INDEX

CLASS - VIII (VISTAAR-EXPERT)

S. NO. SUBJECT NAME PAGE NO.

SPECIMEN COPY
1. PHYSICS 1-6

2. CHEMISTRY 7-27

3. MATHEMATICS 28-36

4. BIOLOGY 37-42

6. MENTAL ABILITY 43-46

7. ANSWER KEY 47

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 MOTION

EQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION  v 2  u2 

s 
 2a 
 
(a) 1 st Equation of Motion :
2as = v2 – u2 or v2 = u2 + 2as ......(iv)
Consider a body having initial velocity u. Suppose
it is subjected to a uniform acceleration a so that (d) Distance covered in n th second :
after time t its final velocity becomes v. Now we Distance covered by a body in t second is
know,
1 2
change in velocity S = ut + at .
Acceleration = 2
Time
Distance covered by a body along a straight line in
v–u n second is
a=
t 1 2
or v = u + at .......(i) Sn = un + an .......(v)
2
Distance covered by a body along a straight line in
(b) 2 nd Equation of Motion :
( n–1) second is
Suppose a body has an initial velocity u and uniform
1
acceleration ‘a’ for time t so that its final velocity Sn–1 = u (n –1) + a (n–1)2 .......(vi)
2
becomes v. The distance travelled by moving body
in time t is s then the average velocity = (v+u) /2 .  The distance covered by the body in nth second
Distance travelled = Average velocity × time will be- :
snth = sn – sn –1
u v   u  u  at 
s=  t  s=  t
 2   2  1 2 1
 snth = un + an – { u (n–1) + a (n–1)2 }
2 2
(as v=u+at)
1 2 1
Snth = un + an – {nu –u + a (n2+1 –2n)}
 2u  at 
 t  2ut  at 2 2 2
s=  s=
 2  2
1 2 an 2 a
Snth = un + an – {un – u +  – an}
2 2 2
1 2
s = ut  at .......(ii)
2
1 2 an2 a
Snth = un + an – un + u – – + an
2 2 2
(c) 3 rd Equation of Motion :

Distance travelled = Average velocity × time  1

Snth= u + a n – 
 2
u v 
s=  t .......(iii)
 2 
 2n – 1 
Snth= u+a  
 2 
v–u
from equation (i) t=
a
a
Snth= u+ (2n – 1 ) .......(vii)
Substituting the value of t in equation (iii), we get 2

 v – u  v  u 
s=   
 a  2 

PAGE # 11
TO SOLVE NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
(i) If a body is dropped from a height then its initial
velocity u = 0 but has acceleration (acting). If a
body starts from rest its initial velocity u = 0 .
ILLUSTRATION
1. A car is moving at a speed of 50 km/h. Two seconds
there after it is moving at 60 km/h. Calculate the
acceleration of the car.

(ii) If a body comes to rest its final velocity v = 0 or, 5 250

Sol. Here u = 50 km/h = 50  m/s = m/s
if a body reaches the highest point after being thrown 18 18
upwards its final velocity v = 0 but has acceleration
( acting). 5 300
and v = 60 km/h = 60  = m/s
18 18
(iii) If a body moves with uniform velocity, its
acceleration is zero i.e. a = 0.
300 250
– 50
v–u 18 18
(iv) Motion of a body is called free fall if only force Since a = = = 18
t 2
acting on it is gravity (i.e. earth’s attraction). 2

50
= = 1.39 m/s2
MOTION UNDER GRAVITY (UNIFORMLY 36
ACCELERATED MOTION)

The acceleration with which a body travels under

2. A car attains 54km/h in 20 s after it starts. Find the
gravity is called acceleration due to gravity g. Its
acceleration of the car.
value is 9.8 m/s2 ( or  10 m /s 2 ). If you have to
take g = 10 m/s2 then it must be mentioned in the Sol. u = 0 (as car starts from rest)
question otherwise take g = 9.8 m/s2.
5
v = 54 km/h = 54  = 15 m/s
18
(i) If a body moves upwards (or thrown up ) g is
taken negative (i.e. motion is against gravitation of
v–u 15 – 0
earth).  a= a= = 0.75 m/s2
t 20
So we can form the equation of motion like ,

1 2 2 3. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20

v = u – gt, h = u t – gt , v = u2 – 2 gh.
2 m/s. How high did the ball go ? (Take g = 9.8 m/s2).
(Here –g replaces a)
Sol. u = 20 m/s , a = – g = – 9.8 m/s2 (moving
(ii) If a body travels downwards (towards earth) then against gravity)
g is taken + ve. So equations of motion becomes v = 0 ( at highest point), s = ?
v2 – u2 = 2as
1 2 2 (0)2 – (20)2 = 2 (–g) s
v = u + gt , s = ut + gt , v = u2 + 2gh.
2
– 400 = 2 ( – 9.8) s
(Here g replaces a) – 400 = –19.6 s

(iii) f a body is projected vertically upwards with CIRCULAR MOTION

certain velocity then it returns to the same point of
When a particle moves in a plane such that its distance
projection with the same velocity in the opposite
from a fixed (or moving) point remains constant, then
direction.
its motion is known as circular motion with respect to
that fixed (or moving) point. The fixed point is called
(iv) The time for upward motion is the same as for
centre, and the distance of particle from it is called
the downward motion.
radius.

PAGE # 22

KINEMATICS OF CIRCULAR MOTION
(a) Angular Position :
To decide the angular position of a point in space we
need to specify (i) origin and (ii) reference line. The
angle made by the position vector w.r.t. origin, with
the reference line is called angular position. Clearly
angular position depends on the choice of the origin
as well as the reference line. Circular motion is a
two dimensional motion or motion in a plane.
Y r
b) Centripetal Force :
If there is no force acting on a body it will move in a
straight line (with constant speed). Hence if a body is
moving in a circular path or any curved path, there must
be some force acting on the body.
If speed of body is constant, the net force acting on the
body is along the inside normal to the path of the body
and it is called centripetal force.
mv 2
Centripetal force (Fc) = mac = = m 2 r

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

P'
P (a) Periodic Motion :
O r X When a body or a moving particle repeats its motion
along a definite path after regular intervals of time, its
motion is said to be Periodic Motion and interval of
Suppose a particle P is moving in a circle of radius r time is called time period or harmonic motion period
and centre O.
(T). The path of periodic motion may be linear, circular,
The angular position of the particle P at a given instant
elliptical or any other curve.
may be described by the angle  between OP and OX.
This angle  is called the angular position of the Eg.: Rotation of earth about the sun.
particle.
(b) Oscillatory Motion :
(b) Angular Displacement and Angular
Velocity : ‘To and Fro’ type of motion is called an Oscillatory
Motion. It need not be periodic and need not have
In a circular motion, the angular displacement of a body is
the angle subtended by the body at the centre in a given fixed extreme positions.
interval of time. t is represented by the symbol  (theta).
The angular displacement per unit time is called the Eg. : Motion of pendulum of a wall clock.
angular velocity. t is represented by the symbol  (omega). The oscillatory motions in which energy is conserved
Let a body moves along a circle of radius r and perform are also periodic.
a uniform circular motion. Let the body be at point P to The force/torque (directed towards equilibrium point)
start with and reach point Q after time t. acting in oscillatory motion is called restoring force/
Then, angular displacement =  PCQ =  and torque.
 Damped oscillations are those in which energy is
angular velocity  = (i.e.  =  t)
t consumed due to some resistive forces and hence
If the time period of the body is T, the angular total mechanical energy decreases.
displacement = 2c
(c) Definition of Simple Harmonic Motion :
Q
2 x If the restoring force/torque acting on the body in
Hence  =
T oscillatory motion is directly proportional to the
C r P
1 displacement of body/particle and is always directed
But = N (frequency)
T towards equilibrium position then the motion is called
There  = 2N Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM). It is the simplest (easy
to analysis) form of oscillatory motion.
For an arc of length, 
Linear distance = 

TYPES OF SHM
Angular displacement,  =
r
(a) Linear SHM :
Hence,  = r
For a time interval t, When a particle moves to and fro about an equilibrium
Linear velocity, v =
 point, along a straight line, then its motion is known as
t
linear SHM. A and B are extreme positions and M is
  v mean position.
Angular velocity,  = = rt =
t r
Hence, v = r. AM = MB = Amplitude
M
A B
PAGE # 33
 (b) Angular SHM : (d) Frequency (f) :

When body/particle is free to rotate about a given axis Number of oscillations completed in unit time interval
executing angular oscillations, then its motion is known is called frequency of oscillations.
as angular SHM.
1 ù
Equation of Simple Harmonic Motion : f=  , its units is Hz or s–1 .
T 2ð
The necessary and sufficient condition for SHM is F = – kx (e) Time period (T) :

Where k = Force constant or spring constant The smallest time interval after which the oscillation
x = displacement from mean position. repeats itself is called the time period.
or ma = – kx
2ð m
k T=  2ð
a=– x ù k
m
Here negative sign show that F will always be towards 4. For a particle performing SHM, equation of motion is
mean position or F and x are in opposite direction. given as a + 4x = 0. Find the time period ?
k (Here a is acceleration of particle)
 a = –2x ( Where  = )
m
It is the equation of SHM. Sol. a = –4x, 2 = 4,  = 2

CHARACTERISTICS OF SHM 2ð
T= = .
ù
(a) Displacement :
RELATIVE MOTION
It is defined as the distance of the particle from the
mean position at that instant. Displacement in SHM at Motion is a combined property of the object under study
time t is given by x = A sin (t +), here  is initial as well as the observer. It is always relative, there is no
phase. such thing like absolute motion or absolute rest. Motion
is always defined with respect to an observer or
reference frame.
extreme equilibrium Relative Motion In One Dimension :
extreme
postion postion postion Relative Position : It is the position of a particle w.r.t.
observer.
In general if position of A w.r.t. origin is xA and that of B w.r.t.
origin is xB then “Position of A w.r.t. B” – xAB is

x AB  x A  xB
A
B Amplitude Amplitude
xB
xAB
xA
 NOTE : In the figure shown, path of the particle is a
straight line. Origin B A
(b) Amplitude :
Relative Velocity :
It is the maximum value of displacement of the particle
Definition : Relative velocity of a particle A with respect
from the equilibrium position. to B is defined as the velocity with which A appears to
1 move if B is considered to be at rest. In other words, it
Amplitude = [distance between two extreme
2 is the velocity with which A appears to move as seen by
positions] B considering itself to be at rest.
It depends on the energy of the system. Relative velocity in one dimension :
If xA is the position of A w.r.t. ground, xB is position of B
(c) Angular Frequency () :
w.r.t. ground and xAB is position of A w.r.t. B then we can
say vA = velocity of A w.r.t. ground
2ð
=  2 ðf and its units is rad/s. vB = velocity of B w.r.t. ground
T
and vAB = velocity of A w.r.t. B
Thus

v AB  v A  vB
PAGE # 44
5. An object A is moving with 5m/s and B is moving with 8. A girl swims in a swimming pool of length 100 m.
20m/s in the same direction. (Positive x-axis) She swims from one end to another end and
(i) Find velocity of B with respect to A. reaches the starting point again in
(ii) Find velocity of A with respect to B
2 minutes. Then the average speed of the
Sol. (i) vB = +20m/s vA = +5m/s swimmer is :
vBA = vB – vA = +15m/s (A) 100 ms–1 (B) 0.83 ms–1
(ii) vB = +20m/s, vA = +15m/s
(C) 1.67 ms –1
(D) zero
vAB = vA – vB = – 15m/s
9. The acceleration of car that comes to stop from
a velocity of 10 m/s in distance of 25 m is :
Note : vBA= –vAB
(A) –2 m/s2 (B) –4 m/s2
(C) –8 m/s2 (D) –16 m/s2
EXERCISE
10. A stone is thrown in vertically upward direction
1. A body covers half the distance with a speed of with a velocity of 5m/s. If the acceleration of
20 m/s and the other half with a speed of 30 m/s. the stone during its motion be 10m/s 2 in
The average speed of the body during the whole downward direction, what will be the height
journey is :
attained by the stone ?
(A) Zero (B) 24 m/s
(A) 1.25 m (B) 1.50 m
(C) 25 m/s (D) None of these
(C) 2 m (D) 3.5 m
2. A body is thrown vertically upwards and rises
to a height of 10 m. The velocity with which the
11. A body with initial velocity 8 m/s moves along a
body was thrown upwards is (g = 9.8 m/s2) :
straight line with constant acceleration and
(A) 10 m/s (B) 20 m/s
(C) 14 m/s (D) None of these travels 640 m in 40s. Find the average velocity
during this interval.
3. A body strikes the floor vertically with a speed
u and rebounds at the same speed. The change (A) 8 m/s (B) 16 m/s
in speed would be : (C) 24 m/s (D) 32 m/s
(A) u (B) 3u
(C) 2u (D) Zero 12. A balloon starts rising from the ground with an
4. If a trolley starts from rest with an acceleration acceleration of 1.25 m/s2. After 8s a stone is
of 2 m/s2, the velocity of the body after 4s would released from the balloon. How much time stone
be : will take to reach the ground ? (g = 10 m/s2)
(A) 2 m/s (B) 8 m/s (A) 4 s (B) 2s
(C) 6 m/s (D) 4 m/s
(C) 2 2 s (B) 4 2 s
5. The speed of a body describing its motion is :
(A) direction (B) state
13. A ball is dropped from a height of 5m onto a
(C) type (D) rapidity
sandy floor and penetrates the sand upto 10cm
6. When the distance of an object travels is directly before coming to rest find the retardation in
sand, assuming it to be uniform.
proportional to the length of time, it is said to
(A) 9.8 m/s2 (B) 10 m/s2
travel with (C) 100 m/s 2
(D) 500 m/s2
(A) zero velocity
(B) constant speed
(C) constant acceleration 14. A body moving with a constant retardation in
(D) uniform velocity straight line travels 5.7m and 3.9 m in 6 th and
9th second respectively. When will the body
7. A body has uniform acceleration if its : come momentarily to rest ?
(A) speed changes at a uniform rate (A) 10 s (B) 15 s
(B) velocity changes at a uniform rate (C) 20 s (D) 25 s
(C) speed changes at non-uniform rate
(D) velocity remains constant

PAGE # 55
15. Two simple pendulums of length  and 4 are 16. At moon the weight of things become 1/6th
suspended from same point and brought aside of weight of earth . What is the ratio of time
together and released at the same time. If the
period of simple pendulum at earth to that on
time period of smaller pendulum is T there after
the moon.
how much time will they be together again and
moving in same direction. (A) 6 :1 (B) 6 : 1

