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Mechanical Engineering Series

Frederick F. Ling
Editor-in-Chief

For other volumes in this series, go to


http://www.springer.com/series/1161
Sara McAllister Jyh-Yuan Chen
l

A. Carlos Fernandez-Pello

Fundamentals of
Combustion Processes
Sara McAllister Jyh-Yuan Chen
University of California, Berkeley University of California, Berkeley
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
Berkeley, CA Berkeley, CA
USA USA
Currently: jychen@me.berkeley.edu
Research Mechanical Engineer
USDA Forest Service RMRS
Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory
Missoula, MT
smcallister@fs.fed.us

A. Carlos Fernandez-Pello
University of California, Berkeley
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Berkeley, CA
USA
ferpello@me.berkeley.edu

ISBN 978-1-4419-7942-1 e-ISBN 978-1-4419-7943-8


DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-7943-8
Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011925371

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011


All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written
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NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in
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not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject
to proprietary rights.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)


Mechanical Engineering Series
Frederick F. Ling
Editor-in-Chief

The Mechanical Engineering Series features graduate texts and research mono-
graphs to address the need for information in contemporary mechanical engineering,
including areas of concentration of applied mechanics, biomechanics, computational
mechanics, dynamical systems and control, energetics, mechanics of materials,
processing, production systems, thermal science, and tribology.

Advisory Board/Series Editors


Applied Mechanics F.A. Leckie
University of California,
Santa Barbara
D. Gross
Technical University of Darmstadt
Biomechanics V.C. Mow
Columbia University
Computational Mechanics H.T. Yang
University of California,
Santa Barbara
Dynamic Systems and Control/ D. Bryant
Mechatronics University of Texas at Austin
Energetics J.R. Welty
University of Oregon, Eugene
Mechanics of Materials I. Finnie
University of California, Berkeley
Processing K.K. Wang
Cornell University
Production Systems G.-A. Klutke
Texas A&M University
Thermal Science A.E. Bergles
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Tribology W.O. Winer
Georgia Institute of Technology

v
Series Preface

Mechanical engineering, an engineering discipline forged and shaped by the needs


of the industrial revolution, is once again asked to do its substantial share in the call
for industrial renewal. The general call is urgent as we face profound issues of
productivity and competitiveness that require engineering solutions, among others.
The Mechanical Engineering Series features graduate texts and research mono-
graphs intended to address the need for information in contemporary areas of
mechanical engineering.
The series is conceived as a comprehensive one that covers a broad range of
concentrations important to mechanical engineering graduate education and re-
search. We are fortunate to have a distinguished roster of consulting editors on
the advisory board, each an expert in one of the areas of concentration. The names
of the consulting editors are listed on the facing page of this volume. The areas of
concentration are applied mechanics, biomechanics, computational mechanics,
dynamic systems and control, energetics, mechanics of materials, processing,
production systems, thermal science, and tribology.
Austin, Texas Frederick F. Ling

vii
Preface

Combustion is present continuously in our lives. It is a major source of energy


conversion for power generation, transportation, manufacturing, indoor heating and
air conditioning, cooking, etc. It is also a source of destructive events such as
explosions and building and wildland fires. Its uncontrolled use may have damaging
health effects through contamination of air and water. While combustion has helped
humanity to prosper greatly, particularly with the use of fossil fuels, its indiscrimi-
nate use is altering the current global ecological balance through contamination and
global warming. Thus, it is natural that combustion concerns people of all education
levels, and it is important that the subject of combustion is taught at several levels of
technical depth in schools and colleges.
Combustion is an interdisciplinary field with the interaction of thermodynamics,
chemistry, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer, and, consequently, difficult to
describe in simple terms and in a balanced manner between the different basic
sciences. Many of the books currently available in combustion are geared to
researchers in the field or to students conducting graduate studies. There are few
books that are planned for teaching students that are not advanced in their technical
studies. It is for this reason we have written this book aiming at readers that have not
been previously exposed to combustion science, and that is at the undergraduate
college level. We have often traded accuracy in our description and explanation of
combustion processes for simplicity and easiness of understanding. Our readers should
have knowledge of basic sciences, but are not necessarily advanced in their studies.
The book is based on lectures given by the authors through the years in a senior
elective undergraduate combustion class in the Department of Mechanical Engi-
neering at the University of California, Berkeley. The organization of the book
chapters follows more or less those of other combustion textbooks, starting with a
review of thermodynamics, chemical kinetics and the transport conservation equa-
tions. This is followed with chapters on the basic concepts of ignition, premixed
and non-premixed combustion, and a chapter on emissions from combustion. The
application of these basic concepts in practical combustion systems is implemented
in a chapter devoted to internal combustion engines. Examples of problem solutions
of different combustion processes are given through the book to help the student
understand the material. A few problems are also given at the end of the different
chapters.

