Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Competencies :
1. Apply scientific knowledge in the reservation of human life and conversation of natural
resources .
2. Apply scientific methods in the solution of everyday problems.
3. Solve problems in real life situations and suggest solutions related to personal and community
needs.
I . Definition of Science
Not facts themselves but new ideas , principles or models that connect and explain certain facts
and lead to useful predictions aboutwhat is likely to happen in nature .
Pursues knowledge about how the natural world works.
Attempts to discover order in natural and use that knowledge to make prediction about what is
likely to happen in natural
The umbrella s Natural Science which is subdivided into Physical Sciences and Biological
Sciences ( Life Sciences ) .
Interfacing among the sciences I recognized in formulating general scientific laws . Molecular biology
and genetics are special fields .
Biochemistry , biophysics , biomathematics , and bioengineering are interdisciplinary fields .
Pure Mathematics is a logic of relations and does not depend for its structure on the laws of nature . Its
applicability in the elaboration of scientific theories has resulted in its continued classification among
the science .
The applied sciences include aeronautics , electronics , engineering , metallurgy , agronomy and
medicine .
Technology puts both basic and applied sciences to work by producing material objects for use by
people . Science is knowledgeand technology is application of science in the production of material
objects .
Natural Science
Physical Science Biological, or Life , Sciences
Chemistry
Physics Earth Zoology Botany
Science
Prehistoric times through (1) the designs that Paleolithic people painted on the walls of caves , (2) numerical
records that were carved in bone or stone , and (3) artifacts surviving from Neolithic civilizations .
Treatment of Distribution on
Volume of a portion
disease and bread and beer
of a pyramid
wounds
Thales said that the Earth was a flat disc floating on the universal element , water .
The mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras and the Phythagorean scholars postulated that the
spherical Earth moved in a circular orbit about a central fire .
Plato and Aristotle pioneered logical philosophies .
The mathematician , astronomer , and geographer Eratosthenes measured the Earth .
The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos espoused a heliocentric ( Sun – centered ) planetary system .
Ptolemy advanced Geocentric ( Earth – centered ) Ptolemaic System .
The medical works of the physician and philosopher Galen became standard scientific treatises .
The science of alchemy arose a century later , springing from the practice of metallurgy . By 300 ,
alchemy had acquired an overlay of secrecy and symbolism that obscured the advantages of
experimentation .
Six leading culture groups existed during the middle ages : the Latin West , the Greek East , the
Chinese , the East Indian , the Arabic , and the Mayan .
The Latin group contributed little to science before the 13th century , the Greek never rose above
paraphrases of ancient learning , and the Mayan had no influence on the growth of science .
Chinese solved algebraic equations by means of matrices , and with the use of the arithmetic triangle .
Chinese innovations such as processes for manufacturing paper and gunpowder , the use of printing ,
and the mariner’s compass had great impact in Europe .
The formulation of the so – called Hindu – Arabic numerals and the conversion of trigonometry to a
quasi – modern form were the important contribution of India to Science .
The Scientific method led to advances in optics and kinematics that paved the way for Galileo and the
German astronomer Johannes Kepler .
The black death and the Hundred Years ‘ War disrupted scientific progress for more than a century . A
revival came in the 16th century.
The work of French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier opened the revolution in quantitative chemistry
.
The most comprehensive of the biological theories was the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin in
his “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection” (1859) .
Quantum Theory and relativity shocked physicists. Quantum mechanics dealt with statistical inferences
relating to large numbers of individual events.
In 1927 the German physicist Werner Heisenberg formulated the uncertainty principle, which stated the
impossibility of predicting with precision, that a particle such as an electron would be in a certain place
at a certain time , moving at a certain velocity .
The study of Planet Earth, its history , its changes , and its place in the universe .
With initial temperature after the big bang of 10 9 K, fundamental particles produced had too much
Kinetic energy to bind together .
The universe began with the big bang which sent matter and energy exploding off in every direction.
There are three main types of Galaxies : elliptical , spiral and irregular . The constellations are group of
star.
Star is born within a nebula and emits its own light produced through thermonuclear reaction or fusion
of hydrogen atoms to Helium .
A nebula is a huge cloud of gases and dust. Size of the star ranges from huge supergiants to tiny
neutron star.
A star has a life cycle – formation of Protostar, main sequence star , red giant , white dwarf and black
hole or neutron star .
The sun is a star and is the center of our solar system (a member of Galaxy Milky Way).
