil for the
constructions of highways, runways, embankments, earth darns, etc.
Sometimes, they are also used for ground improvement mainly for
foundation. Ground improvement is a rapidly developing field because
good sites for construction are becoming limited day by day. The
geotechnical engineer has the challenge of construction of foundations at
the sites which were previously considered unsuitable and unacceptable.
Most of these techniques were developed in the last 3-4 decades.

3.1 IMPROVEMT,OH COHESIVE SOILS

Cohesive soils such as soft clay have large void ratio and high water
content. Ground improvement is required to reduce the void ratio and the
water content to increase its strength so that the bearing capacity is
increased and the compressibility is decreased. The following methods
are commonly used in practice-

 Pre-compression O Sand drains

 Wick drains
 Stone columns The above methods are briefly discussed in the
following sections.

3.1.1 PRECOMPRESSION

Pre-compression is also known as preloading or surcharging. The method

of ]pre-compression of soil is generally used for soft clays and silty soils.
In pre-compression, the ground is covered with a temporary surcharge
before construction. Generally, a surcharge fill of suitable height is raised
on the ground to cause pre-compression of the soil below. The surcharge
fill is kept on the ground for a long time to cause consolidation of the soil
in the ground. The surcharge fill is removed before the construction of the
structure on the ground. The height of surcharge varies 3 to
10m.perimeter of surcharge is 10m around the site uniform. The principle
of surcharge is defined by the theory of consolidation theory.

Advantages of Pre-Compression Method

  The method is /mite simple and convenient
 The method is inexpensive if the soil is available in the vicinity.
 The progress of the consolidation of the soil can be easily
monitored by Installing simple settlement plate and pies meter.

Disadvantages

 Time of consolidation is quite long.

 The method requires large space around the site of construction to
raise surcharge fill. If the site is in the congested area the method
cannot be used.
 The method is expensive if suitable material for surcharge fill is
not easily available at a low cost.

3.1.2 SAND DRAIINS

Sand drains are commonly used to reduce the time of consolidation.

Because of Sand drains in a soil deposit the length of the drainage path is
decreased and as water flows horizontally in a sand drain thus
consequently the time required to achieve a certain degree of
consolidation is considerably reduced. A sand drain is constructed by
driving a casing into the ground and then filling the casing with suitable
grade sand. The casing is then gradually withdrawn leaving the sand in
the ground. A number of such drains are installed.

The typical design parameters are-

(a)Radius of sand drain=0,2to0.3m

(b)Spacing of sand drains=2to5m

(c)Depth of sand drains in embankment=3to 35m

Sand blanked with a thickness of 0.6 to lm is placed over the top of all the
sand drains to connect them. On the sand blanket a surcharge load is
placed. The surcharge load is generally in the form of the dumped soil.
Due to surcharge load the consolidation of the clay deposit occurs. The
drainage occurs in the horizontal and vertical directions. The sand drains
accelerate the process of dissipation of excess pore water created by the
surcharge. Thus the rate of consolidation is considerably increased.

Sometime the sand drains are provided in the permanent embankments

constructed for highway, canal etc. directly without the surcharge fill.
Thus the expense of the surcharge fill is saved.

The main disadvantage of sand drains is that they are quite expensive
3.1.3 WICK DRAINS

Wick drains are prefabricated vertical drains consisting of corrugated or

fluted plastic ribbons covered by geo-synthetic membranes. At the top of
the wick drains there is a header drains to discharge the pore water. The
wick drains are usually of the shape of a strip, about 100 min wide and 5=
thick. Because wick drains are less expensive than the sand drains, they
have almost replaced the sand drains in modern construction.

For installation of wick drains in clay deposit, a tube is commonly used.

The wick drains is held in a tube and is pushed into the soft clay deposit.
The tube then gradually withdrawn leaving behind the wick drains in the
clay deposit. Recently special equipment and machines have been
developed for the installation of the wick drains to expedite work.

Advantage of Wick Drains

 Installation of wick drains is quite easy and convenient. The

equipment used is small. Drilling is not required to make holes in
the clay deposit.
 The drainage is good. Once the pore water enters the wick drains,
there is little resistance to flow.
 The wick drains also increase the tensile strength of the clay
deposit to some extent.