 (C) 1 : 6 (D) 1 : 6
4

(A) T/2 (B) T

(C) 2T (D) None of these



PAGE # 66
 MATTER
INTRODUCTION
There are a large number of things around us which
we see and feel. For example, we can see a book in
front of us. A book occupies some space. The space
occupied by the book is called its volume. If we pick
up the book, we can also feel its weight. So, we
conclude that the book has some mass. We cannot
see the air around us, yet if we fill a balloon with air
and then weigh it carefully, we will find that not only
does air occupy space (bounded by the balloon), but
it also has mass.
Things like a book and air are examples of matter.
Other examples of matter are wood, cloth, paper, ice,
steel, water, oil etc. Further, that matter offers
resistance is borne out by the fact that we cannot
displace an object from one place to another without
applying some force. We have to apply force to pick
up a stone from the ground. Thus , matter can be
defined as follows -
Anything that occupies space, has mass and offers
resistance is called matter.
PHYSICAL NATURE OF MATTER
(a) Matter is Made up of Particles :
(i) Everything around us is made up of many tiny
pieces or particles.
(ii) Particles which make up the matter are constantly
moving.
(iii) Particles which make up matter are atoms or
molecules.
(i) Evidences for the presence of particles in matter :
Most of the evidences for the existence of particles in
matter and their motion come from the experiments
on diffusion and Brownian motion.
Evidence - 1
Dissolving a solid in a liquid : Take a beaker. Fill half
of it with water. Mark the level of water in the beaker.
Add some sugar to the water and dissolve it with the
help of a glass rod. You will see that the sugar has
disappeared, but there is no change in the level of
water.
Conclusion : This can be explained by assuming that
matter is not continuous, rather it is made up of
particles. Sugar contains a large number of separate
particles. These particles when dissolved in water
occupy the vacant spaces between the particles of
water. That is why, the water level in the beaker did
not rise. Had sugar been continuous, like a block of
wood, the water level in the beaker would have risen.
Experiment to show that matter is made of particles
Evidence - 2
Movement of pollen grains in water : The best
evidence for the existence and movement of particles
in liquids was given by Robert Brown in 1827. Robert
Brown suspended extremely small pollen grains in
water. On looking through the microscope, it was
found that the pollen grains were moving rapidly
throughout water in a very irregular way (or zig-zag
way).
Conclusion : Water is made up of tiny particles which
are moving very fast (The water molecules
themselves are invisible under the microscope
because they are very, very small). The pollen grains
move on the surface of water because they are
constantly being hit by the fast moving particles of
water. So, though the water particles (or water
molecules) are too small to be seen, but their effect
on the pollen grains can be seen clearly. The random
motion of visible particles (pollen grains) caused by
the much smaller invisible particles of water is an
example of Brownian motion (after the name of the
scientist Robert Brown who first observed this
phenomenon.)
Brownian motion : Zig-zag motion (in a very irregular
way) of particles is known as brownian motion.
Brownian motion can also be observed in gases.
Sometimes, when a beam of light enters in a room,
we can see tiny dust particles suspended in air which
are moving rapidly in a very random way. This is an
example of Brownian motion in gases. The tiny dust
particles move here and there because they are
constantly hit by the fast moving particles of air.
The existence of Brownian motion gives two
conclusions.
• Matter is made up of tiny particles.
• Particles of matter are constantly moving.
 Note :
Brownian motion increases on increasing the
temperature.
77
7
PAGE # 7
 (b) Characteristics of Particles of Matter :
The important characteristics of particles of matter
are the following :
(i) The particles of matter are very, very small
(ii) The particles of matter have spaces between them
(iii) The particles of matter are constantly moving :
This property can be explained by diffusion.
(A) Diffusion :“Intermixing of particles of two different
types of matter on their own is called diffusion.”t is
the phenomenon in which the movement of
molecules or particles occur from their higher
concentration towards their lower concentration.
e.g. : When a perfume bottle is opened in one corner
of a room, its fragrance spreads in the whole room
quickly. This happens because the particles of
perfume move rapidly in all directions and mix with
the moving particles of air in the room.
(A) Experiment : We take a gas jar full of bromine
vapours and invert another gas jar containinig air over
it, then after some time, the red-brown vapours of
bromine sperad out into the upper gas jar containing
air.
 Note :
The particles of matter possess kinetic energy and
so are constantly moving. As the temperature rises,
particles move faster.
(iv) Particles of matter attract each other : There
are some forces of attraction between the particles of
matter which bind them together.
(A) Cohesive Force : The force of attraction between
the particles of same substances is called cohesive
force.
(B) Adhesive Force : The force of attraction between
the particles of different substances is called
adhesive force.
e.g. : If we take a piece of chalk, a cube of ice and an
iron nail and beat them with a hammer, chalk will
easily break into smaller pieces, but more force will
be required to break a cube of ice and iron nail will
not break.
Reason : The reason for this is, that the force of
attraction is quite weak in between the chalk particles,
but force of attraction in between the particles of ice
cube is a bit stronger, while force of attraction in
between the particles of iron is very-very strong.

(B) Conclusion : In this way, the upper gas jar which
contains colourless air in it, also turns red-brown.
The mixing is due to the diffusion of bromine vapours
(or bromine gas) into air.
 Note :
RIGID AND FLUID
(i) Rigid : Rigid means ‘unbending’ or inflexible. A
solid is a rigid form of matter so that it maintains its
shape when subjected to outside force.
(ii) Fluids : Fluids are the substances which have
tendency to flow. A liquid is a fluid form of matter
which occupies the space of the container. Liquids
have a well defined surface. A gas is a fluid form of
matter which fills the whole container in which it is
kept.
Liquids and gases are known as fluids.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Diffusion of bromine vapour (or bromine gas) into air On the basis of physical states, all matter can be
classified into three groups:-
(a) Solids (b) Liquids (c) Gases
COMPARISON OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THREE STATES OF MATTER

Property Solid state Liquid state Gaseous state

Comparatively large
Interparticle spaces Very small spaces Very large spaces
spaces than solids
Interparticle forces Very strong Weak Very weak

Nature Very hard and rigid Fluid Highly fluid

Compressibility Negligible Very small Highly compressible.

Definite shape and Indefinite shape, but Indefinite shape as
Shape and volume
volume definite volume well as volume
Density High Less than solid state Very low density
Kinetic Comparatively high
Low Very high
energy than solids
Diffusion Negligible Slow Very fast

88
8
PAGE # 8
 Gases are Highly Compressible therefore :
(i) LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) is used in our home
for cooking.
(ii) Oxygen cylinders supplied to hospitals contain
liquid oxygen.
(iii) These days C.N.G. (Compressed Natural Gas) is
used as fuel in vehicles.
 Note :
Gaseous particles move randomly at high speed and
hit each other and also walls of the container, so exert
pressure.
INTERCONVERSION OF STATES OF MATTER
The phenomenon of change of matter from one state
to another state and back to original state, by altering
the conditions of temperature and pressure, is called
interconversion of states of matter.
The various states of matter can be interchanged into
one another by altering the conditions of -
(a) Temperature (b) Pressure.
(a) Altering the Temperature of Matter :
(i) Interconversion of solid into liquid and vice versa :
Solids can be converted into liquids by heating them.
Similarly liquids can be cooled to form solids.
e.g. :ce at 00C changes into water at 00C, when heat
energy is supplied to it. The water at 00C changes
into ice at 00C on freezing.
Activity -
To study the change of state from ice to water.
Materials required -
A 100 cc beaker, a thermometer (Celsius), a glass
stirrer, a wire gauze, a tripod stand, a Bunsen burner,
an iron stand, ice cubes.
Method -
Half fill the beaker with ice cubes and place it over a
wire gauze and tripod stand. Suspend a Celsius
thermometer from the iron stand, such that its bulb is
touching the water level. Place a glass stirrer in the
ice.
Record the temperature of ice. You will find it is 00 C
(273 K). Now heat the beaker on a low bunsen flame
and continuously stir the contents of beaker. Record
the temperature five to six times, till all the ice melts.
You will observe that temperature through out
remains 00C (273 K), till all the ice melts.
stand
Change of state from ice to water
(A) Melting or Fusion: The process due to which a
solid changes into liquid state by absorbing heat
energy is called melting or fusion.
(B) Freezing or Solidification: The process due to
which a liquid changes into solid state by giving out
heat energy is called freezing or solidification.
(C) Melting Point: The constant temperature at which
a solid changes into liquid state by absorbing heat
energy at 1 atm pressure is called its melting point.
(D) Freezing Point: The constant temperature at which
a liquid changes into solid state by giving out heat
energy at 1 atm pressure is called freezing point.
 Note :
The numerical value of freezing point and melting
point is same.
Melting point of ice = Freezing point of water = 0ºC
(273.16 K).
Explanation: On increasing the temperature of solids,
the kinetic energy (K.E.) of particles increases. Due
to increase in K.E., the particles start vibrating with
greater speed. The energy supplied by heat
overcomes the force of attraction between the
particles. Then, the particles leave their fixed positions
and start moving freely and thus solid melts.
Latent Heat of Fusion : The amount of heat energy
that is required to change 1 kg of solid into liquid at
atmospheric pressure and its melting point is known
as the latent heat of fusion. (In Greek Latent means
Hidden) Latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.34 × 105 J/kg.
 Note :
Particles of water at 00C (273 K) have more energy as
compared to particles in ice at the same temperature.
(ii) Interconversion of liquid into gaseous state and
vice versa: Liquids can be converted into gases by
heating them. Similarly, gases can be converted into
liquids by cooling them.
e.g. : Water at 1 atm pressure changes into gas
(steam) at 1000C by absorbing heat. Steam at 1000C
changes into water by giving out energy.
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PAGE # 9
 Activity -
To study the change of state from water to steam.
Materials required -
A 100 cc beaker, a thermometer (Celsius), a glass
stirrer, a wire gauze, a tripod stand, a Bunsen burner,
an iron stand, tap water.
Method -
Half fill the beaker with water and place it over a wire
gauze and tripod stand. Suspend a Celsius
thermometer from the iron stand, such that its bulb is
touching the water level. Place a glass stirrer in the
water.
Record the temperature of water. Heat the beaker on
a low Bunsen flame and continuously stir the water
with glass stirrer. Go on recording the temperature till
water starts boiling. Allow the water to boil for few
minutes and record its temperature.
You will notice that temperature of water rises till it
starts boiling. The temperature of boiling water is 1000C
(373 K). If we continue heating the water it changes
into steam, but the temperature remains constant, i.e.,
1000C (373 K).
Explanation : When heat is supplied to water, particles
start moving faster. At a certain temperature, a point
is reached when the particles have enough energy to
break the forces of attraction between the particles. At
this temperature the liquid starts changing into gas.
Latent heat of vaporisation: The amount of heat which
is required to convert 1 kg of the liquid (at its boiling
point) to vapour or gas without any change in
temperature. Latent heat of vaporisation of water
= 22.5 × 105 J/kg.
 Note :
Particles in steam, that is water vapour at 373 K have
more energy than water at the same temperature.
Because steam has absorbed extra energy in the
form of latent heat of vaporisation.
CURVE [TEMPERATURE-TIME GRAPH]
We can show the change of temperature with time in
the form of a temperature-time graph drawn by using
the readings obtained in the above experiment. Such
a time-temperature graph is shown in figure.

Temperature (in °C)

C D
100
(liquid gas)

(liq ter
)
uid
wa
(solid

Change of state from water to steam
(A) Boiling or Vaporisation: The process due to which
a liquid changes into gaseous state by absorbing
heat energy is called boiling.
(B) Condensation or Liquefaction: The process due
to which a gas changes into liquid state by giving out
heat energy is called condensation.
(C) Boiling Point: The constant temperature at which
a liquid rapidly changes into gaseous state by
absorbing heat energy at atmospheric pressure is
called boiling point.
(D) Condensation Point:- The constant temperature
at which a gas changes into liquid state by giving out
heat energy at atmospheric pressure is called
liquid)
0
A B
Time of heating (in minutes)
Temperature Time Graph
In this graph at point A, we have all ice. As we heat it,
the ice starts melting to form water but the tempera-
ture of ice and water mixture does not rise. It remains
constant at 0°C during the melting of ice. At point B,
all the ice has melted to form water. Thus, we have
only water at point B. Now, on heating beyond point B,
the temperature of water (formed from ice) starts ris-
ing as shown by the sloping line BC in the graph.
(iii) Direct interconversion of solid into gaseous state
and vice versa: The changing of solid directly into
vapours on heating and of vapours directly into solid
on cooling is known as sublimation.
• The solid which undergoes sublimation to form
vapour is called ‘sublime’.
• The solid obtained by cooling the vapours of a solid
is called ‘sublimate’.
e.g. : Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl), iodine, camphor,
naphthalene (moth balls) and anthracene.
Liquid
at n

condensation point.
M ree
ns tio
n

F
el zi
io
de risa

tin ng

Note :
g
on o


C ap

The numerical value of condensation point and

V

boiling point is same. Sublimation

Condensation point of vapour (water) = Boiling point Gas Solid
Sublimation
of water = 100ºC (373.16 K).
Interconversion of states of matter
10
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PAGE # 10
 Specific Heat
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of
heat which is required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of the substance by 1º C. Now, if we
measure the heat in “joules” and mass in “kilograms”,
then the definition of specific heat becomes.
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of
heat in joules required to raise the temperature of
1 kilogram of the substance by 1ºC.
The specific heat of a substance is usually
represented by the symbol C (Sometimes, however,
the specific heat of a substance is also represented
by the letter's). The specific heat of a substance varies
slightly with temperature. The change in the specific
heat of a substance with temperature is due to the
changes which occur in the structure and organization
of the molecules in a substance with change in
temperature.
Units of Specific Heat
The unit of specific heat depends on the units in which
“heat” and “mass” are measured. Now, the S.I. unit of
heat is “joule” and that of mass is “kilogram”, so, the
S.I. unit of specific heat is “joules per kilogram per
degree celcius”, which is written in short form as :
J/kg°C or J kg–1 °C–1.
The difference in various states of matter is due to
the different intermolecular spaces between their
particles. So when a gas is compressed the
intermolecular space between its particles decreases
and ultimately it will be converted into liquid.
Pressure and temperature determine the state of a
substance. So, high pressure and low temperature
can liquefy gases.
e.g. : Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a gas under normal
conditions of temperature and pressure. It can be
liquefied by compressing it to a pressure 70 times
more than atmospheric pressure.
Solid CO2 is known as ‘Dry ice’. Solid CO2 is extremely
cold and used to ‘deep freeze’ food and to keep ice-
cream cold.
Unit of pressure :
Atmosphere (atm) is a unit for measuring pressure
exerted by a gas.
The S. unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa.)
1 atm = 1.01 × 105 Pa.
 Note :
When pressure is lowered the boiling point of liquid is
lowered. This helps in rapid change of liquid into gas.
EVAPORATION
The phenomenon of change of a liquid into vapours
at any temperature below its boiling point is called
evaporation.
Water changes into vapours below 100 0C. The
particles of matter are always moving and are never
at rest. At a given temperature in any gas, liquid or
solid, there are particles with different K.E.
In case of liquids, a small fraction of particles at the
surface, having higher K.E., is able to break the forces
of attraction of other particles and gets converted into
vapour.
 Note :
The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 atm.
(a) Factors Affecting Evaporation:
(i) Temperature: With the increase in temperature the
rate of evaporation increases.
Rate of evaporation T
Reason : On increasing temperature more number
of particles get enough K.E. to go into the vapour state.
(ii) Surface Area : Rate of evaporation  Surface area
Since evaporation is a surface phenomena, if the
surface area is increased, the rate of evaporation
increases. So, while putting clothes for drying up we
spread them out.
1
(iii) Humidity of Air : Rate of evaporation 
Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in air.
When humidity of air is low, the rate of evaporation is
high and water evaporates more readily. When
humidity of air is high, the rate of evaporation is low
and water evaporates very slowly.
(iv) Wind Speed : Rate of evaporation  Wind speed
With the increase in wind speed, the particles of water
vapour move away with the wind. So the amount of
water vapour decreases in the surroundings.
(v) Nature of substance : Substances with high
boiling points will evaporate slowly, while substances
with low boiling points will evaporate quickly.
Differences between evaporation and boiling
Evaporation Boiling
It is a surface
It is a bulk phenomenon.
phenomenon.
It occurs at all
It occurs at B.P. only.
temperatures below B.P.
The rate of evaporation The rate of boiling does
depends upon the surface not depend upon the
area of the liquid, humidity surface area, wind speed,
temperature & wind speed and humidity.
(b) Cooling Caused by Evaporation:
The cooling caused by evaporation is based on the
fact that when a liquid evaporates, it draws (or takes)
the latent heat of vaporisation from ‘anything’ which
it touches.
For example :
• f we put a little of spirit, ether or petrol on the palm of
our hand then our hand feels very cold.
• Perspiration (or sweating) is our body’s method of
maintaining a constant temperature.
(c) We Wear Cotton Clothes in Summer :
During summer, we perspire more because of the
mechanism of our body which keeps us cool. During
evaporation, the particles at the surface of liquid gain
energy from the surroundings or body surface.
The heat energy equal to latent heat of vaporisation,
is absorbed from the body, leaving the body cool.
Cotton, being a good absorber of water helps in
absorbing the sweat.
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PAGE # 11
 (d) Water droplets on the outer surface of
a glass containing ice cold water :
If we take some ice cold water in a glass then we will
observe water droplets on the outer surface of glass.
Reason : The water vapour present in air on coming
in contact with glass of cold water, loses energy. So
water vapour gets converted to liquid state, which we
see as water droplets.
PLASMA
This state consist of super energetic and super excited
particles. These particles are in the form of ionised
gases.
For eg: Neon sign bulb and fluorescent tube
Neon sign bulb – Neon gas
Fluorescent tube – Helium gas
When electrical energy flows through gas, it gets
ionised and hence plasma is created.
Plasma glows with a special colour depending on
nature of gas. Sun and the stars glow because of the
presence of plasma.
BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE (B.E.C.)
The B.E.C. is formed by cooling a gas of extremely
low density, about one-hundred-thousandth the
density of normal air, to super low temperature.
Matter
Pure substances
Only one type of particles
are present ( no impurities)
Elements Compounds
(b) Elements :
A pure substance, which cannot be subdivided into
two or more simpler substances by any physical or
chemical means is called an element.
(i) Examples : Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, copper,
zinc, tin, lead, mercury, etc. are all elements as they
cannot be subdivided into simpler parts by any
physical or chemical means. A substance made up
of the atoms with same atomic number is called an
element.
(ii) Classification of elements :
(A) On the basis of physical states, all elements can
be classified into three groups:-
(1) Solids (2) Liquids (3) Gases
It has been found that :
• Two elements exist as liquids at room temperature.
They are mercury and bromine.
• Eleven elements exist as gases at room
temperature. They are hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen,
fluorine, chlorine, helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon
and radon.
• Remaining 98 elements are solids at room
temperature.
(B) Elements can be classified as metals and
non-metals. There are 22 non-metals and 89 metals.
Substance : A substance is a kind of matter that cannot
be separated into other kinds of matter by any physical
process. For example, sugar dissolved in water can
be separated from water by simply evaporating the
water but it cannot be broken into its components by
any physical process so here sugar is a substance.
PURE SUBSTANCE
A homogeneous material which contains particles of
only one kind and has a definite set of properties is
called a pure substance.
Examples : Iron, silver, oxygen, sulphur, carbon dioxide
etc., are pure substances because each of them has
only one kind of particles.
(a) Characteristics of A Pure Substance :
(i) A pure substance is homogeneous in nature.
(ii) A pure substance has a definite set of properties.
These properties are different from the properties of
other substances.
(iii) The composition of a pure substance cannot be
altered by any physical means.
Mixtures
More than one type of
particles are present
Homogeneous
mixtures
(true solutions)
• Amongst the metals, only mercury is a liquid metal.
All other metals are solids.
• Amongst the 22 non-metals : 10 non-metals are
solids. They are boron, carbon, silicon, phosphorus,
sulphur, selenium, arsenic, tellurium, iodine and
astatine. 1 non-metal, bromine, is a liquid. Five non-
metals, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine and
chlorine are chemically active gases. Six non-metals,
helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon are
chemically inactive gases. These are also called
noble gases, inert gases or rare gases.
METALLOIDS :
There are a few elements which show some
properties of metals and other properties of non-
metals. For example they look like metals but they
are brittle like non-metals. They are neither
conductors of electricity like metals nor insulators like
non-metals, they are semiconductors. The elements
which show some properties of metals and some
other properties of non-metals are called metalloids.
Their properties are intermediate between the
properties of metals and non-metals. Metalloids are
also sometimes called semi-metals. The important
examples of metalloids are : Boron (B), Silicon (Si),
Germanium (Ge), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb),
Tellurium (Te) Polonium (Po) and Astatine (At).
 Note :
Hydrogen is the lightest element.
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PAGE # 12
(C) Elements can be classified as normal elements and radioactive elements. The elements which do not give out
harmful radiations are called normal elements. Elements from atomic number 1 to atomic number 82 are normal
elements. The elements which give out harmful radiations are called radioactive elements. Elements from atomic
number 83 to atomic number 112 and 114, 116 and 118 are radioactive in nature.