ix
x Preface

In addition to the traditional class lectures, the course has a weekly demonstra-
tion laboratory where the students are exposed to the actual combustion processes
presented in class.1 We feel that these demonstration laboratories are very valuable
to the students since they help them visualize the somewhat abstract concepts
presented in class. For this reason, we have included as an appendix a description
of several of the laboratories used in the class together with videos of some of the
lab experiments to help a potential user of the book implement the laboratories.2
Finally, we would like to thank the graduate students that through the years
have helped us as Teaching Assistants of the course and have helped us refine our
class notes, and the Mechanical Engineering technical staff for the invaluable
help running the demonstration laboratories. Our special thanks goes to Anthony
DeFilippo for his unconditional help in commenting about the content of the book
and revising and editing each chapter.

1
Labs are located on Springer Extras at http://extras.springer.com/2011/978-1-4419-7942-1
2
Links to laboratory video demonstrations are located in each lab. Readers can also find them at
http://www.youtube.com/user/FndmtlsofCombustion
Contents

1 Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Types of Fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Fuel Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Basic Considerations of the Choice of Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Classification of Fuels by Phase at Ambient Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Identification of Fuel by Molecular Structure: International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Some Related Properties of Liquid Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Thermodynamics of Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Properties of Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Combustion Stoichiometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.1 Methods of Quantifying Fuel and Air Content
of Combustible Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Heating Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.1 Determination of HHV for Combustion Processes
at Constant Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.2 Determination of HHV for Combustion Processes
from a Constant-Volume Reactor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.3 Representative HHV Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Adiabatic Flame Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4.1 Constant-Pressure Combustion Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4.2 Comparison of Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Calculation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

xi
xii Contents

3 Chemical Kinetics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1 The Nature of Combustion Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.1.1 Elementary Reactions: Chain Initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1.2 Elementary Reactions: Chain Branching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1.3 Elementary Reactions: Chain Terminating
or Recombination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.1.4 Elementary Reactions: Chain Propagating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2 Elementary Reaction Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.1 Forward Reaction Rate and Rate Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.2 Equilibrium Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3 Simplified Model of Combustion Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3.1 Global One-Step Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3.2 Pressure Dependence of Rate of Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.3 Heat Release Rate (HRR). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.4 Modeling of Chemical Kinetics
with Detailed Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.5 Partial Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.3.6 Quasi-Steady State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4 Review of Transport Equations and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75


4.1 Overview of Heat and Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.2 Conservation of Mass and Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.3 Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.4 Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.4.1 Terms in the Conservation of Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.4.2 Derivation of a 1-D Conservation of Energy Equation . . . . . 82
4.5 Normalization of the Conservation Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.6 Viscosity, Conductivity and Diffusivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

5 Ignition Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.1 Autoignition (Self-ignition, Spontaneous Ignition) Based
on Thermal Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.2 Effect of Pressure on the Autoignition Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.3 Piloted Ignition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.4 Condensed Fuel Ignition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.4.1 Fuel Vaporization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.4.2 Important Physiochemical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.4.3 Characteristic Times in Condensed Fuel Ignition . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.4.4 Critical Heat Flux for Ignition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Contents xiii