3.1.4 STONE COLUMN

Ground improvement in case of soft clays can be achieved by installing

stone columns in it. Stone columns are constructed by making holes in
the deposit and then filling these holes with gravel (or small stones) of
size 6 to 40 mm.
 For making a hole in the soil deposit, a fibro lot is used. A fibro lot
consists of cylindrical tube, about 2 to 3 m long and 300 to 500 mm in
diameter fitted with jets at bottom and at the top. A rotating eccentric
mass inside the fibro lot causes a horizontal vibratory motion. The fibro
lot is sunk into the clay deposit using the lower water jets. The hole
should extend up to a firm stratum below. The gravel is then filled into
the hole and dandified by fibro lot as it is taken out. Thus a stone column
is formed. The required number of stone column are constructed. The
spacing of the stone column is generally between 1.5 to 3 m centre to
centre. The diameter of the stone columns is usually 0.5 to 0.75 m.
Stone columns act as vertical drains like sand drains.
Consequently, the rate of consolidation is increased. Besides working as
drains, the stone columns reinforce the soft clay deposit because the soft
clay is replaced by strong stone columns at discrete points (The action is
somewhat similar to that of vertical steel bars in R.C.0 column). Because
the stiffness of the stone

columns is very large as compared to that of soft clay a large portion of

the superimposed load is carried by stone columns. Thus the bearing
capacity of the clay deposit is increased and the settlements are reduced.
Stone columns are not effective for thick deposits of highly organic clays
and silt.
3.2 NIVIIPROVEMEN'T COHEMONTLESS SOILS

Cohesion less soils when in loose condition with N-value less than 10,
have a low shear strength, and hence the bearing capacity is quite low. If
a deposit of loose sand exists at the site of construction, the ground
improvement can be achieved by inducing strong vibrations in the ground
to density the soil. Thus the relative density (or density index) of the sand
is increased. Consequently, the N-value and the bearing capacity is
increased. A number of methods have been developed to density the
cohesion less soils. The following methods are commonly used in
practice-

1. Fibro flotation
2. Terra Probe

3. Dynamic Impaction

4. Compaction by blasts

5. Compaction piles

These methods are briefly discussed in the following sections.

3.2.1 VIIBROFLOTATION

A fibro lot is a cylindrical tube consisting of a vibrator and jets at the top
and bottom. The fibro lot is sunk into the loose soil up to the desired
depth using the lower .water jet, As the water comes out of the lower jet,
it creates a momentary quick condition ahead of the fibro lot. ;Because of
the quick condition, the shear strength of the cohesion less soil is
considerably reduced and the fibro lot settles under its own weight. When
the desired depth has been reached, the vibrator is activated. The fibro lot
then vibrates laterally and causes the compaction of the soil in the
horizontal direction up to radius of 1.5 m.

After the compaction of the soil is carried out in the lateral condition, the
water from the lower jet is transferred to the top jet and the pressure is
reduced so that it has just enough force to carry the sand poured at the top
of the hole to the bottom of the hole. Additional sand is continually
dropped into the space (crater) around the fibro lot. By raising the fibro
lot in stages and simultaneously backfilling the hole with sand, the entire
depth of the hole is filled with compacted sand. Repeating the process at a
number of points on the ground, the entire soil deposit is compacted. The
spacing of the holes is usually kept between 2 to 3 m on a grid pattern.
Varo flotation method has been effectively used for compaction of loose
sand deposits up to 20 m depth. The relative density achieved in most
cases is 70% or more. Varo flotation is a type of vireo-compaction
because compaction is done with the help of vibration. Varo-compaction
methods are, however, effective only when the silt content in the
cohesioniess soil is less than 12-15 percent and the clay content is less
than 3 percent.
3.2.2 TERRA PROBE METHOD

Terra probe method, like Varo flotation, is a technique of vireo-

compaction of cohesion less soils, The terra probe consists of an open
ended pipe about 75 cm in diameter. It is provided with a vibratory pile
driver at its bottom. The vibratory pile driver when activated gives
vertical vibrations to the terra probe and it goes down into the sand. After
it has reached the desired depth, the terra probe is gradually raised
upward while the vibratory driver continues to operate. Thus, the soil
within and around the probe is dandified. The operation is repeated at a
number of locations at the site. The spacing of the holes is usually kept
about 1.5 m. The method can be used up to a depth of 20 m. The method
is ideal for the compaction of saturated sand deposits.