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PAGE # 13
(c) Compounds :
A pure substance, which is composed of two or more
different elements, combined chemically in a definite
ratio, such that it can be broken into elements only by
chemical means is called compound.
The two or more elements present in a compound
are called constituents or components of the
compound. For example, water is a compound of
hydrogen and oxygen, combined together in the ratio
of 1 : 8 by weight. The water can be broken into its
constituents only by electro-chemical method, i.e., by
passing electric current through it.
TYPES OF COMPOUNDS
(A) On the basis of constitutents elements :
(i) Inorganic compounds
These compounds have been mostly obtained from
non-living sources such as rocks and minerals. A
few examples of inorganic compounds are : common
salt, marble, washing soda, baking soda, carbon
dioxide, ammonia, sulphuric acid etc.
(ii) Organic compounds
The word ‘organ’ relates to different organs of living
beings. Therefore, organic compounds are the
compounds which are obtained from living beings
i.e., plants and animals. It has been found that all the
organic compounds contain carbon as their essential
constituent. Therefore, the organic compounds are
quite often known as ‘carbon compounds’. A few
common examples of organic compounds are :
methane, ethane, propane (all constituents of cooking
gas), alcohol, acetic acid, sugar, proteins, oils, fats
etc.
(B) On the basis of their properties :
(i) Acids : Compounds which give hydronium ion in
aqueous solution for e.g. hydrochloric acid, sulphuric
acid, nitric acid, formic acid etc.
(ii) Bases : Compounds which give hydroxide ion in
aqueous solution for e.g.Sodium hydroxide,
Potassium hydroxide
(iii) Salts : It is formed by the chemical reaction
between acids and bases for e.g. ammonium
chloride, zinc sulphate etc.
MIXTURES
Most of the materials around us are not pure
substances, but contain more than one substances,
elements or compounds. Such materials are called
mixtures.
(a) Definition :
W hen two or more substances (elements,
compounds or both) are mixed together in any
proportion, such that they do not undergo any
chemical change, but retain their individual
characteristics, the resulting product is called a
mixture.
(b) Types of Mixture :
(i) Homogeneous Mixture : A mixture in which different
constituents are mixed uniformly is called a
homogeneous mixture.
Examples : All solutions, such as solutions of
common salt, copper sulphate, sugar etc. are
examples of homogeneous mixtures. Similarly, alloys
such as brass, bronze etc. are homogeneous solid
solutions of metals and air is homogenous mixture
of gases.
(ii) Heterogeneous Mixture : A mixture in which
different constituents are not mixed uniformly is called
a heterogeneous mixture.
Examples : A mixture of sand and salt, iron powder
and sulphur powder, soil etc. are examples of
heterogeneous mixtures.
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PAGE # 14

TRUE SOLUTIONS
A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
is called a solution. Usually we think of a solution as
a liquid that contains either a solid or a liquid or a gas
dissolved in it. However, this is not true. We can also
have a solid solution and gaseous solution as in the
case of alloys and air respectively.
(a) Components of a Solution :
The substances present in a homogeneous solution
are called components of the solution. A solution
basically has two components, i.e., a solvent and a
solute.
(i) Solvent : The component of a solution which is
present in large proportion , is called solvent.
 Note :
Usually, a solvent is the LARGER component of the
solution.
For example : In the solution of copper sulphate in
water, water is the solvent. Similarly, in paints,
turpentine oil is the solvent.
(ii) Solute : The component of the solution which is
present in small proportion is called solute.
For example: In the solution of common salt in water,
the common salt is solute. Similarly, in carbonated
drinks (soda water), carbon dioxide gas is the solute.
 Note :
Usually, solute is the SMALLER component of the
solution.
(b) Characteristics of a True Solution :
(i) A true solution is always clear and transparent, i.e.,
light can easily pass through it without scattering.
(ii) The particles of a solute break down to almost
molecular size and their diameter is of the order of 1
nm (10–9 m) or less.
(iii) A true solution can completely pass through a
filter paper as particle size of solute is far smaller
than the size of pores of filter paper.
(iv) A true solution is homogeneous in nature.
(v) In a true solution, the particles of solute do not
settle down, provided temperature is constant.
(vi) From a true solution, the solute can easily be
recovered by evaporation or crystallisation.
(c) Types of Solution:
(A) On the basis of concentration :
(i) Saturated solution : A solution, which at a given
temperature dissolves as much solute as it is capable
of dissolving, is said to be a saturated solution.
(ii) Unsaturated solution : When the amount of solute
contained in a solution is less than the saturation level,
the solution is said to be an unsaturated solution.
(iii) Super saturated solution : A solution, which
contains more of the solute than required to make a
saturated solution, is called a super saturated solution.
(B) On the basis of solvent :
(i) Aqueous Solutions : The solutions obtained by
dissolving various substances in water are called
aqueous solutions.
The common examples are :
(i) Common salt dissolved in water.
(ii) Sugar dissolved in water.
(iii) Acetic acid disssolved in water etc.
(ii) Non-Aqueous Solutions : The solutions obtained
by dissolving the substances in liquids other than
water are called non-aqueous solutions. The
common non-aqueous solvents are alcohol, carbon
disulphide, carbon tetrachloride, acetone, benzene
etc. Examples of non-aqueous solutions are :
(i) Iodine dissolved in carbon tetrachloride.
(ii) Sulphur dissolved in carbon disulphide.
(iii) Sugar dissolved in alcohol etc.
(C) On the bases of physical state of solute and
solvent :
(i) Solid-Solid solutions : All alloys are solid solutions
of metals. Brass is a solid solution of approximately
30% of zinc and 70% of copper. In this solid solution,
copper (larger component) is solvent and zinc
(smaller component) is solute. Similarly, Bell Metal
is a solid solution of 80% of copper and 20% of tin, in
which copper is the solvent and tin is the solute.
(ii) Solid-Liquid solutions : Sugar solution is an
example, in which sugar is the solute and water is
the solvent. Similarly, common salt solution is an
example, in which common salt is the solute and
water is the solvent. In case of tincture of iodine,
iodine is the solute and ethyl alcohol is the solvent.
(iii) Liquid-Liquid solutions : In case of an alcoholic
drink, ethyl alcohol is solute and water is solvent.
Similarly, in case of vinegar, acetic acid is solute and
water is solvent.
(iv) Liquid-Gas solutions : In case of aerated drinks
(soda water), carbon dioxide is the solute and water
is the solvent.
(v) Gas-Gas solutions : Air is a homogeneous mixture
of two main gases, i.e., 78% of nitrogen and 21% of
oxygen. In this mixture, nitrogen is solvent and oxygen
is solute. Similarly, the petrol fed into the engines of
automobiles is a mixture of petrol vapour and air.
(d) Concentration of a Solution :
It is defined as the amount of solute present in a
given quantity of the solution. The most common
method for expressing the concentration of a solution
is called percentage method. The concentration of
solution refers to the percentage of solute present in
the solution. Furthermore, the percentage of solute
can be expressed in terms of :
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PAGE # 15
 (i) mass of the solute (ii) volume of the solute. (c) Examples :
(i) Concentration of a solution in terms of mass
1. What is the meaning of 15% solution of NaCl ?
percentage of solute : If a solution is formed by Sol. 15% solution of NaCl is a solution 100 g of which
dissolving a solid solute in a liquid solvent then the contains 15 g of NaCl and 85 g of water.
concentration of solution is expressed in terms of
2. Calculate the amount of glucose required to prepare
mass percentage of solute and is defined as under : 250 g of 5% solution of glucose by mass.
The concentration of solution is the mass of the solute
Mass of solute
in grams, which is present in 100 g of a solution. Sol. % of solute = × 100
Mass of solution
 Note :
Mass of solute
It is very important to keep in mind that the percentage 5 = × 100
250
concentration of a solution refers to mass of solute in
5  250 125
100 g of solution and not 100 g of solvent, i.e., water. Mass of solute = = = 12.5 g
100 10
The concentration of a solution in terms of mass 3. A solution contains 50 mL of alcohol mixed with 150
mL of water. Calculate concentration of this solution.
percentage of solute is calculated by the formula given
Sol. This solution contains a liquid solute (alcohol) mixed
below : with a liquid solvent (water), so we have to calculate
the concentration of this solution in terms of volume
Concentration of solution
percentage of solute (alcohol). Now, we know that :
Volume of solute
Mass of solute (in grams)
=  100 Concentration of solution = × 100
Mass of solution (in grams) Volume of solution
Here, Volume of solute (alcohol) = 50 mL
And. Volume of solvent (water) = 150 mL
Mass of solute (in grams) So, Volume of solution = Volume of solute + Volume
 100 of solvent
[Mass of solute  Mass of solvent ](in grams)
= 50 + 150 = 200 mL
Now, putting these values of ‘volume of solute’ and
(ii) Concentration of a solution in terms of volume ‘volume of solution’ in the above formula we get :
percentage of solute : If a solution is formed by 50 50
Concentration of solution = × 100 =
200 2
dissolving a liquid solute in a liquid solvent, then the
= 25 percent (by volume)
concentration of the solution is expressed in terms of Thus, the concentration of this alcohol solution is 25
volume percentage of solute. The concentration of a percent.
solution is the volume of the solute in milliliters, which 4. How much water should be added to 16 ml acetone
is present in 100 milliliters of a solution. to make its concentration 48% ?
Vol. of solute
 Note : Sol. Concentration of solution = × 100
Vol. of solution
It is very important to keep in mind that the percentage
16 16
concentration of solution refers to volume of solute in × 100 = 48 x =
48
× 100 = 33.33 ml
x
100 ml of solution and not 100 ml of solvent, i.e., Volume of solvent =33.33 – 16 = 17.33 ml.
water.
SUSPENSIONS
The concentration of a solution in terms of volume
percentage of the solute is calculated by the formula A heterogeneous mixture of insoluble particles of
given below : solute, spread throughout a solvent, is called a
suspension. The particle size (diameter) in a
Concentration of solution = suspension is more than 10–5 cm. The particles have
a tendency to settle down at the bottom of the vessel
Volume of solute (in ml) and can be filtered out, because their size is bigger
 100 than the size of the pores of the filter paper.
Volume of solution (in ml)
(a) Examples :
Volume of solute (in ml)
=  100 (i) Muddy water, in which particles of sand and clay
[Volume of solute  Volume of solvent] (in ml)
are suspended in water.
 Note : (ii) Slaked lime suspension used for white-washing
The concentration of a solution is a pure percentage has particles of slaked lime suspended in water.
number and has NO UNITS.
(iii) Paints in which the particles of dyes are suspended
in turpentine oil.
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PAGE # 16
 (b) Characteristics of Suspensions :
(i) The size of particles is more than 10 –5 cm in
diameter.
(ii) The particles of suspension can be separated
from solvent by the process of filtration.
(iii) The particles of suspension settle down, when
the suspension is kept undisturbed.
(iv) A suspension is heterogeneous in nature.
Tyndall effect shown by colloid in a beaker
(v) More scattering takes place in suspensions,
because of bigger size of particles. This luminosity of path of beam is known as Tyndall
 Note : effect and the illuminated path is known as Tyndall
The process of settling of suspended particles under cone. (Tyndall being the name of the scientist who
the action of gravity is called sedimentation. studied this phenomenon first).
Tyndall effect is caused due to the scattering of light
by the colloidal particles. The true solutions do not
scatter light and hence do not show Tyndall effect.
A heterogeneous solution in which the particle size is
Tyndall effect can be seen when a fine beam of light
in between 10–7 cm to 10–5 cm, such that the solute
enter in a room through a small hole. This happens
particles neither dissolve nor settle down in a solvent
due to scattering of light particles of dust and smoke
is called colloidal solution.
in the air of the room.
In a colloidal solution, relatively large suspended
Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes
particles are called dispersed phase and the solvent
through a dense forest. In the forest, fog contains tiny
in which the colloidal particles are suspended is
droplets of water which act as particles of colloid
called continuous phase or dispersing medium.
dispersed in air.
(a) Examples of Colloidal Solutions :
(viii) The particles of a colloidal solution are electrically
Few examples of colloidal solutions are as follows : charged.
• blood • Milk • Writing ink Electrophoresis
• Jelly • Starch solution • Gum solution The collodial solutions contain either positively or
• Tooth paste• Soap solution • Liquid detergents negatively charged particles and, therefore, when an
• Mist and fog. electric current is passed through them, the particles
(b) Characteristics of Colloidal Solutions : move towards either of the oppositely charged
(i) The size of colloidal particles is in between 10–7 electrodes. Subsequently, they get discharged on the
cm to 10–5 cm. electrodes and precipitate out. For example, when a
negatively charged As2S3 solution is taken in a U-
(ii) The particles of a colloidal solution are visible
tube into which Platinum electrodes, connected to a
under a powerful microscope.
source of E.M.F. are dipped, the colloidal particles
(iii) The particles of a colloidal solution do not settle move towards the positive electrode .
down with the passage of time. The migration of colloidal particles under the influence
of an electric field is known as electrophoresis.
(iv) The particles of a colloidal solution can easily
pass through filter paper.
(v) The colloidal solutions are heterogeneous in
nature.
(vi) Colloidal solutions are not transparent, but
translucent in nature.
(vii) The particles of a colloidal solution scatter light,
i.e., when strong beam of light is passed through the
colloidal solution, the path of beam becomes visible.
Scattering of Light (Tyndall Effect)
Electrophoresis showing migration of colloidal
If a beam of light is passed through pure water or a particles
salt solution, the path of light is visible but when a
(c) Classification of Colloids :
strong beam of light is passed through a colloidal
The colloids are classified according to the state of
solution and viewed at right angles with the help of a
dispersed phase (solid, liquid or gas) and the state
microscope, the path of light shows up a bright cone
of dispersing medium. A few common examples are
of bluish light. shown in the table :

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PAGE # 17
 Note :
Colloidal solutions can be separated by the process of CENTRIFUGATION.

