Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Structure/Property
Relationships in Irons and Steels
Bruce L. Bramfitt, Homer Research Laboratories, Bethlehem Steel Corporation
This Section was adapted from Materials 5election and Design, Volume 20, ASM Handbook, 1997,
pages 3 5 7 - 3 8 2 . Additional information can also be found in the Sections on cast irons and steels w h i c h
immediately f o l l o w in this H a n d b o o k and by consulting the index.
THE PROPERTIES of irons and steels are structure-sensitive properties, for example, yield in both theoretical and practical terms, with par-
linked to the chemical composition, processing strength and hardness. The structure-insensitive ticular focus on the role of microstructure.
path, and resulting microstructure of the material; properties, for example, electrical conductivity,
this correspondence has been known since the are not discussed in this Section. Processing is a
early part of the twentieth century. For a particular means to develop and control microstructure, for Basis of Material Selection
iron and steel composition, most properties depend example, hot rolling, quenching, and so forth. In In order to select a material for a particular
on microstructure. These properties are called this Section, the role of these factors is described c o m p o n e n t , the designer m u s t have an intimate
" "o" - grade 50). 2% nital + 4% picral etch. 200x Fig. :2 Microstructu
r e p e a r linterlamellar°f
ite a typicalspacing.fUllY2%pearlitiC
+ni4%rai
tal steel
l picralShowingetch.
500xthecharacteristic fine
154/Structure/Property Relationships in Irons and Steels
Table I (continued) and the HSLA structural steel could not meet the
requirements of the civil engineer who designed
the b r i d g e o r the r a i l s y s t e m .
Tensile Yield Elongation
strength strength in 50 ram, Reduction Hardness, A similar case can be made for the selection of
Steel Condition MPa ksi MPa ksi % ~a area, % HB cast irons. A cast machine housing on a large
lathe requires a material with adequate strength,
C a r b o n steel bar(a) (continued) r i g i d i t y , a n d d u r a b i l i t y to s u p p o r t t h e a p p l i e d
1049 Hot rolled 600 87 330 48 15 35 179 l o a d a n d a c e r t a i n d e g r e e o f d a m p i n g c a p a c i t y in
Cold drawn 670 97 560 81.5 10 30 197 o r d e r to r a p i d l y a t t e n u a t e ( d a m p e n ) v i b r a t i o n s
Annealed, cold drawn 635 92 530 77 10 40 187
f r o m the r o t a t i n g p a r t s o f t h e l a t h e . T h e c a s t i r o n
1050 Hot roned 620 90 340 49.5 15 35 179
Cold da'awn 690 100 580 84 10 30 197 jaws of a crusher require a material with substan-
Annealed, cold drawn 655 95 550 80 10 40 189 tial w e a r r e s i s t a n c e . F o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n , a c a s t -
1552 Hot rolled 745 108 410 59.5 12 30 217 i n g is r e q u i r e d b e c a u s e w e a r - r e s i s t a n t s t e e l s a r e
Annealed, cold drawn 675 98 570 83 10 40 193 v e r y d i f f i c u l t to m a c h i n e . F o r the m a c h i n e h o u s -
1055 Hot rolled 650 94 355 51.5 12 30 192 i n g , g r a y c a s t i r o n is s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e it is r e l a -
Annealed, cold drawn 660 96 560 81 10 40 197 tively inexpensive, can be easily cast, and has the
1060 Hot rolled 675 98 370 54 12 30 201 a b i l i t y to d a m p e n v i b r a t i o n s as a r e s u l t o f t h e
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 620 90 485 70 10 45 183 g r a p h i t e f l a k e s p r e s e n t in its m i c r o s t r u c t u r e .
