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EE 5337
Computational Electromagnetics
Lecture #3
Preliminary Topics
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Lecture 3 Slide 1
Outline
• Review of Linear Algebra
• Wave Vectors
• Wave Polarization
• Index Ellipsoids
• Electromagnetic Behavior at an Interface
– Phase matching at an interface
– The Fresnel equations
– Visualization
• Image Theory
Lecture 3 Slide 2
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Review of
Linear Algebra
Lecture 3 Slide 3
Matrices Represent Sets of Equations
A set of linear algebraic equations can be written in “matrix” form.
Lecture 3 Slide 4
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Interpretation of Matrices
a11 x a12 y a13 z b1
a11 a12 a13 x b1
a21 x a22 y a23 z b2 a
21 a22 a23 y b2
a31 x a32 y a33 z b3 a31 a32 a33 z b3
EQUATION FOR… RELATION TO…
Compact Matrix Notation
Matrices and vectors can be represented and treated as single variables.
A x b
a41 a42 a43 a44 z b4
Lecture 3 Slide 6
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Matrices Require Special Algebra
AB BA
Commutative Laws Associative Laws Distributive Laws
AB BA AB C A BC A B C AB AC
AB BA A B C A B C A B C AC BC
Multiplication with a Scalar Addition with a Scalar
A B A B A?
AB A B A B a11 a1n
I A
Matrix Inverses and Transposes am1 amn
A A
1
AB B A
1 1 1 1
A A
T
A B A B AB
T T
T T T
BT A T
A A
1 T
T 1
Lecture 3 Slide 7
Manipulating Matrix Equations
Example #1: Dividing both sides by a matrix on the right
A B C D E Starting equation
A B D E C1 Recall that CC‐1=I
Example #2: Dividing both sides by a matrix on the left
CA B D E Starting equation
A B C1 D E Recall that C‐1C=I
Example #3: Simplify an expression
C A D BC D
1 1
Starting equation
C A BC
1
1 Subtract D from both sides
1
A C BC Recall inverse of a product rule
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The Zero and the Identity Matrices
Zero Matrix
0 0 0 A A0 0
0 0A A0 A
0 0 AA 0
Identity Matrix
1 0
I A AI A
I
0 1 A 1A AA 1 I
Lecture 3 Slide 9
Matrix Division
It is very rare to calculate the inverse of matrix because it is very
computationally intensive to do this.
At first glance, matrix division appears to require calculating the inverse
of a matrix, but highly efficient algorithms exist that do not need to do
this.
Despite that both of these equations are dividing by B, pre‐ and post‐
division do NOT lead to the same result.
B 1C CB 1
Lecture 3 Slide 10
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Matrix Division With More than Two Terms
Suppose we must evaluate the following matrix expression.
A BC1D
Would the following MATLAB code work?
No! Remember the order of operations.
A = B*C\D; MATLAB will first multiply B and C.
A BC
It will then backward divide on D.
A BC D
1
So what is the correct code?
A = B/C*D; It might be a good idea to time these
A = B*(C\D); two calculations to see which is faster.
Lecture 3 Slide 11
Proper Notation for Matrix Division
It is almost never correct to write matrix division as a fraction.
A
B
Why?
Does this represent predivision or postdivision?
B 1A or AB 1 ???
It is impossible to say, thus fraction notation is incorrect for matrices.
Lecture 3 Slide 12
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Ax = b Vs. Ax = x
Standard Linear Problem Eigen‐Value Problem
Ax b Ax x
• Has only one answer • Has an infinite number of answers
• Requires a source • Modes
• No source
Lecture 3 Slide 13
Wave Vectors
Lecture 3 Slide 14
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Wave Vector k
k
The wave vector conveys two pieces of information: (1) Magnitude
conveys the wavelength inside the medium, and (2) direction conveys
the direction of the wave and is perpendicular to the wave fronts.
k k x aˆ x k y aˆ y k z aˆ z
Lecture 3 Slide 15
Magnitude Conveys Wavelength
Most fundamentally, the magnitude of the wave vector conveys the
wavelength of the wave inside of the medium.
1 2
2 2
k1 k2
1 2
Electromagnetic Waves & Polarization Slide 16
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Magnitude May Convey Refractive Index
When the frequency of a wave is known, the magnitude of the wave
vector conveys refractive index.