S.No. Property True solution Colloidal solution Suspension

1 Nature Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous
2 Particle size Diameter less than 1 nm Diameter between Diameter more than
(or 10Å) or 10 -7 cm 1-100 nm (or 10-1000Å) or 100 nm (or 1000Å)
10-7 to 10-5 cm or 10 -5 cm.
3 Filtrability Passes through an Passes through Do not pass through
ordinary filter paper ordinary filter paper filter paper or animal
as well as animal or but not through animal or vegetable
vegetable membranes or vegetable membranes membranes
4 Visibility Particles are completely Particles themselves are Particles visible to
invisible invisible but their presence can the naked eye or
be detected by ultramicroscope under a microscope
since they scatter light.
5 Diffusion Diffuse rapidly Diffuse slowly Do not diffuse
6 Tyndall effect Not shown Shown May be shown
7 Appearance of Clear and transparent Generally clear and transparent Opaque
solution

SEPARATION OF
TECHNIQUES USED FOR SEPARATING
HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURES
THE COMPONENTS OF A MIXTURE
Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into their
respective components by simple physical methods
(A) Separation of mixture of two solids :
such as handpicking, sieving, filtration.
Generally following physical properties are considered (a) By Sublimation:
in the separation of the constituents of a mixture.
The changing of solid directly into vapours on heating
(i) Densities of the constituents of the mixture.
and of vapours into directly solid on cooling is known
(ii) Melting points and boiling points of the constituents
of the mixture. as sublimation.
(iii) Property of volatility of one or more constituents of
(i) Separation of a mixture of common salt and
the mixture.
ammonium chloride :This method is used in the
(iv) Solubility of the constituents of the mixture in
different solvents. separation of such solid-solid mixtures where one of

(v) Ability of the constituents of the mixture to sublime. the components sublimes on heating. However, it is

(vi) Ability of the constituents of the mixture to diffuse. useful only if the components of the mixture do not
react chemically on heating. The table shows the list
 Note :
However, for separating homogeneous mixtures of mixtures which can be separated by the process
special techniques are employed depending upon of sublimation.
the difference in one or more physical properties of
the constituents of the mixture.

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PAGE # 18
 Solid-Solid Mixture Sublimable Solid
Common salt and Ammonium chloride
ammonium chloride
Sand and iodine Iodine
Common salt and iodine Iodine
Sodium sulphate and Benzoic acid
benzoic acid
Iron filings and naphthalene Naphthalene
(ii) Method :
• Place the mixture of common salt and ammonium
chloride in a china dish and heat it over a low Bunsen
flame.
• Place a clean glass funnel in an inverted position in
the china dish and close the mouth of its stem with
cotton wool.
• The ammonium chloride in the mixture sublimes to
form dense white fumes. These fumes condense on
the cooler sides of the funnel in the form of fine white
powder.
• When the mixture gives off no more white fumes, lift
the funnel, scrap the fine white powder from its sides
on a piece of paper. This is pure ammonium chloride.
The residue left behind in the funnel is sodium
chloride.
Separation of sugar and sand mixture The sugar
solution containing sand is filtered by pouring over a
filter paper kept in a funnel. Sand remains as a residue
on the filter paper and sugar solution is obtained as
a filtrate in the beaker kept below the funnel. The sugar
solution is evaporated carefully to get the crystals of
sugar. In this way, a mixture of sugar and sand has
been separated by using water as the solvent.
Separation by sublimation
 Note :
Dry ice (solid CO2), Naphthalene, Anthracene, Iodine
etc. are sublimable solids.
(b) By Using a Suitable Solvent
In some cases, one constituent of a mixture is soluble
in a particular liquid solvent whereas the other
constituent is insoluble in it. This difference in the
solubilities of the constituents of a mixture can be
used to separate them. For example, sugar is soluble
in water whereas sand is insoluble in it, so a mixture
of sugar and sand can be separated by using water
as solvent. This will become more clear from the
following discussion.
To Separate a Mixture of Sugar and Sand
Sugar is soluble in water whereas sand is insoluble
in water. This difference in the solubilities of sugar
and sand in water is used to separate them. This is
done as follows. The mixture of sugar and sand is
taken in a beaker and water is added to it. The mixture
is stirred to dissolve the sugar . The sand remains
undissolved.
(B) Separation of mixture of a solid and a liquid :
(a) By Evaporation :
(i) Separation of coloured component (dye) from
blue ink : The process of evaporation is suitable for
the separation of non-volatile soluble solid (dye) from
its liquid solvent (water).
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PAGE # 19
 (ii) Method :
• Heat sand in an iron vessel by placing it over a tripod
stand. This arrangement is called sand bath.
• Place a china dish on the sand bath. Pour about 5 cc
of the ink into the china dish.
• Heat gently evaporates water from the ink such that it
does not boil. In a few minutes the water evaporates
leaving behind dry blue ink. Method of evaporation is
suitable for the following solid-liquid mixtures.
(b) By Centrifugation
The method of separating finely suspended or
colloidal particles in a liquid, by whirling the liquid at
a very high speed is called centrifugation.
(i) Principle of centrifugation : It is based on the
principle that when a very fine suspension or a
colloidal solution is whirled rapidly, then the heavier
particles are forced towards the bottom of liquid and
the lighter stay at the top.
(ii) Separation of cream from milk : The process of
centrifuging is employed in separating cream from
milk. This process is generally employed in
separating colloidal solutions which easily pass
through the filter paper.
spin
CENTRIFUGE
Method :
• Pour full cream milk in the test tube with a pivot in
your laboratory centrifuge.
• Shut the lid of the centrifuge and switch on the current.
W hen the centrifuge starts working, the tube
containing milk swings out in the horizontal position
and whirls around its axis at a high speed.
• The centrifugal force (in the outward direction) pushes
the heavier particles outward, i.e., towards the bottom
of the mixture. Thus, the heavier particles of the
proteins, carbohydrates, etc. are pushed towards the
bottom of the tube, but the lighter particles of the fat
stay near the top of the tube and hence separate.
(iii) Applications of centrifugation :
• It is employed in milk dairies to separate cream from
the milk.
• It is employed in diagnostic laboratories in testing
urine samples.
• It is employed in blood banks to separate different
constituents of blood.
• It is used in drying machines to squeeze out water
from the wet clothes.
(c) By Chromatography :
The process of separation of different dissolved
constituents of a mixture by adsorbing them over an
appropriate adsorbent material is called
chromatography.
The adsorbent medium is generally magnesium
oxide, alumina or filter paper. The solvent generally
used for dissolving a mixture of two or more
constituents is water or alcohol.
The different constituents of a mixture get adsorbed
differently on the same adsorbent material, because
they have different rates of movement. The rate of
movement of each adsorbed material depends upon :
• The relative solubility of the constituents of mixture in
a given solvent.
• The relative affinity of the constituents of mixture for
the adsorbent medium.
If a filter paper is used as an adsorbent material for
the separation of various constituents of a mixture,
then this method of separation of mixture is called
paper chromatography.
Paper chromatography is very useful in separating
various constituents of coloured solutes present in a
mixture of lime, ink, dyes etc.
 Note :
Kroma means colour in Greek language and
technique of chromatography was first applied for the
separation of colours, so this name was given.
(i) Separation of coloured constituents present in a
mixture of ink and water.
(ii) Method :
• Take a filter paper 22 cm long, 5 cm broad and stick
its smaller end to a glass rod with the help of gum.
On the other end, measure a distance of 2 cm from
lower end and mark a small point. On this point pour
one or two drop of the ink.
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PAGE # 20
• Suspend this filter paper in a wide and tall cylinder as
shown in Figure. Gradually, pour water into the
cylinder till the lower end of filter paper slightly dips in
the water. Cover the cylinder with a glass lid to prevent
any evaporation and leave the apparatus undisturbed
for an hour. The water rises up the filter paper and
reaches the ink mark. This water then dissolves
various constituents of the ink, gets adsorbed by the
filter paper in different amounts. More the constituent
gets adsorbed, the lesser it moves upward and vice
versa.
• When the solvent (water) reaches near the top of filter
paper, the filter paper is removed from water and dried.
On the filter paper will be seen a band of colours, of
various constituents.
• A filter paper with separated bands of various
constituents of a coloured substance is called
chromatogram.
(iii) Advantages :
• It can be carried out with a very small amount of
material.
• The substances under investigation do not get wasted
in chromatographic separation.
(iv) Applications :
• It is used to separate colours from dye.
• It is used in the separation of amino acids.
• It is used in the separation of sugar from urine.
• It is used in the separation of drugs from the samples
of blood.
(C) Separation of mixture of two liquids :
(a) By Distillation:
Distillation is the process of heating a liquid to form
vapour and then cooling the vapour to get the back
liquid.
Distillation can be represented as :
Heating
Liquid Vapour (or Gas)
Cooling
 Note :
The liquid obtained by condensing the vapour in the
process of distillation is called DISTILLATE .
(i) Liebig condenser : Liebig condenser is a water
condenser. It is a long glass tube surrounded by a
wider glass tube (called water jacket) having an inlet
and outlet for water. During distillation, cold water from
tap is circulated through the outer tube of condenser.
This water takes away heat from the hot vapour
passing through the inner tube of condenser and
causes its condensation.
Process of simple distillation is used to recover both
salt as well as water , from a salt-water mixture (or
salt solution) and to separate of components of a
mixture containing two miscible liquids that boil
without decomposition and have sufficient difference
in their boiling points.
SIMPLE DISTILLATION
(ii) Fractional distillation : Separation of mixture of
two miscible liquids for which the difference in the
boiling points is less : In case of two liquids which
have very close boiling points, both the liquids tend to
distil over in different proportions. It means lesser
the boiling point of a liquid, more is the proportion of
it distilling over.
The above problem can be avoided by using a
fractionating column. It gives the effect of repeated
distillation by offering resistance to the passage of
vapour.
The process of separation of two miscible liquids by
the process of distillation, making use of their
difference in boiling points, is called fractional
distillation.
 Note :
The process of fractional distillation is useful only, if
the difference in the boiling points of the two miscible
liquids is less than 25ºC.
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PAGE # 21
 (A) Method :
• The process of fractional distillation is similar to the
process of distillation, except that a fractionating
column is attached.
• The design of a fractionating column is such that the
vapours of one liquid (with a higher boiling point) are
preferentially condensed as compared to the vapours
of the other liquid (with lower boiling point).
(ii) Method :
• Close the tap of separating funnel and clamp it in a
vertical position in an iron stand.
• Pour the immiscible liquid mixture (say benzene-water
mixture) in the separating funnel. Allow the mixture to
stand for half an hour or more.
• The immiscible components of the mixture, i.e.,
benzene and water separate out into two distinct
layers. The benzene forms the lighter layer on the top
and the water forms the heavier layer at the bottom.
• Place a conical flask or a beaker under the nozzle of
the separating funnel. Turn the tap gently so that the
water trickles in the flask or the beaker drop by drop.
Once the water is drained out, close the tap.
• Now place another conical flask or a beaker under
the nozzle of separating funnel. Open the tap to drain
out benzene.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF FRACTIONATING COLUMNS

• Thus, the vapours of the liquid with low boiling point,
pass on to the Liebig’s condenser where they
condense. The liquid so formed is collected in
receiver.
• The thermometer shows a constant reading as long Separation by separating funnel
as the vapour of one liquid are passing to Liebig’s (iii) Applications :
condenser. As soon as the temperature starts rising,
• This method is used for separating any two
the receiver is replaced by another receiver to collect
immiscible liquids.
second liquid.
• This method is used in separation of slag (a waste
material) from the molten metals during their
extraction. For example, during the extraction of iron
from its ore, the molten iron and slag collect at the
base of blast furnace. The slag being less dense
floats up the surface of molten iron. They are drained
out from two different outlets.

SEPARATION OF GASES FROM AIR

(b) By Separating Funnel : In order to separate the major components of air, it is
(i) Separation of a mixture of two immiscible liquids : first purified, then liquefied and finally fractionally
The separation of two immiscible liquids is based distilled. The steps involved in the process are as
on the difference in their densities. The apparatus follows -
used for separation is separating funnel. It is a long (a) Purification of Air :
glass tube provided with a tap at its bottom. The table
(i) Air generally contains carbon dioxide gas, hydrogen
below shows different immiscible liquids which can
sulphide gas and sulphur dioxide gas as impurities.
be separated by separating funnel.
In addition to it there are dust particles also .
Lighter (ii) First of all air is washed by passing it through
Immiscible Heavier
Liquid-liquid Mixture Liquid Liquid water, where the dust particles are removed.
(iii) The washed air is passed through dilute caustic
Benzene and water Water Benzene
soda solution, where the gases like carbon dioxide,
Kerosene oil and water Water Kerosene oil sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide are removed.
(iv) The purified air, however, contains moisture. The
Turpentine oil and water Water Turpentine oil moist air is passed through pipes, maintained at a
temperature below – 20º C, where water vapour
Chloroform and water Chloroform Water
present in it freezes and hence, air becomes dry.
Mustard oil and water Water Mustard oil (v) The air leaving the cooling pipes is free from all
impurities.

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PAGE # 22
 (b) Liquefaction of Air :
(i) The cool air, free from all impurities is compressed
to a pressure 200 times more than the atmospheric
pressure. The compression raises the temperature
of the air.
(ii) The hot compressed air is then passed through
cooling tank in which cold water enters from one end
and warm water leaves from the other end.
(iii) The compressed and cooled air is passed through
a spiral pipe, placed in a vacuum flask. The end of
spiral pipe is provided with a fine jet.
(iii) The liquid is gradually warmed to – 195º C, when
nitrogen starts boiling off from the liquid air. The
nitrogen gas so formed, is compressed and filled in
steel cylinders.
(iv) The liquefied oxygen left behind, is also changed
to gas and then filled in compressed state in steel
cylinders.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
Some kind of change always takes place in the matter
when it is subjected to energy changes. Almost all
the changes (except nuclear changes) taking place
in the matter can be classified under two headings,
these are as follows -
(a) Physical Changes :
Definition : A change which alters some specific
physical property of the matter, like its state, texture,
magnetic or electrical conditions or its colour, without
causing any change in the composition of its
molecules, is called physical change, provided it gets
reversed, if the cause producing the change is
removed.
Following points need special consideration :
(i) No new or different product is formed : The
composition of molecules of the substance remains
unaltered.
(iv) When compressed air suddenly escapes from
the jet, its pressure suddenly falls. Thus, its molecules
move wide apart. When the molecules move wide
apart, they need energy. This energy is taken by the
molecules from themselves and hence, their
temperature drops.
(v) The air so cooled, is now at a pressure equal to
that of atmosphere. This cooled air rises up and in
the process further cools the incoming compressed
air in spiral tube. The air is then sucked again by the
compression pump and the cycle is repeated. With
every cycle, the temperature of air drops, till it liquefies.
(c) Fractional Distillation of Air :
(i) The liquid air mainly consists of nitrogen and oxygen,
and is at a temperature of – 200º C.
(ii) The boiling point of liquid nitrogen is – 195º C and
that of liquid oxygen is – 183º C.
Example : Ice melts to form water. In this example
only the appearance (state) of matter has changed
from solid to liquid. However, the composition of the
molecules of ice or water remains same, i.e., for every
1 g of hydrogen there is 8 g of oxygen required . Thus,
only a physical change has occurred.
(ii) The change is temporary and reversible : It
means the change can be reversed by altering the
causes which produce the change.
Example : The water formed from ice can be changed
back to ice by placing it in a freezing mixture (a mixture
of ice and common salt).
 Note :
On altering the experimental conditions, the change
which gets reversed, is a physical change.
(iii) There is no net gain or loss of energy : The
amount of energy required to bring about a physical
change is generally equal to the amount of energy
required to reverse the change. Thus, there is no net
energy change involved.
Example : If 1 g of water at 100º C on changing into
steam at 100ºC needs 2260 J of heat energy, then 1
g of steam at 100º C on changing into water at 100º
C, gives out 2260 J of heat energy. Thus, the net energy
change is zero.
(iv) There is no change in the weight of substance :
During a physical change it is only the energy which
is added or removed. No matter is added during a
physical change. Similarly, no matter is removed
during a physical change. Therefore, mass of the
substance remains same.
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PAGE # 23
 SOME EXAMPLES INVOLVING PHYSICAL CHANGES :

Physical Change Observation Change in Physical Property

1. Switching on an electric The bulb glows and gives The physical appearance of
bulb out heat and light energy. the bulb changes.