1064 Hot rolled 670 97 370 53.5 12 30 201
These flakes are dispersed throughout the ferrite
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 615 89 475 69 10 45 183
1065 Hot rolled 690 100 380 55 12 30 207 a n d p e a r l i t e m a t r i x ( F i g . 3). T h e g r a p h i t e , b e i n g a
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 635 92 490 71 10 45 187 m a j o r n o n m e t a l l i c c o n s t i t u e n t in the g r a y i r o n ,
1070 Hot rolled 705 102 385 56 12 30 212 p r o v i d e s a t o r t u o u s p a t h f o r s o u n d to t r a v e l
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 640 93 495 72 10 45 192 t h r o u g h t h e m a t e r i a l . W i t h so m a n y f l a k e s , s o u n d
1074 Hot rolled 725 105 400 58 12 30 217 w a v e s a r e e a s i l y r e f l e c t e d a n d the s o u n d d a m p -
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 650 94 505 73 10 40 192 ened over a relatively short distance. However,
1078 Hot rolled 690 1130 380 55 12 30 207 f o r t h e j a w c r u s h e r , d a m p i n g c a p a c i t y is n o t a
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 650 94 500 72.5 10 40 192 r e q u i r e m e n t . In this c a s e , a n a l l o y w h i t e c a s t i r o n
1080 Hot rolled 770 112 425 61.5 10 25 229
is s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f its h i g h h a r d n e s s a n d w e a r
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 675 98 515 75 10 40 192
1084 Hot rolled 820 119 450 65.5 10 25 241 resistance. The white cast iron microstructure
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 690 100 530 77 10 40 192 s h o w n in F i g . 4 is g r a p h i t e f r e e a n d c o n s i s t s o f
1085 Hot rolled 835 121 460 66.5 10 25 248 m a r t e n s i t e in a m a t r i x o f c e m e n t i t e . B o t h o f t h e s e
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 695 100.5 540 78 10 40 192 constituents are very hard and thus provide the
1086 Hot rolled 770 112 425 61.5 10 25 229 r e q u i r e d w e a r r e s i s t a n c e . T h u s , in t h i s e x a m p l e
Spheroidized aimealed, cold drawn 670 97 510 74 10 40 192 the g r a y c a s t i r o n w o u l d n o t m e e t t h e r e q u i r e -
1090 Hot rolled 840 122 460 67 10 25 248 ments for the jaws of a crusher and the white cast
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 695 101 540 78 10 40 197
i r o n w o u l d n o t m e e t the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e
1095 Hot rolled 825 120 455 66 10 25 248
lathe housing.
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 680 99 525 76 10 40 197
1211 Hot rolled 380 55 230 33 25 45 121
Colddrawn 515 75 400 58 10 35 163 Role of Microstructure
1212 Hot rolled 385 56 230 33.5 25 45 121
Cold drawn 540 78 415 60 10 35 167 In s t e e l s a n d c a s t i r o n s , t h e m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l
1213 Hot rolled 385 56 230 33.5 25 45 121 constituents have the names ferrite, pearlite,
Cold drawn 540 78 415 60 10 35 167 b a i n i t e , m a r t e n s i t e , c e m e n t i t e , a n d a u s t e n i t e . In
12L14 Hot rolled 395 57 235 34 22 45 121 m o s t a l l o t h e r m e t a l l i c s y s t e m s , the c o n s t i t u e n t s
Cold drawn 540 78 415 60 10 35 163
a r e n o t n a m e d , b u t a r e s i m p l y r e f e r r e d to b y a
1108 Hot roUed 345 50 190 27.5 30 50 101
G r e e k l e t t e r (ct, 13, Y, e t c . ) d e r i v e d f r o m t h e l o c a -
Colddrawn 385 56 325 47 20 40 121
1109 Hot rolled 345 50 190 27.5 30 50 101 tion of the constituent on a phase diagram. Fer-
Cold drawn 385 56 325 47 20 40 121 r o u s a l l o y c o n s t i t u e n t s , o n the o t h e r h a n d , h a v e
11i7 Hot roned 425 62 235 34 23 47 121 b e e n w i d e l y s t u d i e d f o r m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 y e a r s . In
Colddrawn 475 69 400 58 15 40 137 the e a r l y d a y s , m a n y o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s w e r e
1118 Hot rolled 450 65 250 36 23 47 131 petrographers, mining engineers, and geologists.
Colddrawn 495 72 420 61 15 40 143 Because minerals have long been named after
1119 Hot roned 425 62 235 34 23 47 121 t h e i r d i s c o v e r e r o r p l a c e o f o r i g i n , it w a s n a t u r a l
Colddrawn 475 69 400 58 15 40 137 to s i m i l a r l y n a m e the c o n s t i t u e n t s in s t e e l s a n d
1132 Hot roUed 570 83 315 45.5 16 40 167
cast irons.