1 2
2 n 2 n2 2
k1 1
k0 n1 k2 k0 n2 k0
0 0 0
Electromagnetic Waves & Polarization Slide 17
The Complex Wave Number
A wave travelling the +z direction can be written in terms of the wave
number k as
E z Pe jkz k k jk
Substituting this back into the wave solution yields
j k jk z k z jk z
E z E0 e E0 e e
attenuation oscillation
Electromagnetic Waves & Polarization Slide 18
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and
A wave travelling the +z direction can also be written in terms of a
phase constant and an attenuation coefficient as
E z E0 e k z e jk z
z j z
E z E0 e e
attenuation oscillation
We now have physical meaning to the real and imaginary parts of the
wave vector.
k’ = Re[k] phase term 2 2 n
k j
0
k’’ = Im[k] attenuation term
Electromagnetic Waves & Polarization Slide 19
Waves with Complex k
This implies that these are the only 2.5 configurations that
electromagnetic fields can take on.
Electromagnetic Waves & Polarization Slide 20
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2D Waves with Doubly Complex k
Real k x Imaginary k x Complex k x
Real k y
x x x
y y y
Imaginary k y
x x x
y y y
Complex k y
x x x
y y y
Lecture 3 Slide 21
Wave Polarization
Lecture 3 Slide 22
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What is Polarization?
Polarization is that property of a radiated electromagnetic wave
which describes the time‐varying direction and relative magnitude
of the electric field vector.
Linear Polarization (LP) Circular Polarization (CP)
Left‐Hand Circular
Polarization (LCP)
To determine the handedness of CP, imagine
watching the electric field in a plane while the
wave is coming at you. Which way does it rotate?
Lecture 3 Slide 23
Possibilities for Wave Polarization
Ek P
Recall that so the polarization vector must fall within the
plane perpendicular to . k
We can decompose the polarization into two orthogonal directions,
â and .
b̂
â
P pa aˆ pbbˆ
b̂ k
Electromagnetic Waves & Polarization Slide 24
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Explicit Form to Convey Polarization
Our electromagnetic wave can be now be written as
E r Pe jk r pa aˆ pbbˆ e jk r
pa and pb are in general complex numbers in order to
convey the relative phase of each of these components.
pa Ea e ja pb Eb e jb
Substituting pa and pb into our wave expression gives
E r Ea e ja aˆ Eb e jb bˆ e jk r Ea aˆ Eb e b a bˆ e ja e jk r
j
We interpret b – a as the phase We interpret a as the phase
difference between pa and pb. common to both pa and pb.
b a a
The final expression is: E r Ea aˆ Eb e j bˆ e j e jk r
Electromagnetic Waves & Polarization Slide 25
Determining Polarization of a Wave
To determine polarization, it is most convenient to write the
expression for the wave that makes polarization explicity.
Ea amplite along aˆ
E amplite along bˆ
E r Ea aˆ Eb e j bˆ e j e jk r b
phase difference
common phase
We can now identify the polarization of the wave…
Polarization Designation Mathematical Definition
Linear Polarization (LP) = 0°
Circular Polarization (CP) = ± 90°, Ea = Eb
Right‐Hand CP (RCP) = + 90°, Ea = Eb
Left‐Hand CP (RCP) = - 90°, Ea = Eb
Elliptical Polarization Everything else
Electromagnetic Waves & Polarization Slide 26
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Handedness Convention
As Viewed From Source As Viewed From Receiver
Polarization is taken as the time‐varying Polarization is taken as the time‐varying
electric field view with the wave moving electric field view with the wave coming
away from you. Primarily used in toward you. Primarily used in optics and
engineering and quantum physics. physics.
RCP RCP
source
source
receiver
receiver
LCP LCP
source source
receiver receiver
Linear Polarization
A wave travelling in the +z direction is said to be linearly polarized if:
E x, y, z Pe jkz z P sin xˆ cos yˆ
P is called the polarization vector.
For an arbitrary wave, â
E r Pe jk r
P sin aˆ cos bˆ
aˆ bˆ k
k
b̂
k
All components of P have equal phase.
Lecture 3 Slide 28
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Linear Polarization
Electromagnetic Waves & Polarization Slide 29
Circular Polarization
A wave travelling in the +z direction is said to be circularly polarized if:
E x, y, z Pe jkz z P xˆ jyˆ
P is called the polarization vector.