6 Premixed Flames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111


6.1 Physical Processes in a Premixed Flame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.1.1 Derivation of Flame Speed and Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.1.2 Measurements of the Flame Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.1.3 Structure of Premixed Flames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.1.4 Dependence of Flame Speed on Equivalence Ratio,
Temperature and Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.1.5 Dependence of Flame Thickness on Equivalence Ratio,
Temperature and Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.2 Flammability Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.2.1 Effects of Temperature and Pressure
on Flammability Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.3 Flame Quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.4 Minimum Energy for Sustained Ignition and Flame
Propagation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.5 Turbulent Premixed Flames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.5.1 Eddy Diffusivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.5.2 Turbulent Flame Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

7 Non-premixed Flames (Diffusion Flames) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139


7.1 Description of a Candle Flame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.2 Structure of Non-premixed Laminar Free Jet Flames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.3 Laminar Jet Flame Height (Lf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.4 Empirical Correlations for Laminar Flame Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.5 Burke-Schumann Jet Diffusion Flame. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.6 Turbulent Jet Flames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.6.1 Lift-Off Height (h) and Blowout Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.7 Condensed Fuel Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

8 Droplet Evaporation and Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155


8.1 Droplet Vaporization in Quiescent Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8.1.1 Droplet Vaporization in Convective Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.2 Droplet Combustion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.3 Initial Heating of a Droplet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.3.1 Effect of Air Temperature and Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.4 Droplet Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Reference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
xiv Contents

9 Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.1 Negative Effects of Combustion Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.2 Pollution Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
9.2.1 Parameters Controlling Formation of Pollutants . . . . . . . 179
9.2.2 CO Oxidation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
9.2.3 Mechanisms for NO Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
9.2.4 Controlling NO Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9.2.5 Soot Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.2.6 Relation Between NOx and Soot Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.2.7 Oxides of Sulfur (SOx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.3 Quantification of Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

10 Premixed Piston IC Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199


10.1 Principles of SI Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
10.2 Thermodynamic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.3 Relationship between Pressure Trace and Heat Release . . . . . . . . . 206
10.4 Octane Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
10.4.1 Definition of Octane Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
10.4.2 Measurement Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
10.5 Fuel Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
10.6 Ignition Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
10.7 Flame Propagation in SI Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
10.8 Modeling of Combustion Processes in IC Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
10.8.1 A Simplified Two-Zone Model
of Engine Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
10.9 Emissions and Their Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
10.9.1 Three-Way Catalyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
10.10 Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

11 Diesel Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227


11.1 Overall Comparisons to SI Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
11.1.1 Advantages of Diesel Engines as Compared
to SI Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
11.1.2 Disadvantages of Diesel Engines as Compared
to SI Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
11.2 Thermodynamics of Diesel Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
11.3 Diesel Spray and Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
11.4 Cetane Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Contents xv

11.5 Diesel Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237


11.6 Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) . . . . . . . . . . . 238
11.6.1 HCCI Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
11.6.2 HCCI Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
11.6.3 Challenges with HCCI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Nomenclature

a exponent of Arrhenius reaction rate; crankshaft radius


A area
Ao pre-exponential factor
[A] molar concentration of species A
AFR air-fuel ratio by mass (1/f)
AKI anti-knock index
b exponent of Arrhenius reaction rate
B bore (engine cylinder diameter)
BMEP brake mean effective pressure (atm)
BSFC brake specific fuel consumption (g/kW-h)
BTDC before top dead center
c specific heat
cp specific heat at constant pressure
cv specific heat at constant volume
CAD crank angle degree (y)
CFD computational fluid dynamics
CFR cooperative fuel research
CHF critical heat flux
CI compression ignited
CN cetane number
CNF cumulative number function
CR compression ratio, max cylinder volume/min cylinder volume
CVF cumulative volume function
d diameter
Di diffusivity of species i
DI direct injection
DPF diesel particulate filter
E total system energy
Ea activation energy