At the sites where the water table is deep, water jets are fitted to the terra
probe to assist the penetration and compaction of soil. The terra probe
method is considerably faster than the vireo flotation method but it is less
effective. As the terra probe method does not require backfilling of sand,
it can even be used at offshore locations.

In the terra probe method, the zone of influence is considerably smaller

than that in the vireo flotation method and the relative density achieved is
also lower.

3.2.3 DYNAMIC COMPACTION

Dynamic compaction is also known as dynamic consolidation, heavy

tamping or pounding method. In this method, a heavy weight about 2 to
50 tons (with mass 2 mg to 50 mg) is dropped on the ground from a
height of 7 m to 35 m. The heavy weight used is also called a pounder. It
consists of a concrete or steel block. A crane is used to lift the pounder to
the required height and then it is allowed to fall freely under gravity on
the ground surface. A pit (or crater) is formed at the point where the
pounder hits the ground. At each point, 5 to 10 poundings are given. The
operation is repeated at other locations. The depth of crater at each
location is 1 to 3 m. The ground surface soil is disturbed because of
poundings. The ground surface is levelled after the pounding operation is
over. The upper layer of the ground surface is compacted and graded
properly afterwards.

Dynamic compaction method is quite effective for compaction of loose

sands ad silly soils. The method has also been used for compacting soils
containing boulders and sanitary land fills. Good densification usually
occurs up to a depth of 5 to 10 m. At greater depths, densification is less.
The method is also used for sands prone to liquefaction and for
collapsible soils and other soils prone to excessive settlement.

The depth D up to which good densification occurs can be approximately

determined from the following relation:

Where,

D = 1/2x[MH1]1/2

Where,

R -radius of influence of vibrations (m)

M -mass of pounder (Mg)

H -height of drop (m)

3.2.4 COMPACTION BY BLASTS

In compaction by blasts, buried explosives are used to density loose

sandy soils. in this method, a series of holes is bored and explosives are
placed in them. The holes are filled back with soil. These explosives
when detonated cause shock waves in the ground causing densification of
loose surrounding soil. Explosives charges usually consist of about 60%
dynamite and 30% special gelatine dynamite and ammonite. The charges
are generally placed at two-third the thickness of the stratum to be
dandified. The spacing of the holes is kept between 3 to 8 m, Three to
five blasts are generally required at each point.

The radius of influence of the compaction from the blast point is given by
the relation.
 R = [M/C]1/3

Where,

R -radius of influence (m)

M -mass of explosive charge (kg)

C -constant (0.04 for 60% dynamite)

The surface soil up to a depth of about 1 m gets displaced in a random

manner. This surface zone is compacted by the conventional methods,
using rollers.

Densification by blasts is effective up to a depth of about 25 m. The

method is quite effective when the sand is clean (with no fines) and is
fully saturated. The shock waves cause liquefaction of sand. It is followed
by densification of sand. The method is not very effective in the case of
partially saturated sands because compressive stresses develop due to
capillary action, which prevent the sand particles from taking closer
position.

Because of harmful vibrations in the adjacent structures and safety

precautions required, the method is commonly used for remote sites.
Moreover, a large depression is formed at the ground surface after blasts.
Surface settlements up to 80 cm have been recorded at some sites.
3.2,5 COMPACTION PILES

Cohesion less soils can be dandified by installing compaction piles. For

construction pile at the site, a close-ended hollow tubular pipe is first
driven into the ground. The loose soil surroundings the pipe is compacted
due to vibration during its driving. The pipe is then extracted and the hole
is backfilled with sand to form a compaction pile.

Compaction piles are constructed at several locations on a grid pattern.

Thus a uniform deposit much denser than the original soil is formed.

The radius of influence around the compaction pile in which the sand is
dandified depends upon the diameter of the pile. The radius of influence
is about 3 to 4 times the pile diameter. For good results, the silt content
should not be greater than 15 percent in the soil. Moreover, the clay
content should not be greater than 3%.
33 GENERAL METHODS FOR GROUND IMPROVEMENT

The following methods can be used for all types of soils.

