Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Frederick F. Ling
Editor-in-Chief
A. Carlos Fernandez-Pello
Fundamentals of
Combustion Processes
Sara McAllister Jyh-Yuan Chen
University of California, Berkeley University of California, Berkeley
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
Berkeley, CA Berkeley, CA
USA USA
Currently: jychen@me.berkeley.edu
Research Mechanical Engineer
USDA Forest Service RMRS
Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory
Missoula, MT
smcallister@fs.fed.us
A. Carlos Fernandez-Pello
University of California, Berkeley
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Berkeley, CA
USA
ferpello@me.berkeley.edu
The Mechanical Engineering Series features graduate texts and research mono-
graphs to address the need for information in contemporary mechanical engineering,
including areas of concentration of applied mechanics, biomechanics, computational
mechanics, dynamical systems and control, energetics, mechanics of materials,
processing, production systems, thermal science, and tribology.
v
Series Preface
vii
Preface
ix
x Preface
In addition to the traditional class lectures, the course has a weekly demonstra-
tion laboratory where the students are exposed to the actual combustion processes
presented in class.1 We feel that these demonstration laboratories are very valuable
to the students since they help them visualize the somewhat abstract concepts
presented in class. For this reason, we have included as an appendix a description
of several of the laboratories used in the class together with videos of some of the
lab experiments to help a potential user of the book implement the laboratories.2
Finally, we would like to thank the graduate students that through the years
have helped us as Teaching Assistants of the course and have helped us refine our
class notes, and the Mechanical Engineering technical staff for the invaluable
help running the demonstration laboratories. Our special thanks goes to Anthony
DeFilippo for his unconditional help in commenting about the content of the book
and revising and editing each chapter.
1
Labs are located on Springer Extras at http://extras.springer.com/2011/978-1-4419-7942-1
2
Links to laboratory video demonstrations are located in each lab. Readers can also find them at
http://www.youtube.com/user/FndmtlsofCombustion
Contents
1 Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Types of Fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Fuel Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Basic Considerations of the Choice of Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Classification of Fuels by Phase at Ambient Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Identification of Fuel by Molecular Structure: International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Some Related Properties of Liquid Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 Thermodynamics of Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Properties of Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Combustion Stoichiometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.1 Methods of Quantifying Fuel and Air Content
of Combustible Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Heating Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.1 Determination of HHV for Combustion Processes
at Constant Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.2 Determination of HHV for Combustion Processes
from a Constant-Volume Reactor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.3 Representative HHV Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Adiabatic Flame Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4.1 Constant-Pressure Combustion Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4.2 Comparison of Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Calculation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
xi
xii Contents
3 Chemical Kinetics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1 The Nature of Combustion Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.1.1 Elementary Reactions: Chain Initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1.2 Elementary Reactions: Chain Branching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1.3 Elementary Reactions: Chain Terminating
or Recombination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.1.4 Elementary Reactions: Chain Propagating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2 Elementary Reaction Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.1 Forward Reaction Rate and Rate Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.2 Equilibrium Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3 Simplified Model of Combustion Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3.1 Global One-Step Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3.2 Pressure Dependence of Rate of Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.3 Heat Release Rate (HRR). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.4 Modeling of Chemical Kinetics
with Detailed Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.5 Partial Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.3.6 Quasi-Steady State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5 Ignition Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.1 Autoignition (Self-ignition, Spontaneous Ignition) Based