Cold drawn 635 92 530 77 12 35 183
~1137 Hot roiled 605 88 330 48 15 35 179 It c a n b e s e e n t h a t t h e f o u r e x a m p l e s d e s c r i b e d
Colddrawn 675 98 565 82 10 30 197 above have very different microstructures: the
1140 Hot rolled 545 79 300 43.5 16 40 156 structural steel has a ferrite plus pearlite micro-
Colddrawn 605 88 510 74 12 35 170 structure; the rail steel has a fully pearlitic mi-
1141 Hot roned 650 94 355 51.5 15 35 187 c r o s t r u c t u r e ; the m a c h i n e h o u s i n g ( l a t h e ) h a s a
Colddrawn 725 105.1 605 88 10 30 212 ferrite plus pearlite matrix with graphite flakes;
1144 Hot rolled 670 97 365 53 15 35 197 and the jaw crusher microstructure contains
Colddrawn 745 108 620 90 10 30 217
m a r t e n s i t e a n d c e m e n t i t e . In e a c h c a s e , the m i -
1145 Hot rolled 585 85 325 47 15 40 170
c r o s t r u c t u r e p l a y s the p r i m a r y r o l e in p r o v i d i n g
Colddrawn 650 94 550 80 12 35 187
1146 Hot roUed 585 85 325 47 15 40 170 the properties desired for each application. From
Cold drawn 650 94 550 80 12 35 187 t h e s e e x a m p l e s , o n e c a n see h o w m a t e r i a l p r o p e r -
1151 Hot rolled 635 92 350 50.5 15 35 187 ties c a n b e t a i l o r e d b y m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l m a n i p u l a -
Colddrawn 705 102 595 86 10 30 207 tion or alteration. Knowledge about microstruc-
t u r e is t h u s p a r a m o u n t in c o m p o n e n t d e s i g n a n d
(continued) a l l o y d e v e l o p m e n t . In the p a r a g r a p h s t h a t f o l l o w ,
e a c h m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l c o n s t i t u e n t is d e s c r i b e d
(a) All values are estimated minimum values; type 1100 series steels are rated on the basis of 0.10% max Si or coarse-grain melt- w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e to the p r o p e r t i e s t h a t
ing practice; the mechanical properties shown are expected minimums for the sizes ranging from 19 to 31.8 mm (0.75 to 1.25 can be developed by appropriate manipulation of
in.). (b) Most data are for 25 mm (1 in.) diam bar. Source: Ref 1 the m i c r o s t r u c t u r e t h r o u g h d e f o r m a t i o n ( e . g . , h o t
and cold rolling) and heat treatment. Further de-
156 / Structure/Property Relationships in Irons and Steels
Fig, 3 Microstructure of a gray cast iron with a ferrite-pearlite matrix. Note the graphite Fig. 4 Microstructure of an alloy white cast iron. White constituent is cementite and the
flakes dispersed throughout the matrix. 4% picral etch. 320x. Courtesy of A.O. darker constituent is martensite with some retained austenite. 4% picral etch.
Benscoter, Lehigh University 250x. Courtesy ofA.O. Benscoter, Lehigh University
Structure/Property Relationships in Irons and S t e e l s / 1 5 9
steel will typically have a total elongation of austenite grain size. Unfortunately, these three
more than 50%, whereas a fully pearlitic steel factors are rather difficult to measure. To deter-
(e.g., type 1080) will typically have a total elon- m i n e interlamellar spacing, a scanning electron
gation of about 10% (see Table 1). A low-carbon m i c r o s c o p e (SEM), or a t r a n s m i s s i o n electron
fully ferritic steel will have a room-temperature m i c r o s c o p e (TEM) is needed in order to resolve
Charpy V-notch impact energy of about 200 J the spacing, Generally, a magnification of
(150 f t . lbf), whereas a fully pearlitic steel will 10,000x is adequate, as seen in Fig. 13. Special
have room-temperature impact energy of under statistical procedures have been developed to de-
10 J (7 f t . lbf). The transition temperature (i.e., termine an accurate m e a s u r e m e n t o f the spacing
the temperature at which a material changes from ( R e f 12). The colony size and especially the
ductile fracture to brittle fracture) for a fully prior-austenite grain size are very difficult to
pearlitic steel can be approximated from the fol- m e a s u r e and require a skilled metallographer us-
lowing relationship (Ref 11): ing the light microscope or SEM and special
etching procedures.