2. Rubbing a permanent The steel rod gets magnetised. The steel rod acquires the
magnet on a steel rod. If it is brought near iron nails, property of attracting pieces
they get attracted. of iron.

3. Action of heat on iodine
The brownish grey crystals of Change in state and colour.
iodine change to form violet
vapours. On cooling the vapours
condense on cooler parts of the
test tube to form crystals.

4. Dissolving of common The white crystalline salt Change of state.

salt in water. disappears in water. However, the
water tastes exactly like common
salt. Moreover, common salt can
be recovered by evaporation.

viz. carbon and water (steam), are formed. In this

Some Common Examples of Physical Changes :
change, the arrangement between the molecules of
• Formation of dew. carbon, hydrogen and oxygen breaks. The hydrogen
• Evaporation of water. and oxygen atoms separate from carbon atoms and
join together to form water. The carbon atoms are set
• Crystallisation of sugar from its solution.
free and are left as black residue.
• Ringing of an electric bell.
Sugar heat
 Carbon  Steam
• Breaking of a glass pane.
(ii) The weight of the substance undergoing
• Freezing of ice cream.
chemical change usually changes :
• A rock rolling down a hill.
Example : During the heating of sugar, the weight of
• Bending of a glass tube by heating. the black residue is far less than the actual weight of
the sugar. However, this is an apparent change in
• Melting of wax.
weight. If we take the weight of steam into account
• Sublimation of camphor. and add to it the weight of carbon, then total weight

(b) Chemical Change :
Definition : A change which alters the specific
properties of a material by bringing about a change
in its molecular composition, followed by a change in
state, is called a chemical change.
Following points need special consideration :
(i) A chemical change results in the formation of
one or more new products : The products formed
have different properties than the original substance.
Thus, the composition of the molecules of products
is different from the original substance.
will be equal to the weight of sugar crystals. Thus,
strictly speaking, total weight of substances taking
part in a chemical change remains constant.
(iii) The chemical change is permanent and
irreversible : It means the change will not reverse by
altering the experimental conditions.
Example : The sugar, which has decomposed on
heating to form carbon and steam will not change to
sugar on cooling.
(iv) During chemical change energy is either
absorbed or given out : The various atoms in a

Example : Heating of sugar chemical compound are joined by attractive forces

When sugar is gently heated in a test tube, it melts. It commonly called bonds. The making or breaking of

gradually changes to brown colour, giving a large the bonds always requires exchange of energy. Thus,

amount of steamy fumes. In the end a black mass is some amount of heat is either absorbed or given out

left which consists of carbon. Thus, new substances, during a chemical change.

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PAGE # 24
 SOME EXAMPLES INVOLVING CHEMICAL CHANGES :

Chemical Change Observation Equation

1. Burning of magnesium When a magnesium ribbon is Magnesium + Oxygen

in air heated in a flame of Bunsen Magnesium oxide
burner, it catches fire and burns
with a dazzling white flame to form
white ash.

2. Rusting of iron When iron (silver grey) is left

exposed to moist air for a few Iron + Oxygen+ Water vapour
days, reddish brown powdery Rust
mass (rust) is found on its
surface

3. Burning of LPG When LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Butane (LPG) + Oxygen

Gas) is burnt, it burns with a pale Carbon dioxide + Water
blue flame and liberates colourless
gas carbon dioxide along with steam.

SOME COMMON EXAMPLES OF CHEMICAL CHANGES

:• Burning of wood or charcoal • Burning of candle • Digestion of food • Curdling of milk

• Formation of biogas (Gobar gas) • Burning of petrol or diesel

• Smoking of cigarette • Drying of paint • Rusting of iron

• Ripening of fruit •Clotting of blood • Fading of the colour of a dyed cloth

• Baking of cake • Photosynthesis • Formation of wine • Butter turning rancid

• Electrolysis of water into hydrogen and oxygen • Formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen

(C) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

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PAGE # 25
 9. Some matter and their groups are given in column P
EXERCISE and Q respectively.
(P) (Q)
1. The quantity of matter present in an object is called (a) Air (i) Element
its - (b) O2 (ii) Mixture
(A) weight (B) volume (c) Copper sulphate (iii) Base
(C) mass (D) density (d) Sodium hydroxide (iv) Salt
The correct option is -
2. Which of the following statements is/are correct ? (A) a (ii), b (iv), c (i), d(iii)
(A) Interparticle spaces are maximum in the gaseous (B) a (iv), b (iii), c (ii), d (i)
state of a substance . (C) A (i), b (ii), c (iii), d (iv)
(B) Particles which constitute gas follow a zig-zag (D) a (ii) , b (i), c (iv), d (iii)
path. 10. The water boils when :
(C) Solid state is the most compact state of substance. (A) Saturated vapour pressure of water becomes
(D) All are correct equal to the atmospheric pressure
(B) Boiling point of water becomes more than
3. In sublimation process - atmospheric pressure
(A) solid changes into liquid. (C) Saturated vapour pressure of water is less than
(B) liquid changes into gas. atmospheric pressure
(C) solid changes directly into gas. (D) Vapour pressure of water becomes more than
(D) None of these atmospheric pressure

11. Which of the following is a chemical change ?

4. During evaporation of liquid -
(A) the temperature of the liquid falls.
(B) the temperature of the liquid rises.
(C) the temperature of the liquid remains unchanged.
(D) all statements are wrong.
12. The gas you use in kitchen is called liquefied
5. Which of the following statement is not true about
colloidal solution ?
(A) These are visible under powerful microscope.
(B) Their particles do not settle down with passage
of time.
(C) Their particles are electrically charged.
(D) These are homogeneous in nature.
(A) Melting of Wax
(B) Dissolving sugar in water
(C) Beating aluminium to make aluminium foil
(D) Burning of Coal
petroleum gas (LPG). In the cylinder, it exists as a
liquid. When it comes out of the cylinder, it becomes
a gas (process A), then it burns (process B). Choose
the correct statement.
(A) Process A is a chemical change.
(B)Process B is a chemical change
(C) Both processes A and B are chemical changes.
(D) None of these processes is a chemical change.

6. Which of the following method is used for separation 13. The temperature remain same during melting, while
of different components of petroleum? all the ice changes into water due to the :
(A) latent heat of fusion.
(A) Fractional distillation (B) Sublimation
(B) latent heat of vapourisation.
(C) Chromatography (D) Simple distillation
(C) latent heat of evaporation.
7. When common salt is added is ice - (D) latent heat of sublimation.
(A) its melting point decreases. 14. Crystallization is considered better than evaporation
(B) its melting point increases. for obtaining pure crystal of sugar because in evapo-
(C) its melting point does not change from 0ºC ration on heating -
(A) sugar sublimes.
(D) ice becomes harder.
(B) Sugar particles will evaporate.
8. Which of the following statements is false ? (C) Sugar particles will decompose.
(A) Melting and freezing point of a substance are the (D) Sugar particles will melt.
same. 15. The principle behind fractional distillation technique
(B) Evaporation of liquid takes place only at its boiling in separation of two liquids is -
point. (A) difference in Melting point
(C) Pure water has no taste (B) difference in Boiling point
(C) difference in Concentration
(D) Water allows sunlight to pass through it.
(D) difference in Solubility
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PAGE # 26
16. Solubility of a gas in a liquid increases on - 24. A pure substance can only be -
(A) increasing temperature. (A) a compound
(B) decreasing pressure. (B) an element
(C) an element or a compound
(C) increasing pressure.
(D) a heterogeneous mixture
(D) increasing temperature and pressure.
25. Which of the following statements is not true about
17. Fusion is the process of conversion of - suspension ?
(A) liquid into gas. (B) solid into gas. (A) The particles of suspension can be separated
(C) solid into liquid. (D) liquid into solid. from solvent by the process of filtration.
(B) When the suspension is kept undisturbed then
18. Carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The the particles of suspension settle down.
properties of carbon dioxide are - (C) A suspension is homogeneous in nature.
(A) similar to carbon (D) Scattering of particles take place in suspension.
(B) similar to oxygen 26. In which of the following, dispersed phase is a liquid
(C) totally different from both carbon and oxygen and dispersion medium is a gas ?
(D) much similar to both carbon and oxygen (A) Cloud (B) Smoke
(C) Gel (D) Soap bubble
19. A thermometer is inserted into a beaker filled with ice
at 0ºC. The beaker is heated slowly. The temperature 27. Which of the following statements is/are correct ?
does not rise for some time. This is because - (A) Intermolecular forces of attraction in solids are
maximum.
(A) ice is very cold
(B) Intermolecular forces of attraction in gases are
(B) heat was used for changing ice at 0ºC to water at
minimum.
0ºC (C) Intermolecular spaces in solids are minimum.
(C) the density of water is more than ice (D) All of the above
(D) the density of water is less than the ice
28. A liquid disturbed by stirring comes to rest after
20. Separation of cream from milk is done by : sometime due to its property of -
(A) filtration (A) Compressibility (B) Diffusion
(B) centrifugation method (C) Viscosity (D) All of these
(C) evaporation 29. W hich of the following statements regarding
(D) boiling melting point and freezing point of a substance is
21. What sublimate will be obtained when a mixture of true ?
sand, sulphur, common salt and iodine is sublimed ? (A) Melting point of a substance is more than its
(A) Sand (B) Iodine freezing point.
(C) Sulphur (D) Common salt (B) Melting point of a substance is less than its freez-
ing point.
22. Purity of organic liquid can be checked by its
(C) Melting point and freezing point of a substance
characteristic -
are same.
(A) boiling point
(B) volume (D) None of these.
(C) solubility in water 30. Which of the following conditions is most favourable
(D) solubility in alcohol for converting a gas into liquid ?
(A) High pressure, low temperature
23. Carbon tetra chloride and benzene are -
(B) Low pressure, low temperature
(A) immiscible liquid (B) miscible liquid (C) Low pressure, high temperature
(C) both ( and ) (D) None of these (D) High pressure, high temperature

    

27
27
27
PAGE # 27
 SYMBOLS & IT’S MEANING

 there exists

: such that

< is less than

> is greater than

 infinity

 belongs to

 angle

|| parallel to

 is congruent to

 therefore

 perpendicular to

~ difference

= is equal to

 is not equal to

 less than or equal to

 greater than or equal to

 intersection

 union

 contains (is a super set of)

 is contained in (is a sub set of)

 is equivalent to

 is implied by

 implies

PAGE # 28
 NUMBER SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
Number System is a method of writing numerals to
represent numbers.
 Ten symbols 0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 are used to
represent any number (however large it may be) in our
number system.
 Each of the symbols 0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 is called a
digit or a figure.
INTEGERS
The set of integers is the set of natural numbers, zero
and negative of natural numbers simultaneously. The
set of integers is denoted by  or Z.
 Z = { ........– 4, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 ...}
NATURAL NUMBER
 Counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ....are called natural
numbers.
 The set of natural numbers is denoted by N
i.e., N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .........}.
WHOLE NUMBER
 All natural numbers together with zero are called whole
numbers, as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... are whole numbers.
 The set of whole numbers is denoted by W, i.e.
W = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 .....}. So, W = N  {0}, where N is the
set of natural numbers.
 0 is the smallest whole number, there is no largest
whole number i.e. the number of the elements in the
set of whole numbers is infinite.
 Every natural number is a whole number.
i.e. N  W i.e. N is a subset of W..
 0 is a whole number, but not a natural number,
i.e. 0  W but 0  N
EVEN NUMBERS
 Whole numbers which are exactly divisible by 2 are
called even numbers.
 The set of even numbers is denoted by 'E', such that
E = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, .....}.
ODD NUMBERS
 Natural numbers which are not exactly divisible by 2
are called odd numbers. O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9.....}
PRIME NUMBERS
Natural numbers having exactly two distinct factors i.e.
1 and the number itself are called prime numbers.
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19,... are prime numbers.
 2 is the smallest and only even prime number.
IDENTIFICATION OF PRIME NUMBER
Step (i) Find approximate square root of given number.
Step (ii) Divide the given number by prime numbers less
than approximately square root of number. If given
number is not divisible by any of these prime number
then the number is prime otherwise not.
Ex.1 Is 131 a prime number ?
Sol. Approximate square root = 12
Prime number < 12 are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11. But 131 is not
divisible by any of these prime number. So, 131 is a
prime number.
COMPOSITE NUMBERS
Natural numbers having more than two factors are
called composite numbers.
 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18... are composite
numbers.
 Number 1 is neither prime nor composite number.
 All even numbers except 2 are composite numbers.
 Every natural number except 1 is either prime or
composite number.
There are infinite prime numbers and infinite composite
numbers.
CO-PRIME NUMBER OR RELATIVELY
PRIME NUMBERS
 Two natural numbers are said to be co-prime
numbers or relatively prime numbers if they have only
1 as common factor. For ex. 8, 9 ; 15, 16 ; 26, 33 etc. are
co-prime numbers.
 Co-prime numbers may not themselves be prime
numbers. As 8 and 9 are co-prime numbers, but neither
8 nor 9 is a prime number.
 Every two consecutive natural numbers are co - primes.
PAGE # 29
 Conversion of decimal numbers into rational
TWIN PRIMES numbers of the form plq.

 Pairs of prime numbers which have only one
composite number between them are called twin
primes.
For example : 3, 5 ; 5, 7 ; 11,13 ; 17, 19 ; 29, 31 ; 41, 43;
59, 61 and 71, 73 etc. are twin primes.
Short cut method for pure recurring decimal : Write
the repeated digit or digits only once in the numerator
and take as many nines in the denominator as there
are repeating digits in the given number.
For example : (i) 0. 3 = 3/9 or 1/3 (ii) 0. 387 = 387/999

RATIONAL NUMBERS
MIXED RECURRING DECIMAL
These are real numbers which can be expressed in the
form of p/q, where p and q are integers and q  0 . A decimal is said to be a mixed recurring decimal if
there is at least one digit after the decimal point, which
2 37 17
For example : , ,– . is not repeated.
3 15 19
Short cut method for mixed recurring decimal : Form
 All natural numbers, whole numbers and integers are a fraction in which numerator is the difference between
rational. the number formed by all the digits (take the digits
 Rational numbers include all Integers (without any once which are repeating after decimal) and that formed
decimal part to it), terminating fractions (fractions in by the digits which are not repeated and the
which the decimal parts terminating e.g. 0.75, – 0.02 denominator is the number formed by as many nines
etc.) and also non-terminating but recurring decimals. as there are repeated digits followed by as many zeros
e.g. 0.666....., – 2.333...., etc. as the number of non-repeated digits.
Ex.2 Change 0.7435 in the form of p/q.
FRACTIONS
7435  74 7361
Sol. 0.7435 = = .
(a) Common fraction : Fractions whose denominator is 9900 9900
not 10.
Ex.3 Change 12 .3 45 in the form of p/q.
(b) Decimal fraction : Fractions whose denominator is 10
or any power of 10. 12345 – 123
Sol.
3 990
(c) Proper fraction : Numerator < Denominator i.e. .
5 12222
= .
5 990
(d) Improper fraction : Numerator > Denominator i.e. .
3
COMPARISON OF FRACTIONS
(e) Mixed fraction : Consists of integral as well as fractional
2 Suppose some fractions are to be arranged in
part i.e. 3 .
7 ascending or descending order of magnitude. Then,
(f) Compound fraction : Fraction whose numerator and convert each one of the given fractions in the decimal
form, and arrange them accordingly.
2/3
denominator themselves are fractions. i.e. . 3 6 7
5/7 Now, = 0.6, = 0.857, = 0.777.....
5 7 9
 Improper fraction can be written in the form of mixed
fraction. 6 7 3
Since 0.857 > 0.777....> 0.6, so > > .
7 9 5
IRRATIONAL NUMBERS
REAL NUMBERS
All real numbers which are not rational are irrational
numbers. These are non-recurring as well as  The set of rational numbers and irrational numbers
non-terminating type of decimal numbers. taken together is known as a set of real numbers.
For example : 3
2, 4 , 2 3 , 2 3 , 47
3 etc.