For an arbitrary wave, j
E r Pe jk r LCP
P aˆ jbˆ
aˆ bˆ k
RCP k
The two components of P have equal j k
amplitude and are 90 out of phase.
Lecture 3 Slide 30
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Lecture 3 Slide 31
LPx + jLPy = CP
A circularly polarized wave is the sum of two orthogonal linearly
polarized waves that are 90° out of phase.
Lecture 3 Slide 32
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RCP + LCP = LP
A linearly polarized wave can be expressed as the sum of a LCP wave
and a RCP wave. The phase between the two CP waves determines
the tilt of the LP wave.
Lecture 3 Slide 33
Why is Polarization Important?
• Different polarizations can behave differently in a
device
• Orthogonal polarizations will not interfere with
each other
• Polarization becomes critical when analyzing
structures that are on the scale of a wavelength
• Focusing properties are different
• Reflection/transmission can be different
• Frequency of resonators
• Cutoff conditions for filters, waveguides, etc.
Lecture 3 Slide 34
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Poincaré Sphere
The polarization of a wave can be mapped to a unique point on the
Poincaré sphere.
RCP
Points on opposite sides
of the sphere are
orthogonal. ‐45° LP 90° LP
See Balanis, Chap. 4.
0° LP +45° LP
LCP
Lecture 3 Slide 35
TE and TM
We use the labels “TE” and “TM” when we are describing the
orientation of a linearly polarized wave relative to a device.
TE/perpendicular/s – the electric field is TM/parallel/p – the electric field is
polarized perpendicular to the plane of polarized parallel to the plane of
incidence. incidence.
Lecture 3 Slide 36
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Calculating the Polarization Vectors
Incident Wave Vector Surface Normal Unit Vectors of Polarization Directions
In CEM, we usually make
P 1
Lecture 3 Slide 37
Index Ellipsoids
Lecture 3 Slide 38
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Dispersion Relations
The dispersion relation for a material relates the wave vector to
frequency. Essentially, it tells us the refractive index as a function of
direction through a material.
It is derived by substituting a plane wave solution into the wave
equation.
For a linear, homogeneous, and isotropic (LHI) material, the
dispersion relation is:
Index Ellipsoids
From the previous slide, the dispersion relation for a LHI material was:
The vector connecting the origin to a point on ĉ
the sphere is the k‐vector for that direction.
Refractive index n is calculated from its magnitude.
index ellipsoid
k k0 n
For LHI materials, the refractive index is the
same in all directions.
Think of this as a map of the refractive b̂
index as a function of the wave’s direction â
through the medium.
Lecture 3 Slide 40
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Index Ellipsoids for Uniaxial Materials
Observations
ĉ • Both solutions share a common axis.
• This “common” axis looks isotropic
nO with refractive index n0 regardless of
polarization.
• Since both solutions share a single
axis, these crystals are called
nE nE “uniaxial.”
• The “common” axis is called:
o Optic axis
o Ordinary axis
nO o C axis
o Uniaxial axis
• Deviation from the optic axis will
b̂ result in two separate possible
modes.
â
nO ka2 kb2 kc2
2
k 2 k 2
k02 a 2 b k02 0
nO n E
Lecture 3 Slide 41
Index Ellipsoids for Biaxial Materials
Biaxial materials have all unique refractive indices. Most texts adopt the
convention where
na nb nc
The general dispersion relation cannot be reduced.
ĉ
Notes and Observations
• The convention na<nb<nc causes the optic
axes to lie in the a‐c plane.
optic axes
• The two solutions can be envisioned as one
balloon inside another, pinched together so
they touch at only four points.
• Propagation along either of the optic axes
b̂ looks isotropic, thus the name “biaxial.”
â
Lecture 3 Slide 42
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Direction of Power Flow
Isotropic Materials Anisotropic Materials
y y
P
P
k k
x x
Phase propagates in the direction of k . Therefore, the refractive index derived from
k
is best described as the phase refractive index. Velocity here is the phase velocity.
Power propagates in the direction of P which is always normal to the surface of the
index ellipsoid. From this, we can define a group velocity and a group refractive index.
Lecture 3 Slide 43
Illustration of k versus P
P
k
P k Negative refraction into an
electromagnetic band gap
material.
We don’t need a negative refractive index to have negative refraction.
