Semester 1, Session 2014/ 2015 CEGB233 (Soil Mechanics)

Topic 4: Consolidation theory

4.1 Types of Ground Movement and Causes of Settlement

The term settlement refers to the vertical downward displacement at the base of a foundation
or other structure due to ground movement. There are several mechanisms which may
produce ground movement, and there are many types of structure, with varying potentials to
withstand or to be distressed by movement. Brick and masonry buildings are brittle and may
sustain cracks and even structural damage following very small foundation displacements;
other structures may be constructed to sustain considerable movements without suffering real
damage.

Compaction occurs when soil particles are forced into a closer state of packing with a
reduction in volume and the expulsion of air. Mechanical energy is required, which can be
due to self-weight loading or a surface surcharge. Vibrations due to traffic movement, heavy
machinery and certain construction operations, such as pile-driving, can also cause
compaction settlement. In earthquake zones, seismic shock waves may have a similar effect.
The most susceptible soils are loosely-packed sands or gravel-sands and fill material,
particularly that which has been placed without adequate rolling or tamping.

In saturated cohesive soils the effect of loading is to squeeze out excess pore water this
process is called consolidation. A gradual reduction in volume occurs until internal pore
pressure equilibrium is reached. Unloading results in swelling, providing the soil can remain
saturated. The rate of consolidation depends on a soil's permeability and can be very slow in
fine soils, so that it may take several years for the final settlement to be achieved. The most
susceptible soils are normally consolidated clays and silts and certain types of saturated fill.
Peat and peaty soils can be highly compressible, resulting in changes in stratum thickness of
as much as 20 per cent under quite modest loading.

4.2 Undrained or immediate settlement

The immediate settlement takes place before the primary settlement and occurs almost
instantaneously with the load application. It corresponds to an abrupt compression
unexplained by the primary consolidation settlement, and is due partly to the compression of
small pockets of gas within the pore spaces, and partly to the elastic compression of soil
grains.

4.3 Consolidation settlement

The process of consolidation

When a saturated mass of soil is loaded, say by a foundation, an immediate increase in pore
pressure occurs and a hydraulic gradient is set up so that seepage flow takes place into
surrounding soil. This excess pore pressure dissipates as water drains from the soil: very
quickly in coarse soils (sands and gravels), and very slowly in fine soils (silts and clays)
which have low permeabilities. As water leaves the soil a change in volume occurs, the rate
gradually diminishing until steady state conditions are regained. The process is called
consolidation.

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Figure 4.1: One-dimensional consolidation (a) Terzaghi's model (b) Stress-time curve

Amount of consolidation settlement

Consider a model soil sample subject to an increase in effective stress (Figure 4.2). The
process will be assumed to be one-dimensional, i.e. no change in lateral dimensions takes
place, only a change in thickness. The change in volume (ΔV) which results from an increase
in effective stress (Δσ') may be represented by either the change in thickness (ΔH) or the
change in void ratio (Δe). Equating volumetric strains:

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Figure 4.2: interpretation of compressibility using soil model (a) Before loading (b) After
loading

The one-dimensional consolidation test (oedometer test)

The compressibility characteristics of a soil relating both to the amount and rate of settlement
are usually determined from the consolidation test, using an apparatus called an oedometer
(Figure 4.3). A soil specimen in the form of a disc (usually of diameter 75 mm and thickness
15-20 mm) is cut from an undisturbed sample. The specimen, enclosed in a metal ring, is
sandwiched between two saturated porous stone discs, the upper one having a diameter
slightly smaller than that of the metal ring, with the lower one slightly larger.

This assembly is placed in the cell and held in place by a clamping ring. A vertical static load
is then applied through a lever system and the cell flooded with water. Changes in thickness
of the sample are measured by means of a displacement dial gauge or transducer. Readings
are continued until the specimen is fully consolidated: usually for a period of 24 or 48 hr.
Further increments of load are then applied, each being double the previous increment, and
the readings repeated. The number and value of the load increments will depend on the type
of soil and on the range of stress anticipated on site. The pressure applied for the first stage
should normally be equal to the in situ vertical stress at the depth from which the sample was
obtained, except for soft and very soft clays, when a lower value must be used: 25, 12 or 6
kPa; or even 1 kPa for very soft organic clays and peats.

After full consolidation has been reached under the final load, the load is removed, either in
one or in several stages, and the sample is allowed to swell. The swelling stage enables the
specimen to stabilise before the final water content and thickness are determined; otherwise
swelling might occur as the specimen is being removed from the oedometer, leading to error.
If a detailed swelling curve is required, the unloading is carried out in stages and changes in
thickness recorded.

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Figure 4.3: The oedometer cell

Plotting compression curves

The data collected from the oedometer test enables changes in void ratio to be related to
changes in effective stress. This is done by plotting a curve or graph of stage void ratios (e)
against effective stresses (σ') (Figure 4.4). The amount of consolidation settlement can then
be obtained using the e/σ' curve.