1. Removal and replacement of soil

2. Deep mixing of soil

3. Grouting These methods are discussed below,

3.3.1 REMOVAL AND REPLACEMENT OF SOIL

When the thickness of the stratum of the poor soil is small and the total
quantity of soil to be removed is not very large, it can be excavated and
removed. The excavated soil is replaced with a good quality soil in the
stratum. The method is cost effective only when good quality soil is
available in the vicinity for replacement. In case, the large quantity of soil
is involved and the good quality soil is not available near the site, this
method becomes expensive. The method has been successfully used for
the replacement of collapsible soils. In some cases, the excavated soil
itself is used for replacement after properly treating it and compacting it.
The method is generally practical only when the water table is low so that
the earthwork operations can be done in dry condition without pumping
of water. The method is quite simple and convenient. Manual labour or
the conventional earthmoving machines can be used for excavation and
backfilling.
3.3.2 GROUND IMPROVEMENT DEEP MIXING

Ground improvement can be done by mixing either cement or lime with

the soil deep in the ground. Different type of machines have been used for
deep mixing. A special type of auger with a hollow drill is commonly
used. The auger is inserted by rotating it deep into the ground to the
required depth .A rig is normally required for auger driving. The auger is
provided with a mixing tool at its bottom tip.

The auger is latter withdrawn and the cement slurry is passed through the
drill rod to the mixing tool. The slurry is mixed with the soil in the
vicinity of the mixing tool. The slurry is mixed mechanically with the
soil. Thus a vertical column of the stabilized soil is formed. The diameter
of the column is equal to the diameter of auger. A number of such
columns are formed in the ground. The column is close enough to each
other so that there is some overlapping. Thus the whole of the soil at a
large depth is stabilized. The deep mixing method can be used for
stabilization of deep deposits of weak soil such as soft clays.
 303.3 GROUTING FOR GROUND HMIPROVEMENT

Grouting is a general method of ground improvement which is effective

not only for sands and silts but also for rocks. Grouting consisting of
injection of a grout into the ground. There are mainly two types of grouts
which are commonly used- cement grout, and chemical grout. Cement
grout is formed by adding water to cement and making a slurry that
hydrates after it has been injected into the ground. Thus a solid mass is
formed around the point of injection. Chemical grout contains chemicals
such as silicates and resins. Chemical grouts are used for injection into
fine sand or silt deposits because cement grout is not effective for such
soils. However, chemical grouts are quite expensive and are used only in
special cases. Moreover, chemical grouts can be toxic and corrosive.

Methods of Grouting

 intrusion grouting
 Compaction grouting
 Permeation grouting
 Jet grouting
 CHAPTER-4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSTION

4.1 OBSERVATIONS

The following results were obtained from the before mentioned tests
conducted on the soil samples-

INDRANAGAR-

Passing sieve-

1.75 mm- 100

1.00 mm- 100

0.425 mm- 100

0.0075 mm- 99

% Particle size --

Gravel (>4.75 mm) — 0.0

Sand (4.75- 0.075 mm) — 1.0

Silt (0.075-0.002 mm) — 68.0

Clay (>0.002 mm) — 31.0

Atterberg's Limits —

Liquid Limit (LL %) — 47

Plastic Limit (PL %) — 24

LS. Group classification —

MI (inorganic silt of Intermediate plasticity)

% Moisture content (W) — 29.0

Indices-

Plasticity index (PI) = (LL- PI %) — 23

Liquidity Index ((W- PL)/PI %) — 0.217

Dry unit weight of soil (Yd gm.)— 15.6

Specific Gravity (G) — 2.72

Void ratio (e)((G* Yw / YD) — 1) — 0.710

Porosity (n) = (e/ (1+e)) — 0.415

Shear Parameters-

Cohesion (c Kg/cm2) — 0.0

Angle of internal friction (w deg.) — 28

Shear Strength (c + Shear stress* tan (0) Kg/cm2) - 0.265

Compressive index- 0.151

GOMTI NAGAR —

passing sieve- 1.76 mm- 100

1.01 mm- 100

0.425 mm- 100 0.0075 mm- 94

% Particle size

Gravel (>4.75 mm) — 0.0

Sand (4.75- 0.075 mm) — 6.0

Silt (0.075-0.002 mm) — 78.0

Clay (>0.002 min) — 16.0

Atterberg's Limits

Liquid Limit (LL %) — 33

Plastic Limit (PL %) — 20

I.S. Group classification --

ML (inorganic silt of low plasticity)