Planets demonstrate three types of motion
1. Revolution : around the sun which results to different seasons in a year .
2. Rotation : around its axis results to night and day
3. Precision : slight movement , over a period of 26,000 years , of the Earth’s axis with minor effects on
seasons but causes positions of seasons to move slightly each year among the constellations .
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are terrestrial planets.
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are “ gas giants “ .
Pluto is the outermost planet, moon – sized and ice – covered.
Is the study of matter, Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space .
There are different kinds of matter as shown in the chart below.
Elements form compounds. The products of chemistry abound at home. Examples are toothpaste,
detergents, shampoos, soaps, bleaching agents, fabric softeners, colognes, perfumes, lotions, and more.
Each kind of matter has its own properties(chemical or physical)
Matter changes. It may be physical, chemical or nuclear. Change may release o absorb energy. These
changes can be observed while cooking meat, burning wood, melting ice and bleaching stain.
Matter is seldom found in nature in pure form. It usually occurs as mixture. There are many ways of
separating components of mixture.
The separation of mixture may be physical, chemical, or both.. The techniques of separating mixtures are
based on the properties of matter. A good example is separating iron fillings from sulfur through the use
of magnet. This technique is anchored on the magnetic property of iron. Fillings cling to the magnets,
leaving behind the sulfur powder.
Matter may exist as solid, liquid or gas, According to Kinetic Molecular Theory, all forms of matter are
composed of small, rapidly moving particles
MATTER
Homogenous Heteroeneous
Element Compound
Metal Non-Metal
Non-Metal Non-Metal Non-Metal
Seme-Metal
Inorganic Organic
Shapes, volumes, and ability to flow; tension and rate of evaporation are influenced by the attraction
between particles..
The particles of gases are far form each other. The attraction between particles of gases is weak. The
weak forces allow rapid, independent movement of particles. These Gases can be compressed.
The Behaviour of gases are controlled by pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles.
Particles of solid and liquid are tightly packed and three is every little space. Thus, solid and liquid are
incompressible.
The basic unit of matter is atom. Democritus portrayed an atom as indivisible and indestructible
particle.
Dalton formulated the Atomic Theory :
1. All elements are composed of atoms
2. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible particles
3. Atoms of the same elements are exactly alike
4. Atoms of different elements are different
5. Compounds are formed by joining of atoms of two or more elements
Today atoms are known to possess subatomic particles – electron , proton , and neutron .
The mass of the atom is in the core called nucleus which is composed of positively charged proton and
neutral neutron . The nucleus is positively charged and around it is mostly an empty space where
electrons are located . The electrons are found in a specific energy level .
Louis de Broglie portrayed an atom to possess particle and wave nature .
There are forces in the atom – electromagnetic force , strong force , weak force , and gravity .
Elements are grouped according to properties . The effort led to the chart of elements called periodic
table . It was prepared by the Russian chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev in 1869 and
independently by the German chemist Julius Lothar Meyer in 1870 .
Today three conventions of periodic table are known – European , American ( being adopted in the
Phil. ) and IUPAC ( International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ) .
The periodic table brought order to the known elements and indicated where new elements would be
found and what their properties would be .
The periodic law states that properties of elements occur at regular interval and are functions of the
atomic number of elements ( number of protons present in the nucleus )
The link between atoms in a compound is called chemical bond . Chemical bond is formed through
electron transfer ( ionic ) or sharing of electrons ( covalent ) . Chemical bonds are either ionic or
covalent .
IX . Some Notes in Physics
Bioenergetics
Biological systems need energy . Two Laws govern energy conversion (Thermodynamics) .
The First Law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy which is mentioned
under notes in Physics .
Energy can be transformed to other forms but cannot be destroyed nor created .
The second Law of thermodynamics states that energy conversion reduces the order of the
universe . Conversion of chemical energy to kinetic energy is accompanied by an increase in
disorder or randomness . The amount of disorder is called entropy .
Adenosine triphosphate is the energy currency of a living system .
Green plants and photosynthetic bacteria make food through photosynthesis .
In green plants , photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts .
Chemosynthetic microorganisms make food using energy released during chemical reactions .
Cellular respiration , which occurs in the mitochondrion , produces ATP ( Adenosine
Triphosphate ) .
Food supplies organisms with molecules as raw materials for repair , growth and development
of body tissues . Molecules can be oxidized in respiration and acts a sources of energy .
Food includes Carbohydrates , Lipids , Proteins , Vitamins , Minerals , and Fiber .
Cell Theory
All living things are composed of cells . Cells come from pre – existing cells .