Figure 4.4: Void ratio/ effective stress curve

Suppose a stratum of clay of thickness H0 is subject to a change in effective stress from σ'0 to
σ'1. From the e/σ' curve the corresponding values of e0 and e1 are obtained and then the
consolidation settlement is determined as follows:

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The shape of the e/σ' curve depends on the consolidation history of the soil. If the soil was
initially normally consolidated the compression path (AB) moves along the normal
compression line (NCL) (Figure 4.5). After unloading from point B it follows the swelling
line (SRL) to C - reloading would cause recompression to D and further loading normal
compression from D onward.

Figure 4.5: Swelling and recompression

Determination of the compression index (Cc)

If the test data are plotted as e against log σ', the normal compression line is found to be
mainly a straight line (Figure 4.6). The initial curved part is representative of the
preconsolidation; the greater the length of this initial curve, the greater the amount of
overconsolidation. If a swelling and recompression sequence is carried out, the SRL should
rejoin the straight NCL at the same point. The compression index (Cc) is the slope of the NCL
and is measured from the plot:

The compression index for a given soil may be taken as a constant in settlement
computations, providing the range of effective stress involved lies within the limits of the
NCL: i.e. it is acting as a normally consolidated clay.

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Figure 4.6: e/log σ' curve and compression index

Determination of preconsolidation stress

The preconsolidation stress (σ’) is the highest historical stress experienced by the soil. This
may have been imposed during sample preparation (to simulate site conditions, etc.), or may
be due to natural depositional loading with or without unloading (due to erosion, etc.). An
estimate of the pre-consolidation stress can be obtained from the oedometer test results.
Casagrande (1936) suggested an empirical graphical method using the e/ log σ' curve (Figure
4.7). Firstly, point P is located at the point of maximum curvature between A and B, and then
two lines are drawn passing through P: one is a tangent to the curve TPT and the other, PQ, is

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parallel to the stress axis. The point of intersection S of the bisector PR (of angle QPT) and
the projection of the straight portion BC of the curve gives an approximate value for the
preconsolidation stress (σ’pc).

The preconsolidation stress is not the yield stress (σ’v), nor is it necessarily the maximum
stress ever experienced by the soil, but it can be used as a useful guide to limit settlement in
overconsolidated clays, since the amount of consolidation settlement will not be great for
effective stress changes less than σ’pc.

Determination of the coefficient of volume compressibility

The coefficient of volume compressibility (mv) represents the amount of change in unit
volume due a unit increase in effective stress. The value of mv is not constant for a given soil,
but varies with the level of effective stress; oedometer test results can be used to obtain a
range of values.

It is quite usual to quote for a soil the value of mv(100), i.e. the value corresponding to σ' = 100
kPa. Also, mv is the reciprocal of the confined modulus: mv = 1/E’0.

Worked Example 4.1

The following readings were obtained from an oedometer test on specimen of saturated clay.
The load being held constant for 24 hr before the addition of the next increment.

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4.4 Rate of Consolidation

Immediate settlement due to elastic compression to place instantaneously following an

increase in stress. With consolidation, however, some time must elapse as water seeps from
the soil and the excess porewater pressure is dissipated. The rate at which consolidation
occurs depends mainly on the permeability of the soil and the length of drainage path. To a
lesser extent it also depends on deformational creep in the soil particle skeleton and on the
compressibility of soil constituents such as air/ water vapour and organic matter. The soils
which give rise to most settlement problems are normally consolidated clays and silts of
recent origin often from alluvial or estuarine depositions.

The term primary consolidation refers to the volume change occurring up to the full
dissipation of excess pore pressures, while secondary compression is that resulting from
creep, slippage between particles, etc.

Terzaghi's theory of consolidation

In 1925, in his native Vienna, Terzaghi presented a theory, based on the model shown in Fig.
4.3, for the evaluation of primary consolidation. This was later incorporated in his Theoretical
Soil Mechanics (1943). The following assumptions are made:

(a) The soil is fully saturated and homogeneous.

(b) Both the water and the soil particles are incompressible.
(c) Darcy's law of water flow applies.
(d) The change in volume is one-dimensional in the direction of the applied stress.
(e) The coefficients of permeability and volume compressibility remain constant.
(f) The change in volume corresponds to the change in void ratio and del)o' remains constant.

Effect of drainage and initial stress conditions

If a layer that drains freely from both its upper and lower surfaces; this is said to be an open
layer and the length of the drainage path d is equal to half the thickness (Figure 4.7). If free
drainage can only take place at one boundary, the layer is said to be half-closed, and tie
length of the drainage path equals the thickness.

Figure 4.7: Open and half-closed layer (a) Open layer: d = H/2 (b) Half-closed layer: d = H

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Table 10.1: Values of time factor Tv

4.5 Determination of cv from Oedometer Test

The results of a single stage of the oedometer test can be used to obtain a value for the
coefficient of consolidation cv. The test must be continued to almost complete consolidation
(Ut > 0.99) so that degrees of consolidation and time factors can be related. Then the curve of
laboratory results can be fitted against the theoretical curve of Uv/Tv. Curve fitting can be
accomplished using either a square-root-of-time method or a log-time method.