on Thermal Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.2 Effect of Pressure on the Autoignition Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.3 Piloted Ignition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.4 Condensed Fuel Ignition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.4.1 Fuel Vaporization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.4.2 Important Physiochemical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.4.3 Characteristic Times in Condensed Fuel Ignition . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.4.4 Critical Heat Flux for Ignition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Contents xiii
9 Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.1 Negative Effects of Combustion Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.2 Pollution Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
9.2.1 Parameters Controlling Formation of Pollutants . . . . . . . 179
9.2.2 CO Oxidation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
9.2.3 Mechanisms for NO Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
9.2.4 Controlling NO Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9.2.5 Soot Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.2.6 Relation Between NOx and Soot Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.2.7 Oxides of Sulfur (SOx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.3 Quantification of Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Nomenclature
xvii
xviii Nomenclature
EA excess air
EI emission index
EGR exhaust gas recirculation
f fuel-air ratio by mass
fs stoichiometric fuel-to-air ratio by mass
F radiation geometrical factor
FAR fuel-air ratio (same as f)
g Gibbs free energy per unit mass; acceleration due to gravity
G Gibbs free energy
GDI gasoline direct injection
h enthalpy per unit mass
H total enthalpy, kJ
h^ enthalpy per mole
h~ convective heat transfer coefficient
hfg latent heat of vaporization
HCCI homogeneous charge compression ignition
HHV higher heating value per mass of fuel
HRR heat release rate, btu/kW-h
Dh˚ enthalpy of formation
IC internal combustion
IDI indirect injection
IMEP indicated mean effective pressure
~k
k, thermal conductivity
kB Boltzmann constant
ki Arrhenius kinetic rate constant
K thermodynamic equilibrium constant
l, L length
Lp spray penetration distance
LFL lean flammability limit
LHV lower heating value per mass of fuel
LPG liquified petroleum gas
m mass
m_ mass flow rate
m_ 00 mass flux
M molecular mass; third body species
MBT max brake torque
MIE minimum ignition energy
MON motor octane number
MSE mass species emission
n moles, mol
n_ molar flow rate
OFR oxygen/fuel ratio
Nomenclature xix
P pressure
PFI port fuel injection
PM particulate matter
PRF primary reference fuels
q_ heat transfer rate
q_ 00 heat transfer rate per unit area
q_ 000 rate of heat release per unit volume
q_ RxT rate of reaction progress
Q12 total heat input for process from state 1 to state 2
Qc heat of combustion
Qrxn,p heat of reaction at constant pressure
Qrxn,v heat of reaction at constant volume
r radius
^r_ reaction rate (rate of production or destruction of a chemical species per
unit volume)
rc cut-off ratio
R^u universal gas constant
Ri specific gas constant
RFL rich flammability limit
RON research octane number
RPM revolutions per minute
s entropy per unit mass
S total entropy; surface area; molar stoichiometric air/fuel ratio
SL laminar flame speed
ST turbulent flame speed
SI spark ignited
SMD Sauter mean diameter
STP standard conditions (25oC and 1 atm)
t time
T temperature
Ta activation temperature
TDC top dead center
u internal energy per unit mass; velocity in x-direction
u’ characteristic turbulence velocity
U total internal energy
v specific volume
V, V volume
_ V
V, volumetric flow rate
V velocity
W work
W_ power
xx Nomenclature
x distance
xi mole fraction of species i
X body force
yi mass fraction of species i
a thermal diffusivity; number of carbon atoms in fuel
b droplet constant; number of hydrogen atoms in fuel
g ratio of specific heats; number of oxygen atoms in fuel
l normalized air-fuel ratio (AFR/AFRstoichiometric)
d laminar flame thickness; boundary layer thickness
e emissivity; eddy diffusivity
Z thermal efficiency
Zc combustion efficiency
Zv volumetric efficiency
y crank angle, degrees; degrees of angle
m absolute viscosity
n kinematic viscosity
r density
s surface tension
ss Stefan-Boltzmann constant ¼ 5.67 108 W/m2-K4
f equivalence ratio, f =fs
F spray cone angle
t characteristic time
oc, op net consumption/production rate
Subscripts
a air
b background (temperature); backward
c characteristic; clearance
e effective
eq equilibrium
f fuel; forward
g gas
i species, initial
l liquid
L losses; laminar
m mean
o outside; reference condition; orifice
P product; constant pressure
R reactant
s solid; surface; stoichiometric
sat saturation
st stoichiometric
Nomenclature xxi
T turbulent
v vapor; constant volume
w water
Superscripts
0
standard conditions (STP)
Overbars
Dimensionless numbers
Bi ~ k~s
Biot number ¼ hL=
Da Damköhler number
Le Lewis number ¼ a/DAB
Nu ~ k~a
Nusselt number ¼ hL=
Pe Peclet number ¼ lu/a
Pr Prandtl number ¼ n ¼ cp m=k~
Re Reynolds number ¼ nL=n
Sc Schmidt number ¼ n/DAB
We Weber number ¼ rn2L=s
Physical Constants
3
The notation kJ/kmol-K means kJ divided by the product of kmol and K; equivalent to kJ/
(kmolK).
xxii Nomenclature
Conversion Factors