Cells are the basic unit of living organisms bounded by plasma membrane and contain genetic
material and other structures to perform the functions .
Cells may be prokaryotic or Eukaryotic .
Cells combine to form tissues . Tissues combine to form organs and organs form organ systems
.
Animal organ systems are coordinated by nervous and endocrine system .
Plant organ systems allow great efficiency through division of labor .
Substances move in and out of the cell through passive transport , active transport ,
Phagocytosis , Exocytosis , Endocytosis .
Cellular basis of Reproduction and Inheritance
Like begets like
Hereditary units , genes , are found in the chromosomes .
A chromosome is a packed chromatin fiber . A chromatin fiber is DNA coated with proteins .
The Human cell has 46 chromosomes . 44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes . Chromosomes
come in pairs called Homologous chromosomes . The pair carries different versions of genes .
Cells reproduce through cell division – nuclear and cytoplasmic . Mitosis and meiosis are
nuclear division . As the cell divides the genes are passed on to the next generation .
A change in number of chromosomes or structures of chromosomes leads to abnormalities .
Growth factors are main signals to promote and control cell division .
If the control system of cell cycle gets out of control , cancer cells develop and produce
malignant tumors .
Patterns of Inheritance
Mendel noted the patterns of inheritance : Law of Independent Assortment and Law of
Segregation .
A single characteristics may be under the influence of many genes . Genes on the same
chromosomes have tendencies to be inherited together .
Chromosomes Theory : Genes are located on the chromosomes and the behavior of the
chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization accounts for the inheritance patterns .
Technologies have been developed for early detection of hereditary disorders .
The first publicized incident due to carelessness or lack of knowledge is the Famous
Love Canal in Niagara Falls .
The extremely high levels of dioxin in the solid of Times Beach , Missouri led to the
relocation of 2000 people and purchase of the entire town of times Beach by EPA .
In Dec. 1984 , a liquid chemical called methyl isocyanate overheated in a storage tank at
Union Carbide Company chemical plant in Bhopal , India . A poisonous gas entered the
atmosphere and caused death of thousands of Indian people who lived in the vicinity of
the plant .
The burning of oil wells and oil spills into the sea in the middle east during the Persian
Gulf War brought havoc in the environment .
It has also become apparent that the accumulation of pesticides , by products from
manufacturing processes , metal ions , and other pollutant in cells are often damaging to
the organisms .
New fields of study like the environmental sciences and ecology came into the picture to provide
awareness of consequences of using scientific knowledge.
In 1971, some people started talking about sustainable development. Some of the strategies for
sustainable development are :
1. Environmental education
2. Price tag for our natural
resources
3. Proper zoning
4. Community participation
5. Establishment of national
park and other protected
areas
6. Proper harvest time of bio-
diversities
7. Proper land management
reforestation etc.
In 1988, Montreal protocol wherein producers of Freon would be out of circulation by
Year 2000.
The Earth summit was held in 1992 in Brazil which produced a document of 800 pages
named as Agenda 21. The document indicated he mechanism to repair the damaged
environment.
The by-word today is sustainable development. Sustainable development allows the
present generation to meet its need without compromising the needs of tomorrow’s
generation Sustainable development is a shared responsibility.
1.When Bataan Nuclear Power Plant was constructed, people went to the streets to demonstrate
and voice their fears about the operation. What was the most feared consequence of its operation?
Choice B: is the most feared. Radioactive wastes are dangerous because its is a mixture of
fragments from the original fuel. Such fragments are also radioactive an capable of generation
more energy. We cannot just throw away the wastes anywhere. It requires special means to
dispose radioactive wastes.
Choice A: This is not possible because the building passed the international standard set by the
international Atomic Energy Commission.
Choice C: It is a problem. The site is near a minor fault, so there is a probability for earthquake
to occur. But the building was designed to withstand certain intensity level.
Choice D: It is a problem. Water temperature increase around the secondary loop pipe with hot
water. Based on water current, heat can be dissipated without affecting greatly the water
ecosystem.
2. You are told to protect life forms in the environment. Which of the following should you do?
Choice B: is a good action to take. There are no plants or animals because it is often used.
There, you do not destroy any life form.
Choice A: Eggs are reproductive propagules of birds. If not allowed to hatch, there will
be no off-springs. This may lead to extinction of the organism.
Choice C: This causes water pollution and harms the organism in the system.
Choice D: Flowers are reproductive organs of the plant. If flowers are removed, then the
reproductive process of the plant is hampered. Fruits are not produced. No fruits means no
harvest.