B e c a u s e of poor ductility/toughness, there a r e
TT = 217.84 - 0.83 (de-1/2) - 2.98(d -1"~) (Eq5)
only a few applications for fully pearlitic steels,
including railroad rails and wheels and high-
strength wire. By far, the largest tonnage applica-
where TT is the transition temperature (in °C).
tion is for rails. A fully pearlitic rail steel pro-
From Eq 5, one can see that both the prior-
austenite grain size and pearlite colony size con- vides excellent wear resistance for r a i l r o a d
Fig. 5 Microstructure of a fully ferritic, ultralow carbon trol the transition temperature of a pearlitic steel. wheel/rail contact. Rail life is m e a s u r e d in mil-
steel. Marshalls etch + HF, 300x. Courtesy of lions of gross tons (MGT) of travel and current
A.O. Benscoter, Lehigh University Unfortunately, the transition temperature of a
fully pearlitic steel is always well above r o o m rail life easily exceeds 250 MGT. The wear resis-
temperature. This m e a n s that at room tempera- tance of pearlite arises from the unique morphol-
ture the general fracture mode is cleavage, which ogy of the ferrite-cementite lamellar composite
solution strengthening of the ferrite in the lamel- is associated with brittle fracture. Therefore, where a hard constituent is embedded into a soft-
lar structure (see Fig. 10). fully pearlitic steels should not be used in appli- ductile constituent. This m e a n s that the hard ce-
The thickness of the cementite lamellae can cations where t o u g h n e s s is important. Also, pear- m e n t i t e plates do not abrade away as easily as the
also influence the properties of pearlite. Fine ce- litic steels with carbon contents slightly or mod- rounded cementite particles found in other steel
mentite lamellae can be deformed, compared erately higher than the eutectoid c o m p o s i t i o n microstructures, that is, tempered martensite and
with coarse lamellae, which tend to crack during (called hypereutectoid steels) have even poorer bainite, which is discussed later. Wear resistance
deformation. toughness. o f a rail steel is directly proportional to hardness.
Although fully pearlitic steels have high From Eq 4 and 5, one can see that for pearlite, This is s h o w n in Fig. 15, which indicates less
strength, high hardness, and good wear resis- strength is controlled by interlamellar spacing, weight loss as hardness increases. Also, w e a r re-
tance, they also have poor ductility and tough- colony size, and prior-austenite grain size, and sistance (less weight loss) increases as inter-
ness. For example, a low-carbon, fully ferritic t o u g h n e s s is controlled by colony size and prior- lamellar spacing decreases, as s h o w n in Fig. 16.