PURE RECURRING DECIMAL

The absolute value of a real number I x I is defined as
A decimal is said to be a pure recurring decimal if the x, if x  0
a digit or set of digits after the decimals are repeated. |x|= 
1
 x, if x  0
Thus, = 0.333...... = 0.3 ,
3 For example :
22 | 2 |= 2 ; 2 > 0 and | – 2 | = – (– 2 ) = 2; – 2 < 0.
= 3.142857142857..... = 3. 142857 .
7

PAGE # 30
 Square roots : The square root of a number x is that
BODMAS RULE number which when multiplied by itself gives x as the
product. As we say square of 3 is 9, then we can also
This rule depicts the correct sequence in which the say that square root of 9 is 3.
operations are to be executed so as to find out the
The symbol used to indicate the square root of a
value of a given expression.
Here,’B’ stands for ‘Bracket’, ‘O’ for ‘of’, ‘D’ for Division, number is ‘ ’ , i.e. 81 = 9, 225 = 15 ...etc.
‘M’ for Multiplication’, ‘A’ for ‘Addition’ and ‘S’ for
subtraction’. We can calculate the square root of positive numbers
Thus, in simplifying an expression, first of all the
brackets must be removed, strictly in the order ( ), { } only. e.g. 25 = 5.
and [ ]. Properties of Square Roots :
After removing the brackets, we must use the following
operations strictly in the order : (i) If the unit digit of a number is 2, 3, 7 or 8, then it does
(i) Of (ii) Division (iii) Multiplication not have a square root in N.
(iv) Addition (v) Subtraction.
(ii) If a number ends in an odd number of zeros, then it
Vinculum (or Bar) : When an expression contains does not have a square root in N.
Vinculum, before applying the ‘BODMAS’ rule, we
simplify the expression under the Vinculum. (iii) The square root of an even number is even and
square root of an odd number is odd.
 
1  1 1  1 1 1 
  
Ex.4 Simplify : 3 4  1 4  2  2 2  4  6  e.g. 81 = 9, 256 = 16, 324 = 18 ...etc.
   
(iv) Negative numbers have no square root in set of
 13  5 1  5 3  2 
Sol. Given exp.  4   4  2  2  12  real numbers.
   
Ex.6 If 18225 = 135, then find the value of
 13  5 1  5 1  
     ( 182 .25 + 1.8225 + 0.018225 + 0.00018225 ) .
=  
 4  4 2  2 12   Sol. Given exp.
 13  5 1  30  1   ( 182 .25 + 1.8225 + 0.018225 + 0.00018225 )
=      
 4  4 2  12  
18225 18225 18225 18225
= + + +
 13  5 29  102 104 106 108
=    
 4  4 24 
18225 18225 18225 18225
 13  30  29  = + + +
10 102 103 104
=   
 4  24 
135 135 135 135
 13 1   13 = + + +
 10 100 1000 10000
=  4  24  =  4  24  = 78.
    = 13.5 + 1.35 + 0.135 + 0.0135 = 14.9985.

SQUARE AND SQUARE ROOTS CUBE AND CUBE ROOTS

Squares : When a number is multiplied by itself then
Cube : If any number is multiplied by itself three times
the product is called the square of that number.
then the result is called the cube of that number.
Perfect Square : A natural number is called a perfect
square if it is the square of any other natural number Perfect cube : A natural number is said to be a perfect
e.g. 1, 4, 9,... are the squares of 1, 2, 3,... respectively. cube if it is the cube of any other natural number.

Ex. 5 Find the least perfect square which is exactly divisible Cube roots : The cube root of a number x is that
by each of the numbers 6, 9, 15 and 20. number whose cube gives x.
Sol. The cube root of x is denoted by the symbol 3
x . Thus,
2 6, 9, 15, 20 3
8 = 2, 3
27 = 3, 3
64 = 4, 3
125 = 5 and so on.
2 3, 9, 15, 10
Ex.7 By what least number 675 be multiplied to obtain a
3 3, 9, 15, 5 number which is a perfect cube ?
3 1, 3, 5, 5 Sol. 675 = 5 × 5 × 3 × 3 × 3.
5 1, 1, 5, 5 To make it a perfect cube, it must be multiplied by 5.

1, 1, 1, 1 Ex.8 Find the cube root of .000216.

1/ 3 1/ 3
 216   666 
 LCM = 3 × 5 × 2 × 3 × 2 = 180. Sol. (0.000216)1/3 =   =  
2
The least multiple of 180 which is a perfect square is  106  2 2
 10  10  10 
180 × 5 = 900.
6 6
= = = 0.06
10 2 100

PAGE # 31
 Ex.11 Ajay multiplied 484 by a certain number to get the
FACTORS AND MULTIPLES
result 3823a. Find the value of ‘a’.
Factors : ‘a’ is a factor of ‘b’ if there exists a relation Sol. 3823a is divisible by 484, and 484 is a factor of 3823a.
such that a × n = b, where ‘n’ is any natural number. 4 is a factor of 484 and 11 is also a factor of 484.
Hence, 3823a is divisible by both 4 and 11.
Number of factors : For any composite number C,
To be divisible by 4, the last two digits have to be
which can be expressed as C = ap × bq × cr ×....., where
divisible by 4.
a, b, c ..... are all prime factors and p, q, r are positive
‘a’ can take two values 2 and 6.
integers, then the number of factors is equal to (p + 1)
38232 is not divisible by 11, but 38236 is divisible by
× (q + 1) × (r + 1)....
11.
For example : 36 = 22 × 32. Hence, 6 is the correct choice.
So the factors of 36 = (2 +1) × (2 + 1) = 3 × 3 = 9.
Ex.12 Find the smallest number of 6 digit which is exactly
Ex.9 Find the total number of factors in the expression divisible by 111.
(4)11 × (7)5 × (11)2. Sol. Smallest number of 6 digits is 100000.
On dividing 100000 by 111, we get 100 as remainder.
Sol. (4)11 × (7)5 × (11)2 = (2 × 2)11 × (7)5 × (11)2
Number to be added = (111, – 100) = 11.
= 222 × 75 × 112. Hence, required number = 100011.
 Total number of factors = (22 + 1)(5 + 1)(2 + 1) = 414.
REMAINDERS
DIVISIBILITY
The method of finding the remainder without actually
Division Algorithm : General representation of result is, performing the process of division is termed as
remainder theorem.
Dividend Re mainder
 Quotient 
Divisor Divisor  Remainder should always be positive. For example if

Dividend = (Divisor × Quotient ) + Remainder we divide –22 by 7, generally we get –3 as quotient

and –1 as remainder. But this is wrong because
Ex.10 On dividing 4150 by certain number, the quotient is remainder is never be negative hence the quotient
55 and the remainder is 25. Find the divisor. should be –4 and remainder is + 6. We can also get
Sol. 4150 = 55 × x + 25 remainder 6 by adding –1 to divisor 7 (7 –1 = 6).
 55x = 4125
Ex.13 A number when divided by 296 gives a remainder 75.
4125 When the same number is divided by 37, then find the
 x= = 75.
55 remainder.
Sol. Number = (296 × Q) + 75
 NOTE :
= (37 × 8Q) + (37 × 2) + 1 = 37 × (8Q + 2) + 1.
(i) (xn – an) is divisible by (x – a) for all the values of n.
 Required remainder = 1.
(ii) (xn – an) is divisible by (x + a) and (x – a) for all the
even values of n. Ex.14 A number being successively divided by 3, 5 and 8
n n
(iii) (x + a ) is divisible by (x + a) for all the odd values of n. leaves remainders 1, 4 and 7 respectively. Find the
respective remainders if the order of divisors be
Test of Divisibility : reversed.
No. Divisiblity Te st Sol.
3 x
2 U nit digit s hould be 0 or even
5 y 1
3 The s um of digits of no. s hould be divis ible by 3 8 z 4
1 7
4 The no form ed by las t 2 digits of given no. s hould be divis ible by 4.

5 U nit digit s hould be 0 or 5.  z = (8 × 1 + 7) = 15 ; y = (5z + 4) = (5 × 15 + 4) = 79 ;

6 N o s hould be divis ible by 2 & 3 both x = (3y + 1) = (3 × 79 + 1) = 238.
8 The num ber form ed by las t 3 digits of given no. s hould be divis ible by 8. Now,
9 Sum of digits of given no. s hould be divis ible by 9
8 238
The difference betw een s um s of the digits at even & at odd places
5 29 6
11
s hould be zero or m ultiple of 11.
3 5 4
1 2
25 Las t 2 digits of the num ber s hould be 00, 25, 50 or 75.
 Respective remainders are 6, 4, 2.

PAGE # 32

We are having 10 digits in our decimal number system
and some of them shows special characterstics like
they repeat their unit digit after a cycle, for example 1
repeat its unit digit after every consecutive power. So, its
cyclicity is 1, on the other hand digit 2 repeat its unit digit
after every four power, hence the cyclicity of 2 is four.
The cyclicity of digits are as follows :
Digit Cyclicity
0, 1, 5 and 6 1
4 and 9 2
2, 3, 7 and 8 4
So, if we want to find the last digit of 245, divide 45 by 4.
The remainder is 1 so the last digit of 245 would be
same as the last digit of 21 which is 2.
Ex.15 Find the unit digit in the product (771 × 659 × 365).
Sol. Unit digit in 74 is 1.
 Unit digit in 768 is 1.
Unit digit in 771 is 3.
[1 × 7 × 7 × 7 given unit digit 3]
Again, every power of 6 will give unit digit 6.
 Unit digit in 659 is 6.
Unit digit in 34 is 1.
 Unit digit in 364 is 1 . Unit digit in 365 is 3.
 Unit digit in (771 × 659 × 365)
 Unit digit in (3 × 6 × 3) = 4.
Ex.16 Find unit’s digit in y = 717 + 734
Sol. 717 + 734 = 71 + 72 = 56, Hence the unit digit is 6.
HIGHEST POWER DIVIDING A FACTORIAL
Factorial n : Product of n consecutive natural numbers
is known as ‘factorial n’ it is denoted by ‘n!’.
So, n! = n(n – 1)(n – 2)...321. e.g. 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 =
120.
 The value of factorial zero is equal to the value of
factorial one. Hence 0! = 1 = 1!
The approach to finding the highest power of x dividing
y  y   y 
y! is     2    3  ......., where [ ] represents just
x x  x 
the integral part of the answer and ignoring the
fractional part.
Ex.17 What is the highest power of 2 that divides 20!
completely?
1 After 9, we use the letters to indicate digits. For instance,
Sol. 20! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 ×....× 18 × 19 × 20 = 1 × (2 ) × 3 ×
(22) × 5 × (21 × 31) × 7 × (23) × ..... so on. In order to find
the highest power of 2 that divides the above product,
we need to find the sum of the powers of all 2 in this
expansion. All numbers that are divisible by 21 will
contribute 1 to the exponent of 2 in the product
20
= 10. Hence, 10 numbers contribute 21 to the
21
product. Similarly, all numbers that are divisible by
22 will contribute an extra 1 to the exponent of 2 in the
20
product, i.e = 5. Hence, 5 numbers contribute an
22
extra 1 to exponents. Similarly, there are 2 numbers
that are divisible by 23 and 1 number that is divisible
by 24. Hence, the total 1s contributed to the exponent
of 2 in 20! is the sum of ( 10 + 5 +2 +1) = 18. Hence,
group of all 2s in 20! gives 218 x (N), where N is not
divisible by 2.
If 20! is divided by 2x then maximum value of x is 18.
Ex.18 What is the highest power of 5 that divides of
x = 100! = 100 × 99 × 98 × ...... × 3 × 2 × 1.
Sol. Calculating contributions of the different powers of 5,
100 100
we have = 20, = 4.
51 52
Hence, the total contributions to the power of 5 is 24,
or the number 100! is divisible by 524.
Ex.19 What is the highest power of 6 that divides 9!
9 9
Sol. By the normal method. = 1 and 2 = 0. Thus
6 6
answers we get is 1 which is wrong. True there is just
one multiple of 6 from 1 to 9 but the product 2 × 3 = 6
and also 4 × 9 = 36, can further be divided by 6. Thus,
when the divisor is a composite number find the
highest power of its prime factors and then proceed.
In this case, 9! can be divided by 27 and 34 and thus by
64 (In this case we need not have checked power of 2
as it would definitely be greater than that of 3).
, BASE SYSTEM
The number system that we work in is called the
‘decimal system’. This is because there are 10 digits
in the system 0-9. There can be alternative system
that can be used for arithmetic operations. Some of
the most commonly used systems are : binary, octal
and hexadecimal.
These systems find applications in computing.
Binary system has 2 digits : 0, 1.
Octal system has 8 digits : 0, 1,..., 7.
Hexadecimal system has 16 digits : 0, 1, 2,..., 9, A , B,
C, D, E, F.
A has a value 10, B has a value 11, C has a value 12,...
so on in all base systems.
The counting sequences in each of the systems would
be different though they follow the same principle.
PAGE # 33
 Conversion : Conversion of numbers from (i) decimal
1a4
system to other base system. (ii) other base system to x3b
decimal system. Ex.24 If then, find the value of b + a, where all
8c8
(i) Conversion from base 10 to any other base :
s 72
Ex.20 Convert (122)10 to base 8 system.
t 5d8
Sol.
8 122 the digits are different.
8 15 2 Sol. Let us consider 1 a 4 × 3 = s72.
8 1 7 a × 3 results in a number ending in 6.
As 16 and 26 is ruled out, a is 2.
0 1 Thus, s = 3, t, 4
Now 1 a 4 × b = 8c8 ; b = 2 or 7
The number in decimal is consecutively divided by the Again 2 is ruled out because in that case, product would
number of the base to which we are converting the be much less than 800.
decimal number. Then list down all the remainders in  b = 7.
Hence, a = 2, b = 7, c = 6, d = 8, s = 3 and t = 4.
the reverse sequence to get the number in that base.
So, here (122) 10 = (172)8.

Ex.21 Convert (169)10 in base 7.

1. In numbers from 1 to 100 digit “0” appears_______
7 169 times.
7 24 1 (A) 9 (B) 10
7 3 3 Remainder (C) 11 (D) 12
Sol. 0
3
2. How many numbers are there containing
(169)10 =(331)7 2 digits.
(ii) Conversion from any other base to decimal (A) 90 (B) 99
system : (C) 100 (D) 89

Ex.22 Convert (231)8 into decimal system. 3. Which of the following statement is true?
Sol. (231)8 , the value of the position of each of the numbers (A) Every whole number is a natural number
( as in decimal system) is : (B) Every natural number is a whole number
(C) ‘1’ is the least whole number
1 = 80 × 1
(D) None of these
3 = 81 × 3
2 = 82 × 2 4. What least number should be added to 1330 to get a
0 1
Hence, (231)8 = (8 × 1 + 8 × 3 + 8 × 2)10 2 number exactly divisible by 43?
(A) 46 (B) 1
(231)8 = (1 + 24 + 128)10
(C) 3 (D) 7
(231)8 = (153)10
5. The last digit of the number (373)333 is :
(A) 1 (B) 2
ALPHA NUMERICS NUMBERS
(C) 3 (D) 9
6. The two missing numbers shown with asterisk in the
aa 3 1
equation 5  * = 19 are :
b b * 2
Ex.23 If a – b = 2, and then find the value of a, b and c.
cc 0 (A) 6, 3 (B) 7, 3
(C) 8,3 (D) 11, 3
Sol. These problems involve basic number
(i) aa + bb = 11(a + b) (ii) aa, bb are two-digit numbers. 7. Given 5 = 2.236 the value of 45 + 605 – 245
Hence, their sum cannot exceed 198. So, c must be 1.
correct to 3 decimal places is :
(iii) Hence, cc0 = 110. This implies a + b = 10 or a = 6
(A) 15.652 (B) 11.180
and b = 4. (C) 18.652 (D) 16.652
Such problems are part of a category of problems
called alpha numerics.