xvii
xviii Nomenclature

EA excess air
EI emission index
EGR exhaust gas recirculation
f fuel-air ratio by mass
fs stoichiometric fuel-to-air ratio by mass
F radiation geometrical factor
FAR fuel-air ratio (same as f)
g Gibbs free energy per unit mass; acceleration due to gravity
G Gibbs free energy
GDI gasoline direct injection
h enthalpy per unit mass
H total enthalpy, kJ
h^ enthalpy per mole
h~ convective heat transfer coefficient
hfg latent heat of vaporization
HCCI homogeneous charge compression ignition
HHV higher heating value per mass of fuel
HRR heat release rate, btu/kW-h
Dh˚ enthalpy of formation
IC internal combustion
IDI indirect injection
IMEP indicated mean effective pressure
~k
k, thermal conductivity
kB Boltzmann constant
ki Arrhenius kinetic rate constant
K thermodynamic equilibrium constant
l, L length
Lp spray penetration distance
LFL lean flammability limit
LHV lower heating value per mass of fuel
LPG liquified petroleum gas
m mass
m_ mass flow rate
m_ 00 mass flux
M molecular mass; third body species
MBT max brake torque
MIE minimum ignition energy
MON motor octane number
MSE mass species emission
n moles, mol
n_ molar flow rate
OFR oxygen/fuel ratio
Nomenclature xix

P pressure
PFI port fuel injection
PM particulate matter
PRF primary reference fuels
q_ heat transfer rate
q_ 00 heat transfer rate per unit area
q_ 000 rate of heat release per unit volume
q_ RxT rate of reaction progress
Q12 total heat input for process from state 1 to state 2
Qc heat of combustion
Qrxn,p heat of reaction at constant pressure
Qrxn,v heat of reaction at constant volume
r radius
^r_ reaction rate (rate of production or destruction of a chemical species per
unit volume)
rc cut-off ratio
R^u universal gas constant
Ri specific gas constant
RFL rich flammability limit
RON research octane number
RPM revolutions per minute
s entropy per unit mass
S total entropy; surface area; molar stoichiometric air/fuel ratio
SL laminar flame speed
ST turbulent flame speed
SI spark ignited
SMD Sauter mean diameter
STP standard conditions (25oC and 1 atm)
t time
T temperature
Ta activation temperature
TDC top dead center
u internal energy per unit mass; velocity in x-direction
u’ characteristic turbulence velocity
U total internal energy
v specific volume
V, V volume
_ V
V, volumetric flow rate
V velocity
W work
W_ power
xx Nomenclature

x distance
xi mole fraction of species i
X body force
yi mass fraction of species i
a thermal diffusivity; number of carbon atoms in fuel
b droplet constant; number of hydrogen atoms in fuel
g ratio of specific heats; number of oxygen atoms in fuel
l normalized air-fuel ratio (AFR/AFRstoichiometric)
d laminar flame thickness; boundary layer thickness
e emissivity; eddy diffusivity
Z thermal efficiency
Zc combustion efficiency
Zv volumetric efficiency
y crank angle, degrees; degrees of angle
m absolute viscosity
n kinematic viscosity
r density
s surface tension
ss Stefan-Boltzmann constant ¼ 5.67  108 W/m2-K4
f equivalence ratio, f =fs
F spray cone angle
t characteristic time
oc, op net consumption/production rate

Subscripts

a air
b background (temperature); backward
c characteristic; clearance
e effective
eq equilibrium
f fuel; forward
g gas
i species, initial
l liquid
L losses; laminar
m mean
o outside; reference condition; orifice
P product; constant pressure
R reactant
s solid; surface; stoichiometric
sat saturation
st stoichiometric
Nomenclature xxi

T turbulent
v vapor; constant volume
w water

Superscripts
0
standard conditions (STP)

Overbars

^ quantity per mole


- average value; nondimensional variable

Dimensionless numbers

Bi ~ k~s
Biot number ¼ hL=
Da Damköhler number
Le Lewis number ¼ a/DAB
Nu ~ k~a
Nusselt number ¼ hL=
Pe Peclet number ¼ lu/a
Pr Prandtl number ¼ n ¼ cp m=k~
Re Reynolds number ¼ nL=n
Sc Schmidt number ¼ n/DAB
We Weber number ¼ rn2L=s