Carbon, at.%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1180 I I I I I I
1154°C - ~...~ 2125
1140
Fe-C equilibrium (experimental)
I
2.08 ~
"'"
J., ~1,,/8 °C-'~ 2050
1100 - - Fe-Fe3C equilibrium (experimental)
.o"Y 211 -- 1975
1060
• *' Y
• .~ -- 1900
1020
(~Fe) -- 1825
980
auatenite u-
o
-- 1750
940
¢D AUS tenite + cementite -- 1700
O. 900 ~ 9 1 2 °C , / "
E E
~ ~0¢F.) ferrite . ,-~ -- 1625
86O
-- 1550
820 %~ 770 °C (Curie temperature) -*°~
.../ -- 1475
780
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~-- - ' - ~ 0.68 7 738 °C - 1400
I ~ 0.0206 ~ ~, .'°"
740
I 1325
727 °C --
700 /
0.0218 I
I Ferrite + cementite I - 1250
66O I I I I
Fe 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2
Carbon, wt%
Fig. 6 ( a ) Iron-carbon phasediagram showing the austenite (y Fe)and ferrite (ocFe)phase regions and eutectoid composition and temperature. Dotted lines representiron-graphite equi-
librium conditions and solid lines representiron-cementite equilibrium conditions. Only the solid lines are important with respect to steels.Source: Ref 2
160/Structure/Property Relationships in Irons and Steels
Thus, the m o s t important microstructural pa- processes where steel parts are continuously the rod is transformed at a temperature of about
rameter for controlling hardness a n d wear resis- cooled, that is, air cooled, and so forth. 540 °C (1000 °F) by passing it through a lead or
tance is the pearlite interlamellar spacing. Fortu- As s h o w n in Fig. 17, the p e a d i t e transforma- salt bath at this temperature. This develops a
nately, interlamellar spacing is easy to control tion temperature (indicated by the pearlite-start microstructure with a very fine pearlite inter-
and is d e p e n d e n t solely on transformation tem- curve, Ps) decreases with increasing cooling rate. lamellar spacing because the transformation
perature. The hardness of peaflite increases with decreas- takes place at the n o s e of the C C T diagram, that
Figure 17 shows a continuous cooling transfor- ing transformation temperature. Thus, in order to is, at the lowest possible pearlite transformation
mation (CCT) d i a g r a m for a typical rail steel. A provide a rail steel with the h i g h e s t hardness and temperature (see Fig. 17). The rod is then cold
C C T d i a g r a m is a time versus temperature plot wear resistance, one m u s t cool the rail from the drawn to wire. B e c a u s e o f the very fine inter-
s h o w i n g the regions at which various constitu- austenite at the fastest rate possible to obtain the lamellar spacing, the ferrite and cementite lamel-
c n t s - - f e r d t e , pearlite, bainite, and m a r t e n s i t e - - lowest transformation temperature. This is done lae b e c o m e aligned along the wire axis during
form during the continuous cooling of a steel in practice by a process known as head harden- the deformation process. Also, the fine ccmentite
component. U s u a l l y several cooling curves are ing, which is simply an accelerated cooling proc- lamella tend to bend and deform as the wire is
s h o w n with the associated start and finish trans- ess u s i n g forced air or water sprays to achieve elongated during drawing. The resulting wire is
formation temperatures of each constituent. the desired cooling rate (Ref 15). Because only one of the strongest commercial products avail-
T h e s e diagrams should not be confused with iso- the head of the rail contacts the wheel of the
able; for example, a commercial 0.1 m m (0.004
thermal transformation (IT or T T T ) diagrams, railway car and locomotive, only the head re-
in.) diam wire can have a tensile strength in the
which are derived by rapidly q u e n c h i n g very thin quires the higher hardness and wear resistance.
range of 3.0 to 3.3 GPa (439 to 485 ksi), and in
s p e c i m e n s to various temperatures, and maintain- A n o t h e r application for a fully pearlitic steel is
ing that temperature (isothermal) until the speci- h i g h - s t r e n g t h wire (e.g., piano wire). Again, the special cases a tensile strength as h i g h as 4.8
m e n s begin to transform, partially transform, and composite m o r p h o l o g y of lamellar ferrite and ce- G P a (696 ksi) can be obtained. These wires are
fully transform, at which time they are quenched mentite is exploited, this time during wire draw- used in m u s i c a l instruments because of the sound
to room temperature. An IT d i a g r a m does not ing. A fully pearlitic steel rod is heat treated by a quality developed from the high tensile stresses
represent the transformation behavior in m o s t process k n o w n as patenting. During patenting, applied in stringing a piano and violin and are
also used in wire rope cables for suspension
bridges.