% Moisture content (W) — 22.7

Indices-

Plasticity Index (PI) = (LL- PI %) — 13

Liquidity Index ((W- PL)/PI %) — 0.208

Dry unit weight of soil (Yj gm.) - 16.3

Specific Gravity (G) — 2.67

Void ratio (e) = ((G* YW / YD) — 1) — 0.607

Porosity (n) = (e/ (1+e)) — 0.377

Shear Parameters-

Cohesion (c Kg/cm2) — 0.32

Angle of internal friction (u) deg.) — 11

Shear Strength (c + Shear stress* tan (o) Kg/cm2) — 0.417

Compressive index- 0.150

ALAMBAGH —

% passing sieve-

1.77 mm- 97

1.02 mm- 95

0.425 inm- 92

0.0075 mm- 89

% Particle size

Gravel (>4.75 mm) — 3.0

Sand (4.75- 0.075 mm) — 8.0

Silt (0.075-0.002 mm) 75.0 Clay (>0.002 mm) — 14.0

Atterberg's Limits --

Liquid Limit (LL %) — 30

Plastic Limit (PL %) — 18

I.S. Group classification —

ML (inorganic silt of low plasticity)

% Moisture content — 22.2

Indices-

Plasticity Index (PI) = (LL- PI %) —

12 Liquidity Index ((W- PL)/PI %) — 0.35

Dry unit soil(Yd gm.)--- 16.3

Specific Gravity (G) — 2.67

Void ratio (e) = ((G* Y, / YD) — 1) — 0.607

Shear Parameters

Cohesion (c Kg/cm2) — 0.32

Angle of internal friction (o) deg,) — 11

Shear Strength (c + Shear stress* tan (w) Kg/cm2) — 0.417

Compressive index- 0.146

CANTONMENT AREA

% passing sieve-

1.78 mm- 100

1.03 mm- 100

0.425 mm- 100

0.0075 mm- 92
% Particle size —

Gravel (>4.75 mm) — 0.0

Sand (4.75- 0.075 mm) — 8.0

Silt (0.075-0.002 mm) — 79.0

Clay (>0.002 mm) — 13.0

Atterberg's Limits —

Liquid Limit (LL %) — 30

Plastic Limit (PL %) 19

I.S. Group classification —

ML (inorganic silt of low plasticity)

% Moisture content (W) — 24.6

Indices-

Plasticity Index (PI) = (LL- PI %) — 11

Liquidity Index ((W- PL)/PI %) — 0.509

Dry unit weight of soil (Yd gm.)__=1— 16.2

Specific Gravity (G) — 2.49

Void ratio (e) = ((G* Y, / YD) — 1) — 0.508

Porosity (n) = (e/ (1+e)) — 0.337

Shear Parameters-

Cohesion (c Kg/cm2) — 0.30

Angle of internal friction (e) deg.) — 12

Shear Strength (c + Shear stress* tan (o) Kg/cm2) — 0.406

Compressive index- 0.139

ASHIANA-

% Passing sieve-

1.79 mm- 100

1.04 mm- 100

0.425 mm- 100

0.0075 mm- 93

% Particle size —

Gravel (>4.75 mm) — 0.0

Sand (4.75- 0.075 mm) — 5.0

Silt (0.075-0.002 mm) — 66.0

Clay (>0.002 mm) — 29.0

Atterberg 's Limits —

Liquid Limit (LL %) — 41

Plastic Limit (PL %) — 21

I.S. Group classification —

MI (inorganic silt of intermediate plasticity)