Physical Constants

Standard atmosphere (atm) 101.325 kPa


Universal gas constant (R^u ) 8.31447 kJ/kmol-K3
8.31447 kPa  m3/kmol-K
1.98591 kcal/kmol-K
0.0831447 bar  m3/kmol-K
83.1447 bar·cm3/mol-K
82.0574 atm·cm3/mol-K
Acceleration of gravity 9.807 m/s2
Planck’s constant 6.625  1034 J-s
Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67  108 W/m2-K4

3
The notation kJ/kmol-K means kJ divided by the product of kmol and K; equivalent to kJ/
(kmolK).
xxii Nomenclature

Conversion Factors

British units to SI units SI units to British units


Density
1 lb/ft3 ¼ 16.02 kg/m3 1 kg/m3 ¼ 0.0624 lb/ft3
Energy
1 Btu ¼ 1.054 kJ 1 kJ ¼ 0.949 Btu
1 kcal ¼ 4.184 kJ 1 kJ ¼ 0.239 kcal
1 therm ¼ 105 Btu ¼105.4 MJ 1 MJ ¼ 9.49  103 therm
1 quad ¼ 1015 Btu ¼ 1.05  1015 kJ 1 kJ ¼ 9.52  1016 quad
Energy per unit mass
1 Btu/lb ¼ 2.324 kJ/kg 1 kJ/kg ¼ 0.430 Btu/lb
1 cal/g ¼ 4.184 kJ/kg 1 kJ/kg ¼ 0.239 cal/g
Energy flux
1 Btu/(h-ft2) ¼ 3.152 W/m2 1 W/m2 ¼ 0.3173 Btu/(h-ft2)
Force
1 lb ¼ 4.448 N 1 N ¼0.2248 lb
Heat transfer coefficient
1 Btu /ft2-h-oR ¼ 5.678 W/m2-K 1 W/m2-K ¼ 0.1761 Btu /ft2-h-oR
Kinematic Viscosity
1 stokes ¼104 m2/s 1 m2/s ¼ 104 stokes
Length
1 ft ¼ 0.3048 m 1 m ¼ 3.281 ft
Mass
1 lb ¼0.4536 kg 1 kg ¼ 2.2 lb
Power
1 hp ¼ 0.7458 kW 1 kW ¼ 1.341 hp
Pressure
1 atm ¼ 101.3 kPa ¼ 1.013 bar 1 bar ¼ 0.9871 atm
1 in. Hg ¼ 3.376 kPa 1 kPa ¼ 0.2962 in. Hg
1 in. H2O ¼ 0.2488 kPa 1 kPa ¼ 4.019 in. H2O
Specific heat
1 Btu/lb-oR ¼ 4.188 kJ/kg-K 1 kJ/kg-K ¼ 0.2388 Btu/lb-oR
Surface tension
1 lb/ft ¼ 14.59 N/m 1 N/m ¼ 0.06854 lb/ft
Temperature
1oR ¼ 0.5556 K 1 K ¼1.8oR
Thermal conductivity
1 Btu/h-ft-oR ¼ 1.73 W/m-K 1 W/m-K ¼ 0.5780 Btu/h-ft-oR
(continued)
Nomenclature xxiii

British units to SI units SI units to British units


Torque
1 ft-lb ¼ 1.356 N  m 1 N  m ¼ 0.7375 ft-lb
Viscosity
1 poise ¼ 0.1 kg/m-s 1 kg/m-s ¼ 10 poise
Volume
1 ft3 ¼ 0.02832 m3 1 m3 ¼ 35.31 ft3
1 gal ¼ 0.003785 m3 ¼ 3.785 Liter 1 Liter ¼ 0.2640 gal
1 barrel ¼ 42 gal ¼ 0.15897 1 Liter ¼ 6.291  103 barrel
m3¼ 158.97 Liter
1 cord ¼ 128 ft3 ¼ 3.625 m3 1 m3 ¼ 0.2759 cord

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