PAGE # 34
 3 15. If A and B are real numbers and A2 + B2 = 0, then :
8. A student was asked to multiply a number by . (A) A > 0, B < 0 (B) A < 0, B > 0
2
3 (C) A = 0 = B (D) A = – B
Instead he divided the number by and obtained a
2 16. The sum of three consecutive odd numbers is always
2 divisible by :
number smaller by , the number is : I. 2 II. 3 III. 5 IV. 6
3
(A) only I (B) only II
4 3 (C) only I and III (D) only II and IV
(A) (B)
5 5
17. 461 + 462 + 463 + 464 is divisible by :
2 1
(C) (D) (A) 3 (B) 10
3 2 (C) 11 (D) 13
9. Which of the following statements is true ? 7
18. Which of the following fractions is less than and
8
2 4 5 7
(A)    1
3  9 12  18 greater than ?
3
1 23
(A) (B)
7 5 4 2 4 24
(B)   
 18 12  9 3
11 17
(C) (D)
12 24
4 7 5 2
(C)    19. Simplify : 18 – [5 – {6 + 2(7 – 8  5 )}].
 9  18 12 3
(A) 13 (B) 15
(C) 27 (D) 32
2 5 4 7
(D)      
3 12  9  18 3  1   1 1 
20. 5 –  4  2 2   0.5  6  7  is equal to :
   
10. Which of the following rational numbers lie between
23 1
3 9 (A) 2 (B) 3
and ? 84 6
7 8
1 3 1
(A) (B) 0 (C) 3 (D) 5
2 10 10
12
(C) (D) None of these 21. If 2805  2.55 = 1100, then 280.5  25.5 =
15
(A) 1.1 (B) 1.01
11. 0.018 can be expressed in the rational form as : (C) 0.11 (D) 11
18 18 22. The least number by which 294 must be multiplied to
(A) (B)
1000 990 make it a perfect square, is :
18 18 (A) 2 (B) 3
(C) (D)
9900 999 (C) 6 (D) 24
12. The least number which must be subtracted from 2509
23. The number of prime factors of (3 × 5)12 (2 × 7)10 (10)25
to make it a perfect square is :
is :
(A) 6 (B) 9
(A) 47 (B) 60
(C) 12 (D) 14
(C) 72 (D) 94
13. If x  y = x 2  y 2 , the value of (1  2 2 ) (1   2 2 ) is : 24. On dividing a number by 999, the quotient is 366 and
(A) –7 (B) 0 the remainder is 103. The number is :
(C) 2 (D) 9 (A) 364724 (B) 365387
(C) 365737 (D) 366757
5
14. The value of 4  is :
1 8  [5  ( 3  2)]  2
1 25. Evaluate : .
1 53  58 3
3
1 (A) 2 (B) 3
2
4
(C) 4 (D) 5
40 4
(A) (B) 26. The value of 214  130  88  44  25 :
31 9
1 31 (A) 14 (B) 15
(C) (D)
8 40 (C) 16 (D) 17

PAGE # 35
 38. Which of the following is an irrational number :
3
9 (A) 3.65789 (B) 3.65789125634.....
27. (2 2 ) × is :
8 (C) 3.65786578..... (D) 3.666......
(A) a rational number (B) an irrational number 39. The number of such squares having area less then 8
(C) undefined (D) none of these times their sides (numerically), will be :
28. The sum of the digit of a number 10n – 1 is 3798. The (A) 1 (B) 5
value of n is : (C) more than 6 (D) 0
(A) 422 (B) 431 m
(C) 501 (D) 673 40. If the fraction is negative, which of the following
n
cannot be true ?
1 1 1 1 1 1
29. The value of 1  [1  1  (1  1  1 )] is : n m
2 2 2 2 2 4 (A) > (B) mn < 0
m n
1 1 (C) (n – m) < 0 (D) mn3 > 0
(A) (B)
2 4
1 1 41. Physical Instructor wants to arrange boys in rows to
(C) (D) 1 form a perfect square. He finds that in doing so, 25
16 5
boys are left out. If the total number of boys is 1250
30. If 1 .21 = 1.1, then .000121 is equal to : then find the number of boys in each row is :
(A) 25 (B) 125
(A) 0.0011 (B) 0.011
(C) 45 (D) 35
(C) 0.11 (D) 11.0
42. Find out (A + B + C + D) such that AB x CB = DDD,
31. Between two positive integers, there are K integers,
where AB and CB are two-digit numbers and DDD is a
then K is :
three-digit number.
(A) Finite (B) Infinite
(A) 21 (B) 19
(C) Finite under some conditions
(C) 17 (D) 18
(D) Infinite under some conditions
43. S is a six digit number beginning with 1. If the digit 1 is
32. The largest natural number by which the product of
moved from the leftmost place to the rightmost place
three consecutive even natural number is always
the number obtained is three times of S, What is the
divisible is :
sum of the digits of S ?
(A) 16 (B) 24
(A) 12 (B) 15
(C) 48 (D) 96
(C) 18 (D) 27
33. If a number x is divided by 95, then remainder is 30. If
44. If ABC x CBA = 65125, where A, B and C are single
the same number x is divided by 5, then what is
digits, then A + B + C = ?
remainder ?
(A) 18 (B) 15
(A) 2 (B) 3
(C) 8 (D) 7
(C) 4 (D) 0
45. If 27 = 123 and 31 = 133,
34. A gardener plants tree in rows and finds that each row
Than 15 = ?
contains twice as many tree as these are rows. If the
(A) 13 (B) 31
number of trees be 5408. Then the number of tree in
(C) 11 (D) 33
each row is :
(A) 100 (B) 104 46. What is the largest power of 12 that would divide 49! ?
(C) 108 (D) 112 (A) 22 (B) 23
(C) 24 (D) 20
35. x and x + y are the square of two consecutive natural
number. What is the square of the next natural number ? 47. The highest power of 3 which is a factor of the product
(A) x + 2y (B) x + 2y + 2
of all the integers from 1 to 200 is-
(C) x + 3y (D) x + y2
(A) 100 (B) 97
1
36. If (12 +22 +32 +42 +52)2 = , then P is : (C) 102 (D) None of these
P
1 48. How many zero’s are there in the end of the multipli-
(A) (B) 3125
3125 cation 4! 4! 8!8! 16!16!
1
(C) (D) 3025 (A) 8! + 16! (B) 8! + 2.16!
3025 (C) 8! + 3.16! (D) 8!.3.16!
3 2 11 5
37. In the equation 2 ×1 +9 = 1 + x, x is equals 49. The digit in the unit place in the expansion of 427 is :
4 3 12 6
to : (A) 2 (B) 4
(C) 6 (D) 8
2 7
(A) 12 (B) 10
3 12 50. The unit digit in the expression (36234) (33512) – (5429)
2 1 (25123) will be :
(C) 10 (D) 9
3 12 (A) 6 (B) 8
(C) 0 (D) 5
PAGE # 36
 CELL DIVISION
STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOME
Chromosomes are the vehicles of heredity which
possess DNA and are enclosed inside the nucleus.
They are capable of self reproduction and maintaining
morphological and physiological properties through
successive generations.Each chromosome consists
of two strands which are called as chromatids.The
two chromatids of a chromosome are joined together
at a point called as centromere.
• NOTE : These shapes can be observed durig anaphse
(a) Size and Shape of Chromosomes :
• A cell which has the complete set of chromosomes
(i) Size : Size of chromosomes is variable in different
organisms, different tissues and at different stages
of the cell cycle.
• The gametes (or sex cells) of human beings are
• Human gametes called sperm and egg have only 23
(ii) Shape : It is usually determined by the position of
its centromere. On this basis chromosomes can be
of following types :
(A) Metacentric : They are V – shaped. These have
centromere in the middle of the chromosomes so
that the two arms are almost equal.
(B) Submetacentric : They are L shaped. In them
centromeres are slightly away from the midpoints, so
that the two arms are unequal.
(C) Acrocentric : They are J-shaped with centromere
at subterminal position.
(D) Telocentric : They are I-shaped, having terminal
centromere.
stage of cell division.
(b) Number of Chromosomes :
Each species has a fixed number of chromosomes
in it’s cells.In an ordinary human cell 23 pairs of
chromosomes are present.So, there are two
chromosomes, of each kind. These two
chromosomes of each kind are called as homologous
chromosomes.
with two of each kind is called as diploid cell. In other
words a diploid cell has two sets having two
chromosomes of each type.
different from their other body cells because they
contain only half the number of chromosomes. A cell
which has half the number of chromosomes, is called
as haploid cell. In other words a haploid cell has only
one set of each type of chromosomes.
chromosomes which is half the number of
chromosomes of other body cells. So, a gamete is a
haploid cell.
PAGE # 37
• Females consist of two similar gametes and therefore
called as homogametic and males consist of
dissimilar gametes and therefore called as
heterogametic. During spermatogenesis two types
of sperm cells will be produced one which contains
X-chromosome and the other which contains Y
chromosome.During oogenesis each egg cell contain
one X-chromosomes.
• If X – chromosome of male fuses with X-chromosome
of female it will produce a female child.
• If Y – chromosome of male fuses with X-chromosome
of female it will produce a male child.
(c) Properties of Chromosomes :
The chromosomes must possess five important
properties :
(i) Replication : Synthesis of new DNA molecule which
is identical to the parent DNA molecule.
(ii) Transcription : Synthesis of RNA molecule which
is identical to the DNA molecule.
(iii) Change in appearance.
(iv) Repair : It means correction of damaged parts by
DNA.
(v) Mutation : Development of genetic changes.
(d) Functions of Chromosomes :
(i) They carry hereditary characters from parents to
offsprings.
(ii) They help the cells to grow, divide and maintain
itself by synthesis of proteins.
(iii) They undergo mutation and thus contribute to the
evolution of animals.
(iv) They guide cell differentiation during development.
(v) They also help in metabolic process.
(vi) They bring about continuity of life.
CELL DIVISION
Cell division was first observed by Nageli in plant cell
(1842).
(a) Cell Cycle :
It is a series of programmed cyclic changes by which
the cell duplicates its contents and divides into two
parts. It is divided into two phases :
Mitotic division phase
(1 h hase
Mp
r)
(3-4 hr)
G2 phase (12 hr)
G1 phase
S-phase
(6-8 hr)
D.N.A.
Synthesis
Cell cycle
(i) Long non dividing (I – phase) or interphase.
(ii) Short dividing M – phase or mitotic phase
(i) Long non dividing (I – phase) or interphase : t is a
complex of changes that occurs in a newly formed cell
before it is able to divide. It lasts throughout the life. It
involves replication of DNA and synthesis of nuclear
proteins and duplication of centriole. Synthesis of energy
rich components also takes place.This occurs in three
stages i.e. G1 (First growth phase), S (Synthesis phase),
G2 (Second growth phase)
(ii) Short dividing M – phase : t is the phase of cell
division. It consists of karyokinesis (nuclear division)
and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division).It is of two types :
(b) Mitosis :
• Term mitosis was given by Flemming.
• It is also called as somatic division as it occurs during
formation of body cells.
• It is studied in plants, in meristems and in animals in
bone marrow, skin and base of nails.
• It is an equational division in which a parent cell divides
into two identical daughter cells, each of them contains
the same number and kind of chromosomes as are
present in parent cell.
• It occurs in two steps :
(i) Karyokinesis (ii) Cytokinesis
(i) Karyokinesis : Division of nucleus. It is divided in
four steps :
(A) Prophase : Chromatin fibres condense to form
chromosomes.They shorten and become distinct with
each having two chromatids attached to centromere.
Centrosomes reach the poles and form spindle
fibres.Nucleolus disappears, nuclear membrane
disappears.
(B) Metaphase : Chromosomes attach to spindle
fibres arise from each pole and lie at the equator,
forming a metaphase plate.Chromosomes are
shortest and thickest in this stage.
(C) Anaphase : Shortest phase, In this phase
centromere of each chromosome divides to form two
daughter chromosomes.They remain attached to
poles through spindle fibres and start moving towards
pole and become shortened. They appear in different
shapes.
• V – Shaped (Metacentric)
• L – Shaped (Submetacentric)
• J – Shaped (Acrocentric)
• I – Shaped (Telocentric)
(D) Telophase : Nucleus is reconstituted,
chromosomes uncoil, elongate and form chromatin
fibre.Nucleolus & nuclear envelope reappears forming
two daughter nuclei
PAGE # 38
(ii) Cytokinesis : It is referred to the division of
cytoplasm.It begins towards the middle of anaphase
and completes with the completion of telophase.By
this the complete cytoplasm including matrix as well
as organelles divides equally.In animals it occurs by
formation of cleavage furrow in the middle by
constriction in plasma membrane.In plants it occurs
by cell plate formation.

PAGE # 39
 (c) Meiosis : (B) Meiosis – II : It is also called as equational division
• It occurs only once in the life cycle of gametes. and maintains the haploid number of chromosomes.
No replication of DNA occurs in this stage.
• It is a double division in which a diploid cell divides
twice to form four haploid cells. • Prophase – II : Chromatin fibres shorten and form
• It can be studied in anthers of unopened flowers in chromosomes.Nuclear envelope and nucleolus start
plants and in testis of grasshopper in animals.It disappearing.
consists of two phases :
• Metaphase – II : Chromosomes form single
(i) Interphase : Size of nucleus increases to three
metaphasic plate by arranging themselves on
times. It also involves G1 – S – G2 phase.
equator.
(ii) M – phase : It occurs in two steps
• Anaphase – II : Centromere divides into two and
(A) Meiosis – I, (B) Meiosis – II
separates two chromatids of chromosome into two
(A) Meiosis – I : Also called as reduction division. independent daughter chromosomes or chromatids.
Diploid state changes to haploid state.It occurs in four • Telophase – II : The four groups of chromosomes
steps : organize themselves into 4 haploid nuclei.Chromatin
fibres are formed, nucleolus and nuclear envelope
• Prophase – I : It is the longest phase of meiosis. It are reappeared.
has following stages :
• Leptotene : Chromatin fibres condense to form
chromosomes. There are two chromosomes of each
type which are diploid and are called as “homologous
chromosomes”.
• Zygotene : Homologous chromosomes join by
synapsis and form bivalents which are actually tetrads
with half the number of individual chromosomes,
pairing proceeds in zipper like fashion forming
synaptonemal complex.
• Pachytene : There occurs exchange of segments
between non sister chromatids of bivalents and is
called as crossing over.

• Diplotene : Synaptonemal complex is dissolved,

tetrads are formed. At some places nonsister
chromatids of two homologous chromosomes remain
attached forming, chiasmata.
• Diakinesis : Chiasmata shifts towards ends,
nucleolus degenerates.
• Metaphase – I : Spindles are formed and bivalents Fig. Various Stages of Meiosis
form a double whorl or double metaphase plate.
• Anaphase – I : Chiasmata disappears, homologous • Significance of mitosis : It is essential for growth,
chromosomes separate by disjunction forming repair, differentiation, maintenance of chromosome
dyads.They move towards poles and form two groups number etc.
of haploid chromosomes. • Significance of meiosis : It produces variations and
essential for sexual reproduction. It maintains the
• Telophase – I : Chromosomes elongate, chromosome number in each generation of living
nucleoplasm & nuclear envelope reappears. organisms.

PAGE # 40
 Differences between mitoitc and meiotic cell division
S.No. Mitosis Meiosis
1. It occurs in all s om atic cells . It occurs in reproductive cells (germ cells )
2. In the res ultant daughter cells , the num ber of In res ultant daughter cells , the num ber of
chrom os om es rem ains the s am e (i.e., diploid), chrom os om es reduces to half (i.e., haploid),
hence, called equational divis ion. hence, called reductional divis ion.