% Moisture content (W) — 27.1

Indices-

Plasticity Index (PI) = (LL- PI %) — 20

Liquidity Index ((W- PL)/PI %) — 0.305

Dry unit weight t of soil (Yd gm.)— 16.1

specific Gravity (G) -- 2.72

Void ratio (e) = ((G* Yw / YD) — 1) — 0.657

Porosity (n) (e/ (1+e)) — 0.397

Shear Parameters-

Cohesion (c Kg/cm2) — 0.46

Angle of internal friction (w deg.) — 7

Shear Strength (c + Shear stress* tan (w) Kg/cm2) — 0.521

Compressive index- 0.137 402

4.2 CONCLUSIONS

Based on Plasticity Index:

Classification of soils based on plasticity is as follows-

0 Non-plastic
0
0-5 Slightly plastic
5-10 Low plasticity
10-20 Medium plasticity
20-40 High plasticity
>40 Very high plasticity
Thus from the results it is evident that soil in Indarnagar is most plastic
and the soil in cantonment area least plastic.

Soil in Jankipuram is of medium plasticity, white in all other areas, it is of

low plasticity.

Based on Liquidity Index:

Liquidity index of soil in Indranagar is the least and it is greatest in

Cantonment area.

Greater liquidity index denotes greater unchained shear strength.

Based on Specific Gravity:

The specific gravity of soil samples obtained from all 5 localities lie in
the range of 2.65-2.85, thus all the soils are free from considerable
amount of organic and porous content. Neither do they contain a
considerable amount of heavy particles.

Based on I.S. Classification:

Soils in Alambagh, Cantonment area and Gomtinagar is of ML type i.e.

Inorganic silt of low plasticity and the soils obtained from Indranagar and
Ashiyana are of MI tyu i.e. inorganic silt of intermediate plasticity.
Based on void Ratio:

Void ratio of soil is greatest in Indranagar and least in Cantonment area.

Thus the soil tends to minimize in volume under loading in Indranagar
and it tends to increase in Cantonment area. Soil in Indranagar is most
permeable and it is the least permeable in Cantonment area,

Based on porosity:

Porosity of soil in Indranagar is the maximum and it is least in soil in

Cantonment area.

Based on Shear Strength of soil:

Shear strength of soil in Indranagar is the least and it is greatest in soil in

Ashiyana. The soil with more shear strength is able to develop more shear
resistance.

Based on Compressive index of soil:

Com ressive Index of soil in Indranalar is the s eatest and it is least in soil
in Cantonment area. Soil with more compression index undergoes more
settlement due to consolidation.
41.3 DVERALL RESULT

From the &Dove conclusions, It is evident that the structures are

comparativerly most stable In Ashiyana and Cantonment area and least
stable in Indranagar.

4.4 SUGESSIMNS

The following measures could be adopted to increase the properties of

soils, where construction has to be done-

1. Ground improvement through the following methods-

 Chemical—Addition of chemicals such as lime, cement or other

chemicals
 Mechanical—
 Densification
 Preloading
 Thermal—By heating the ground
 Electrical—Electro-osmosis
 By inclusions-Reinforced earth ground.

2. In-situ under reamed soil foundation could be provided.

All these methods of ground improvement of any site have been

previously explained in detail.
 REFERENCE

REERENCES BOOKS

i. Shashi K Gulhati & Manoj Datta (2005), Geotechnical Engineering

Principles and Practices Pearson Education Ltd.

ii. Prasad (2006), Soil Dynamics & Earth Quake Engineering,

Prentice-Hall of India.

iii. Varghese (2006), Foundation Engineering, Prentice —Hall of

India. iv. ivFoundation engineering — S.Hansbo

v. Principles of Foundation engineering — Braja M. Das

JOURNALS

i. Possible relationships between compression and recompression

indices of a low-plasticity clayey soil- Zeki Gunduz and Hasan Amian

ii. Comparative Dwivedi

iii. International Dwivedi

study of buildings based on soil properties- Mohit

journal of engineering science inventions — Mohit

iv. Australian journal of Basic and applied sciences — 7(2): 576-581,

2013 v. International Journal of recent development in engineering
and technology- volume 2, issue 3, March 2014
WEBSYMES

[1] www.googie.com

[2] www.wikipedia.org

[3] www.constructionknowledge.net

[4] www.medwelljournals.com

[5] www.depi.vic.gov.au