Square root of time method (Taylor's method)

If Ut is plotted against √Tv, or settlement (st) against √time(t), the first portion (0 < 4 < 0.6) of
the each curve is approximately a straight line. The theoretical and laboratory curves can be
fitted to each other providing two sets of congruent coordinates are known - the first set is
obviously (0, 0).

Figure 10.19 shows the dimensionless theoretical curve based on equation 4.1.

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(Equation 4.1)

If the laboratory curve flattens sufficiently so that final consolidation (4 = l) is achieved the
curves can be matched. However, in most tests this flattening is not achieved and the
settlement corresponding to Ut = 1 remains unknown, so another point must be used. Points
can be located easily up to Ut = 0.5, but for greater accuracy the point representing Ut = 0.9 is
commonly used. Point C on the curve corresponds to Ut = 0.9 and is located as follows:

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Compression ratios

The laboratory curve consists of three parts:

(a) Initial compression. Indicated by a short curved line, which mainly results from the
compression of any air that is present, or slightly particle reorientation; it is assumed that
air, and not water, is expelled during this stage. Correct for zero after this stage.
(b) Primary compression. Commences as soon as seepage begins and is represented by the
portion of the curve from U = 0 to approximately U = 1.0 (although some secondary
compression is occurring here as well).
(c) Secondary compression. Indicated by the final curved portion of the curve and is the
compression that continues to take place after the excess porewater pressure has reached
zero; is thought to be due to delayed reorientation of the particles due to the high viscosity
of the adsorbed water layers.

The true zero for the primary compression is obtained by projecting the straight portion of the
curve back to the thickness axis at zero time, i.e. point F (Fig. 10.21); this point represents D
= 0. The following ratios are sometimes used to show the relative amounts of initial, primary
and secondary compression:

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Worked Example 4.2: During a loading stage in a oedometer test the stress was increased
by 100 kPa and the following changes in thickness were recorded:

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Worked Example 4.3: The coefficient of consolidation (cv) for a clay was found to be 0.955
mm2/ min. The final consolidation settlement estimated for a 5 m thick layer of this clay was
calculated at 280 mm. Assuming there is a permeable layer both above and below, and a
uniform initial excess porewater pressure distribution, calculate the settlement time for (a) 90
per cent primary consolidation and (b) a settlement of 100 mm.

The drainage/time relationship

If two samples of the same clay, subject to the same increase in effective stress, reach the
same degree of consolidation, then theoretically at that point the Tv/cv ratio must be the same
in each. The following relationship therefore exists:

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Worked Example 4.4: On a particular site a layer of clay occurs of 6.0 m thickness. In a
laboratory oedometer test on a 19.0 mm thick specimen of the clay, 50 per cent consolidation
was reached after 12.0 min. Determine the site settlement time for 50 per cent consolidation
when the clay layer is (a) fully drained top and bottom and (b) drained from one surface only.

Worked Example 4.5: Using the data from worked example 4.4, determine both the
laboratory and the site times for 90 per cent consolidation.

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Exercises

4.1 In consolidation test on a specimen of clay each pressure stage was maintained for 24 hr.
At the end of the last (unloading) stage the water content of the sample was found to be 28.6
per cent. The specific gravity is 2.70 and the changes in thickness were recorded as follows:

Stress (kPa) 0 50 100 200 400 800 0

Thickness (mm) (after 24 hr) 19.8 19.39 19.24 18.97 18.68 18.45 19.02

(a) Calculate the void ratio corresponding to the end of each stage and plot the void
ratio/effective-stress curve.
(b) Determine the ultimate settlement that may be expected due to the consolidation of a 4 m
thick layer ofthis clay when the average effective stress in the layer changes:
(i) From 136 kPa to 320 kPa.
(ii) From 85 kPa to 240 kPa.

4.2 The construction of a foundation above a 3 m thick stratum of normally consolidated clay
is expected to cause an average increase in effective stress from an initial value of 160 kPa to
a final value of 340 kPa. If the liquid limit of the clay is known to be 52 per cent and a
specimen of the clay was found to have a void ratio of 0.712 when subject to an effective
stress of 200 kPa, estimate the expected ultimate settlement due to consolidation of the clay.

4.3 A clay layer of thickness 4.4 m is subject to a uniform increase in effective stress of 180
kPa.
(a) Given that the coefficient of volume compressibility (mv) is 0.25 m2/MN, calculate the
ultimate consolidation settlement that may be expected to take place.
(b) Given that the coefficient of permeability (k) of the soil is 5 mm/yr and the time factor (Tv
for full consolidation is 2.0, calculate the estimated time required for the ultimate settlement
to take place (assume double drainage).

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