3. By m itos is two daughter cells are produced
4. During m itos is no cros s ing over takes place
5. Daughter cells have identical chrom os om es
which are als o identical to that of parent cell (i.e.
rem ains cons tant)
By m eios is four daughter cells are produced.
During m eios is cros s ing over takes place.
Chrom os om es of the daughter cells are with
com bined com ponents (genes ) of both parents
(i.e., genetic variability occurs )

(c) Amitosis : nucleus elongate, constrict in middle and break off

into nearly equal halves.
• It is also known as Direct or Incipient cell division.
• It occurs in abnormal case. It occurs in prokaryotes
• First described by Remak (1841).
(E.g. Bacteria, cyanobacteria etc.) and eukaryotes (E.g.
• It is a very simple cell division. It occurs without spindle
Amoeba, Yeast, Foetal membrane cells, Endosperm
formation and appearance of chromosomes, also the
cells of seed, Diseased cell and Old tissues).
nuclear membrane remains intact. Both cell and its

5. The stage of the meiosis in which nucleolus and

EXERCISE nuclear membrane disappear and chromosomes
become distinct is
1. Crossing over in diploid organism is responsible for : (A) prophase (B) metaphase
(C) anaphase (D) telophase
(A) dominance of genes
(B) recombination of linked genes 6. In which of the following stages chromosomes are
thin and long thread -like ?
(C) linkage between genes
(A) Leptotene (B) Zygotene
(D) sagregation of genes (C) Pachytene (D) Diplotene
2. Which one of following structures will not be common 7. In which phase of mitosis, the chromosomes are
to meiotic cells of higher plants ? arranged around the equator of the spindle ?
(A) Cell plate (B) Centriole (A) Prophase (B) Metaphase
(C) Centromere (D) Spindle fibres (C) Anaphase (D) Telophase
8. Chromosomes are distinctly visible in
3. How many mitotic divisions are needed for a single (A) anaphase (B) metaphase
cell to make 128 cells ? (C) prophase (D) telophase
(A) 7 (B) 14 (C) 28 (D) 64
9. Series of cell division is
4. Nuclear membrane reappears in (A) prophase, metaphase, anaphse, telophase
(A) anaphase (B) metaphase (B) prophase, anaphase, metaphase, telophase
(C) prophase, metaphase, telophase, anaphase
(C) telophase (D) none of the above
(D) anaphase, metaphase, telophase, prophase

PAGE # 41
10. The actual shape of chromosomes can be seen in 13. Chiasmata represents the sites of
(A) metaphase - I of meiosis (A) synapsis (B) disjunction
(B) anaphase - I of meiosis (C) crossing over (D) terminalization
(C) metaphase of mitosis
(D) anaphase of mitosis 14. Chromosomes other than sex chromosomes are
called as
11. Duplication of chromosomes takes place in
(A) S-phase (B) G1 - phase (A) allosomes (B) autosomes
(C) G2-phase (D) M-phase (C) microsomes (D) none of the above

12. The chromosome number is reduced to half in 15. In humans the number of chromosomes in a diploid
(A) mitosis (B) meiosis cell is
(C) binary fission (D) parthenogenesis (A) 23 (B) 46 (C) 44 (D) 30



PAGE # 42
 NUMBER SERIES
Number series problems deal with numbers. Ex 6. 1, 8, 9, 64, 25, 216, ?, ?
While attempting to solve the question, you have (A) 49, 64 (B) 343, 64
to check the pattern of the series. Series moves (C) 49, 512 (D) 343, 512
with certain mathematical operations. You have Sol. (C) Odd positioned digits are squares of 1, 3, 5
to check the pattern.
and so on, i.e. 12 = 1, 32 = 9, 52 = 25 and so on.
Type of questions asked in the examination :
(i) Find the missing term(s). Similarly, even positioned digits are cubes of 2,
(ii) Find the wrong term(s). 4, 6, etc., i.e. 23 = 8, 43 = 64, 63 = 216.
Therefore, the next term would be 72 i.e. 49 and
Number Series 83 = 512 respectively.
Ex 7. 0, 7, 26, ?, 124, 215
In this type of series, the set of given numbers in (A) 51 (B) 37
a series are related to one another in a particular
(C) 63 (D) 16
pattern or manner. The relationship between the
numbers may be Sol. (C) Each term is a cube of 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on
• Consecutive odd/even numbers, and 1 subtracted from it, i.e.
13 – 1, 23 – 1, 33 – 1, 43 – 1, 53 – 1, 63 – 1.
• Consecutive prime / composite numbers,
Therefore, the term replacing the question mark
• Squares/cubes of some numbers with/without would be 43 – 1 = 64 – 1 = 63.
variation of addition or substraction of some
number, Ex 8. 3, 4, 10, 33, 136, ?
• Sum/product/difference of preceding number(s), (A) 240 (B) 430
(C) 685 (D) 820
• Addition/subtraction/multiplication/division by
Sol. (C) The terms of the series are, previous term
some number, and
× 1 + 1, previous term × 2 + 2, previous term
• Many more combinations of the relationship × 3 + 3 and so on. Hence, the next term will be
given above. 136 × 5 + 5 = 680 + 5 = 685.
Directions : (1 to 13) Find the missing numbers :
Ex 9. 11, 15, 21, 29, ?
Ex 1. 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, ? (A) 40 (B) 41
(A) 14 (B) 19 (C) 37 (D) 39
(C) 15 (D) 21 Sol. (D) This series consists of increasing numbers.
Sol. (B) Each term has a common difference = + 2. The pattern is +4, +6, +8,........
Hence, next term = 17 + 2 = 19.
Ex 2. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ?, 17 Ex 10. 3, 6, 18, 72, 360, ?
(A) 14 (B) 13 (A) 720 (B) 1080
(C) 10 (D) 12 (C) 1600 (D) 2160
Sol. (B) The series is made up of consecutive prime Sol. (D) The sequence in the given series is
numbers. Therefore, the missing term is 13. × 2, × 3, × 4, × 5, × 6.
Ex 3. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ? Hence, the missing number is 360× 6 =2160.
(A) 35 (B) 36
Ex 11. 6, 12, 7, 11, 8, 10, 9, ?
(C) 37 (D) 49
(A) 8 (B) 9
Sol. (B) Each term is a square of 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on
12 = 1, 22 = 4, 32 = 9, 42 = 16, 52 = 25. (C) 11 (D)10
Hence, next term = 62 = 36. Sol. (B) Alternate series [Difference series]
(i) 6, 7, 8, 9
Ex 4. 2, 5, 10, 17, ?
(A) 24 (B) 25 (ii) 12, 11, 10, ?
(C) 26 (D) 27 Ex 12. 0, 5, 22, 57, 116, ?
Sol. (C) Each term is a square of 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on (A) 205 (B) 216
and 1 is added to it, i.e.
(C) 192 (D) 207
12 + 1, (2)2 +1, (3)2 +1,..........= 2, 5, 10, 17....
Hence, next term = (5)2 + 1 = 26. 0 5 22 57 116 205
Ex 5. 2, 3, 10, 15, 26, 35, ?
(A) 48 (B) 51 Sol. (A) Difference 5 17 35 59 89
(C) 49 (D) 50
Sol. (D) The series exhibits the pattern of n2 + 1, Difference 12 18 24 30
n2 – 1, alternately, n taking values 1, 2, ......
Hence, the next term = 205

PAGE # 43
Ex 13. 151, 158, 172, 182, ? 6. 2, 12, 36, 80, 150, ?
(A) 210 (B) 193 (A) 194 (B) 210
(C) 197 (D) 203 (C) 252 (D) 258
Sol. (B) 1 + 5 + 1 = 7,
7. 4, 10, 22, 46, ?
The difference between 151 & 158 is seven (7)
(A) 56 (B) 66
1 + 5 + 8 = 14,
(C) 76 (D) 94
The difference between 158 & 172 is (14).
1 + 7 + 2 = 10 .......... and so on, 8. 8, 15, 28, 53, ?
 Missing term = 182 + 11 = 193. (A) 120 (B) 106
Direction : (14 to16) Find the wrong term : (C) 104 (D) 102
14. 2, 5, 9, 11, 14 9 4, 8, 12, 24, 36, 72, ?
(A) 2 (B) 5 A) 98 (B) 100
(C) 9 (D) 11 (C) 144 (D) 108
Sol. (C) Series : + 3, + 3, + 3, ..........
The next term is got by adding 3 in preceeding 10. 12, 15, 18, 21, ?
term. (A) 24 (B) 23
2 + 3 = 5, 5 + 3 = 8 (C) 22 (D) 25
 9 is wrong term. 11. 3, 6, 12, 24, ?, 96
(A) 84 (B) 50
15. 10, 100, 1100, 11000, 111000, 1210000. (C) 52 (D) 48
(A) 1210000 (B) 11000
(C) 100 (D) 111000 12. 2, 10, 19, 29, 40, 52, 65, 79, 94, ?
Sol. (D) Given series is : (A) 110 (B) 109
(C) 108 (D) None of these

13. 4, 7, 3, 6, 2, 5, ?
 111000 is wrong.
The correct term is 121000. (A) 6 (B) 5
(C) 3 (D) 1

14. 4, 7, 10, 11, 22, 17, 46, 25, ?

16. 2, 6, 11, 17, 23, 32, 41
(A) 58 (B) 69
(A) 6 (B) 17
(C) 86 (D) 94
(C) 23 (D) 32
Sol. (C) Given series is : 15. 2, 2, 4, 4, 6, 8, 8, ?
24 (A) 10 (B) 12
2, 6, 11, 17, 23, 32, 41 (C) 14 (D) 16
16. 2, 3, 10, 15, 26, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2007)
+4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9
(A) 34 (B) 35
(C) 36 (D) 37
EXERCISE-1 17. 1, 4, 27, 16, 125, 36, ?
(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2007)
Directions : (1 to 50) Find the missing numbers : (A) 216 (B) 343
(C3) 64 (D) 49
1. 2, 3, 5, 7, ?
(A) 9 (B) 10 18.. 336, 210, 120, ?, 24, 6, 0
(C) 11 (D) 14 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2007)
2. 0, 6, 20, 42, ? (A) 40 (B) 50
(A) 64 (B) 72 (C) 60 (D) 70
(C) 80 (D) 84 19. 3, 4, 8, 17, 33, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007)
3. 3, 8, 35, 48, ?, 120 (A) 58 (B) 69
(A) 72 (B) 64 (C) 49 (D) 98
(C) 80 (D) 99
20. 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007)
4. 4, 25, 64, 121, 196, ? (A) 60 (B) 68
(A) 384 (B) 256 (C) 89 (D) 76
(C) 225 (D) 289
21. 480, 480, 240, 80, 20, ?
5. 210, 120, ?, 24, 6, 0 (NTSE Stage-II, 2007)
(A) 64 (B) 48
(A) 4 (B) 1
(C) 35 (D) 60
(C) 5 (D) 10

PAGE # 44
22. 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 8, 5, 16, ? 37. 1, 4, 9, ?, 25, 36 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
(NTSE Stage-II, 2007) (A) 11 (B) 19
(A) 6 (B) 32 (C) 21 (D) 16
(C) 8 (D) 7 38. 7, 12, 22, 37, ?, 82, 112
23. 2, 5, 11, 23, 47, ? (NTSE Stage-II, 2007) (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
(A) 92 (B) 90 (A) 62 (B) 57
(C) 95 (D) 91 (C) 52 (D) 42

24. 12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 45, ? 39. 11, 13, 17, 19, ?, 25 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
(NTSE Stage-II, 2007) (A) 20 (B) 21
(C) 23 (D) 22
(A) 54 (B) 48
(C) 77 (D) 9 40. 5, 9, 17, 33, ?, 129 (NTSE Stage-II, 2009)
(A) 72 (B) 67
25. 14, 1, 21, 4, 28, 9, ?,?
(C) 65 (D) 58
(NTSE Stage-II, 2007)
(A) 9, 42 (B) 16, 35 41. 2, 5, 4, 10, 7, 15, 11, 20, ?, ?
(C) 35, 16 (D) 16, 36 (NTSE Stage-II, 2009)
(A) 12, 21 (B) 16, 25
26. 5, 6, 13, 26, 45, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2008) (C) 13, 25 (D) 17, 30
(A) 68 (B) 74
(C) 70 (D) 82 42. 0, 6, 24, 60, 120, ? (NTSE Stage-II, 2009)
(A) 180 (B) 224
27. 190, 94, 46, 22, 10, 4, ? (C) 196 (D) 210
(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2008)
43. 57, 54, 58, 55, 59, 56, 60, ?
(A) 3 (B) 2
(NTSE Stage-II,2011)
(C) 1 (D) 0
(A) 64 (B) 63
28. 128, 110, 90, 68, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2008) (C) 58 (D) 57
(A) 36 (B) 42
(C) 44 (D) 48 44. 27, 31, 40, 56, 81, 117, ?
(NTSE Stage-II,2011)
29. 1, 2, 4, 7, ?, 16 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2008) (A) 156 (B) 165
(A) 9 (B) 11 (C) 166 (D) 169
(C) 12 (D) 13
45. 55, 168, 57, 120, 60, 80, 62, 48, 65, 24, ?, ?
30. 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 18, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2008)
(NTSE Stage-II,2011)
(A) 21 (B) 19
(A) 69, 11 (B) 67, 8
(C) 23 (D) 20
(C) 8, 71 (D) 6, 72
31. 4, 9, 19, 34, 54, ? (NTSE Stage-II, 2008)
(A) 66 (B) 75 46. 8, 7, 16, 5, 32, 3, 64, 1, 128, (?)
(C) 79 (D) 84 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)
(A) 18 (B) 13
32. 31, 29, 24, 22, 17, ?, ? NTSE Stage-II, 2008) (C) –1 (D) 3
(A) 15, 13 (B) 10, 8
(C) 14, 12 (D) 15, 10 47. 16, 33, 65, 131, (?), 523
(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)
33. 3, 6, 11, 18, ? (NTSE Stage-II, 2008)
(A) 261 (B) 521
(A) 19 (B) 27
(C) 613 (D) 721
(C) 30 (D) 37

34. 3, 8, 15, 24, ? (NTSE Stage-II, 2008) 48. 5, 2, 17, 4, (?) , 6, 47, 8, 65
(A) 30 (B) 35 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)
(C) 36 (D) 49 (A) 29 (B) 30
(C) 31 (D) 32
35. 4, 10, 23, 50, 105, ? (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
(A) 215 (B) 210 49. 1, 2, 4, 8, (?), 32 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)
(C) 216 (D) 439 (A) 10 (B) 12
(C) 14 (D) 16
36. 912, 303, 102, 33, ?, 3, 2
(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
50. 2, 3, 10, 15, 26, (?)(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)
(A) 12 (B) 10
(A) 36 (B) 35
(C) 8 (D) 6 (C) 39 (D) 48

PAGE # 45
 12. 3, 9, 27, 82, 243 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
EXERCISE-2
(A) 27 (B) 54
Directions : (1 to 21) Find the wrong term of the series : (C) 82 (D) 162

1. 3, 7, 9, 21, 27, 66, 81, 189, 243 13. 5, 9, 17, 35, 65, 129
(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007) (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
(A ) 27 (B) 66 (A) 65 (B) 35
(C) 243 (D) 21
(C) 17 (D) 9
2. 27, 34, 40, 45, 49, 53, 54 , 55
14. 1, 5, 6, 11, 17, 27, 45, 73
(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007)
(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
(A) 53 (B) 45
(C) 56 (D) 34 (A) 27 (B) 45
(C) 17 (D) 11
3. 0, 2, 3, 6, 6, 20, 9, 54, 12
(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007) 15. 3, 6, 11, 18, 28, 38, 51, 66
(A) 3 (B) 6 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
(C) 20 (D) 54 (A) 18 (B) 28
4. 0, 2, 10, 36, 68, 130 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007) (C) 38 (D) 51
(A) 10 (B) 36
16. 320, 254, 200, 155, 122, 100, 89
(C) 68 (D) 130
(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2009)
5. 9, 54, 44, 264, 254, 1520, 1514
(A) 155 (B) 320
(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2007)
(C) 254 (D) 200
(A) 1514 (B) 1520
(C) 264 (D) 44 17. 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 18, 22, 26, 30
6. 10, 15, 26, 35, 48, 63, 82 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)
(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2008) (A) 12 (B) 22
(A) 48 (B) 26 (C) 26 (D) 30
(C) 63 (D) 82

7. 3, 10, 30, 66, 127, 218 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2008) 18. 3, 7, 9, 28, 27, 84, 81, 448, 243
(A) 3 (B) 66 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)
(C) 30 (D) 218 (A) 84 (B) 81

8. 7, 9, 17, 42, 91, 172, 293 (C) 28 (D) 7

(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2008)
(A) 91 (B) 42 19. 190, 94, 46, 22, 10, 3
(C) 17 (D) 9 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)

9. 2, 12, 24, 34, 68, 78, 158, 166 (A) 94 (B) 46

(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2008) (C) 22 (D) 3
(A) 68 (B) 78
(C) 158 (D) 166 20. 0, 5, 15, 50, 128

10. 2, 6, 10, 20, 30, 42, 56 (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)

(NTSE Stage-I / Raj./2008) (A) 5 (B) 17
(A) 6 (B) 10 (C) 35 (D) 128
(C) 20 (D) 30

11. 7, 9, 16, 25, 41, 68, 107, 173 21. 9, 63, 5, 35, 1, 8
(NTSE Stage-II, 2008) (NTSE Stage-I / Raj./ 2012)
(A) 16 (B) 41 (A) 63 (B) 5
(C) 68 (D) 107 (C) 35 (D) 8

PAGE # 46
 ANSWER KEY
MOTION(PHYSICS)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. B C D B D B B C A A B A D B C C

MATTER(CHEMISTRY)

Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Ans C D C A D A A B D A D
Ques 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Ans B A C B A C C B B B A
Ques 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans B C C A D C C A

NUMBER SYSTEM (MATHEMATICS)

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. C A B C C B A A B A
Ques. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. D B D C C B B D C A
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. D C D C D B A A A B
Ques. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. A C D B B C A B C D
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Ans. D A D C D A B C B A

CELL DIVISION (BIOLOGY)

Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
A. B B A C A A A B A C A B C B B

NUMBER-SERIES(MENTAL ABILITY)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. D C A C B B D D C C
Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. B B B A D B A C A B
Que. 21 22
Ans. C B

PAGE # 4747