3. Mercury ia one of the many metal pollutants. The metal is used in clinical thermometer. Most
families with infants and children are encouraged to keep clinical thermometer. Since the container
is glass, it may break accidentally. What will you do with mercury that spills out of a broken
thermometer?
Option A: There are pores in the skin. Mercury can pass through the skin pores and enter
the circulatory system. So, do not play with it.
Option Band C. Mercury is volatile. Through time, the metal evaporates into the air. A
drop of mercury liquid increases the mercury concentration in air by 30 times.
4. Eric and Carla met in a party. They fell in love at first meeting which ended in
marriage. Their off –springs have blood types A, B, AB, and O. what were blood types of
Eric and Carla?
Blood types of parents indicated in Choice A, B, C, and e will never produce offspring
with all the four blood types.
Gametes IA IO IBIO(meiosis)
Off-spring
Genotypes IAIB IBIO IAIO IOIO
(Fertilization)
Blood types AB B A O
5.Every time rain pours in the metropolis , water floods most streets . Anyone who
drives a vehicle in flooded streets avoids stepping on the brake . Why should a
driver avoid stepping on the brake ?
a) The wheel gets dirty c) Air may enter the brake drum
b) The brake fluid may leak d) Water may enter the brake drum ?
Option A. This an aesthetic reason that got nothing to do with the operation of the brake .
Option B. If there is no eroded part of the brake , then the brake fluid does not leak out .
Option C. Since the wheel of the vehicle is under water , then not enough air enters the
brake drum .
Option D. Every time a driver steps on the brake , there is a tendency for water to enter
the brake drum . The brake fluid is no longer pure . Thus , viscosity of the liquid changes . This
changes also compressibility . The brake may not work when a driver needed it most .
6. Salt is a very important substance . It has many uses . The source of salt is seawater .
Which is evaporated in the presence of heat . Paran̄aque and Pangasinan are famous for
Salt making . The table salt coming from Pangasinan is very fine . Why ?
a) The salt water used in Paran̄aque is full of dirt which affects the formation of
salt crystals .
b) The salt water used in Pangasinan is clean . Thus , no pollutant affects the
crystallization process .
c) The heat source for evaporating seawater in Paran̄aque is the sun . Thus ,
crystallization is .
d) The source for evaporating seawater in Pangasinan is fire . Formation of crystal
is fast .
Option A and B : Even if contaminants are present in water , salt crystals form .
Crystallization is used to separate components in a mixture .
Option C. If evaporation process is slow , crystals formed can rearrange tp form large
crystals .
Option D. If crystallization is fast , crystals formed are fine because there is no time for
crystals to rearrange .
7. During new moon of every month , the moon is in direct line between the earth and the sun .
The moon casts a shadow on the earth . This produces solar eclipse . However , solar eclipse
does not occur every month . Instead , solar eclipse occurs twice a year . Why ?
Option A. No matter how small an object is , it can still cast a shadow on another object
if the small object is between another object and the light source lies in a straight line .
Option B. The shadow of the moon does not miss the earth if the orbit of the moon lies
exactly along the plane of the earth’s orbit .
Option D. No matter how lighted the place is , solar eclipse can be detected by
instruments and is reported to the public .
21. Carbonated beverages are bottled under great carbon dioxide pressure . They are
likeable to drink when cold . Why ?
a. More oxygen gas goes into solution
b. Less oxygen gas goes into solution
c. More carbon dioxide goes into solution
d. Less carbon dioxide goes into solution.
22. Aerosol products carry a warning signal like “keep in cool dry place” Why ?
a. The container is a metal which is a good conductor of heat
b. The substance inside the container is very volatile
c. A fixed amount of gas which may expand is kept inside a fixed volume or
space .
d. None of the above
23. Which is the best time to buy a pair of shoes ?
a. Morning
b. Afternoon
c. Anytime
d. None of the above
24. Which of the following statements best describes what happens when the roof of a
house blows off during strong typhoons ?
a. The force of the wind pushes it off .
b. The wind creates a reduced pressure inside the house .
c. The wind creates a high pressure inside the house .
d. The wind drives the roof into vibrational resonance .
25. You and your friend are waiting for a MRT train . Your friend stands near the
edge of the subway platform . You inform him that it is dangerous to stand near
the edge of a subway platform when a train whizzes . What is the principles you
will use to explain to a friend ?
a. Newton’s Law of Motion
b. Archimedes Principle
c. Bernoulli’s Principle
d. Henry’s Law