3 570 O3
"~ 35 241 ~:
Fig. 8 Photomic.rograph of an annealed low-carbon sheet steel with grain-boundary ce- Fig. 9 Photomicrograph of pearlite (dark constituent) in a low-carbon steel sheet. 2% ni-
mentite. 2% nital + 4% picral etch. 1000x tal + 4% picral etch. 1000x
trix) in the microstructure. Therefore, pearlite has no effect on yield strength, whereas the yield pact energy versus test temperature, the shelf en-
plays only a minor role in yielding behavior. strength in Fig. 19 i n c r e a s e s somewhat with car- ergy decreases from about 200 J (150 ft • lbf) for
From Fig. 19, one can also see that ductility, as bon content. According to Eq 6, m a n g a n e s e , sili- a 0.11% C steel to about 35 J (25 f t . lbf) for a
represented by reduction in area, steadily de- con, and nitrogen have a pronounced effect on 0.80% C steel. Also, the transition temperature
creases with increasing carbon content. A steel yield strength, as does grain size. However, in increases from about - 5 0 to 150 °C ( - 6 0 to 300
with 0.10% C has a reduction in area of about most ferrite-pearlite steels nitrogen is quite low °F) over this s a m e range o f carbon content. The
75%, whereas a steel with 0.70% C has a reduc- (under 0.010%) and thus h a s m i n i m a l effect on effect of carbon is due mainly to its effect on the
tion in area of only 25%. Percent total elongation yield strength. In addition, as discussed below, percentage of pearlite in the microstructurc. This
would show a similar trend, however, with values nitrogen has a detrimental effect on impact prop- is reflected in the regression equation for transi-
m u c h less than percent reduction in area. erties. tion temperature below (Ref 16):
Much work has been done to develop empirical The regression equation for tensile strength for
equations for ferrite-pearlite steels that relate the s a m e steels is as follows (Ref 16):
strength and t o u g h n e s s to microstructural fea- TT = - 1 9 + 44(Si) + 700(N~/2)
tures, for example, grain size and percent of + 2.2(P) - 11.5 (d -1/2) (F_.q8)
pearlite as well as composition. One such equa- TS = 294,1 + 27.7(Mn) + 83.2(Si)
+ 3.9(P) + 7.7(d -lt2) (F-47)
tion for ferrite-pearlitc steels under 0.25% C is as
follows (Ref 16): It can be seen in all these relationships that
where TS is the tensile strength (in MPa) and P is ferrite grain size is an important parameter in
pearlite content (%). Thus, in distinction to yield i m p r o v i n g both strength and toughness. It can
YS = 53.9 + 32.34 (Mn) + 83.2(Si)
+ 354.2(Nf) + 17.4(d-U2) strength, the percentage o f pearlite in the micro- also be seen that while pearlite is beneficial for
(Eq 6)
s t r u c t u r e h a s an i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t on t e n s i l e increasing tensile strength and nitrogen is benefi-
strength. cial for increasing yield strength, both are harm-
where Mn is the m a n g a n e s e content (%), Si is the T o u g h n e s s of ferrite-pearlite steels is also an ful to toughness. Therefore, m e t h o d s to control
silicon content (%), Nf is the free nitrogen content important consideration in their use. It has long the grain size of ferrite-pearlite steels have rap-
(%), and d is the ferrite grain size (in mm). Equa- been k n o w n that the absorbed energy in a Charpy idly evolved over the past 25 years. T h e two m o s t
tion 6 shows that carbon content (percent pearlite) V-notch test is decreased by increasing carbon important m e t h o d s to control grain size are con-
content, as seen in Fig. 20. In this graph of im- trolled rolling and microalloying. In fact, these
4-375
I 600
C and N 80
500
+225 80
Si & 400
.--~_m+150
"~ +75
/ ~ 300
200 "N.
y - - Ni and AI 20 |
o 0
100
-75
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 I I I I I I I I I I I I
Alloy content, wt% 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Fig, 1 0 Influence of solid-solution elements on the Grain diameter (d-l~), mm -1~
changes in yield stress of low-carbon ferritic
steels. Source: Ref 5 Fig. 11 Hall-Petch relationship in low-carbon ~mtic steels, souse: Ref 8
162 / Structure/Property Relationships in Irons and Steels
400
60 80 100 120 140
Reciprocal root of
Interlamellar spacing (Sp-1/2), mm-1/2