Lecture 3 Slide 44
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Phase Matching at an
Interface
Lecture 3 Slide 45
Illustration of the Dispersion Relation
y
2
k k k k0 n
2 2 2
x y
Index ellipsoid
k
ky
x
kx
The dispersion relation for
isotropic materials is essentially
just the Pythagorean theorem.
It says a wave sees the same
refractive index no matter what
direction the wave is travelling.
Lecture 3 Slide 46
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Index Ellipsoid in Two Different Materials
Material 1 (Low n) Material 2 (High n)
2 2
k x2,1 k y2,1 k1 k0 n1 k x2,2 k y2,2 k2 k0 n2
2 2
n1 n2
Lecture 3 Slide 47
Phase Matching at the Interface Between Two
Materials Where n1 < n2
n1 n2
Material 1
2
k k y2,1 k1 k0 n1
2 2
x ,1
Material 2
2
k y2,2 k2 k0 n2
2 2
k x ,2
Lecture 3 Slide 48
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Summary of the Phase Matching Trend for n1 < n2
Material 1 Material 2
n1 n2 2
k x2,1 k y2,1 k1 k0 n1
2 2
k x2,2 k y2,2 k2 k0 n2
2
1 2 3
4 5 6
Properly phased matched
at the interface.
Lecture 3 Slide 49
Phase Matching at the Interface Between Two
Materials Where n1 > n2
n1 n2
Material 1
2
inc c k k y2,1 k1 k0 n1
2
x ,1
2
inc c
Material 2
2
k x2,2 k y2,2 k2 k0 n2
2
Lecture 3 Slide 50
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Summary of the Phase Matching Trend for n1 > n2
Material 1 Material 2
n1 n2 2
k x2,1 k y2,1 k1 k0 n1
2 2
k x2,2 k y2,2 k2 k0 n2
2
1 2
inc c inc c
3 4
inc c inc c
Properly phased matched
at the interface.
Lecture 3 Slide 51
Reflection and
Transmission:
The Fresnel Equations
Lecture 3 Slide 52
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Reflection, Transmission, and Refraction at an Interface
Angles
inc ref 1
n1 sin 1 n2 sin 2 Snell’s Law
TE Polarization
2 cos 1 1 cos 2
rTE
2 cos 1 1 cos 2
n1 , 1 22 cos 1
tTE
2 cos 1 1 cos 2
1 rTE tTE
n2 , 2
TM Polarization
2 cos 2 1 cos 1
rTM
1 cos 1 2 cos 2
2 2 cos 1
tTM
1 cos 1 2 cos 2
cos 2
1 rTM tTM
cos 1
Lecture 3 Slide 53
Reflectance and Transmittance
Reflectance
The fraction of power R reflected from an interface is called reflectance. It is related
to the reflection coefficient r through
2
2 2 RTE r
RTE rTE RTM rTM TE 2
RTM rTM
Transmittance
The fraction of power T transmitted through an interface is called transmittance. It is
related to the transmission coefficient t through
2
2 1 cos 2 2 1 cos 2 TTE t
TTE tTE TTM tTM TE
2 cos 1 2 cos 1 TTM tTM 2
Lecture 3 Slide 54
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Amplitude Vs. Power Terms
Wave Amplitudes
The reflection and transmission coefficients, r and t, relate the amplitudes of the
reflected and transmitted waves relative to the applied wave. They are complex
numbers because both the magnitude and phase of the wave can change at an
interface.
Eref rEinc Etrn tEinc
Wave Power
The reflectance and transmittance, R and T, relate the power of the reflected and
transmitted waves relative to the applied wave. They are real numbers bound
between zero and one.
2 2 2 2
Eref R Einc Etrn T Einc
Often, these quantities are expressed on the decibel scale
Conservation of Power
When electromagnetic wave is applied to a device, it can be absorbed
(i.e. converted to another form of energy), reflected and/or
transmitted. Without a nuclear reaction, nothing else can happen.
A R T 1
Reflectance, R Transmittance, T Absorptance, A
Fraction of power from Fraction of power from the Fraction of power from
the applied wave that is applied wave that is transmitted the applied wave that is
reflected from the device. through the device. absorbed by the device.
Applied Wave
Transmitted Wave
Reflected Wave Absorbed Wave
Lecture 3 Slide 56
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The Critical Angle (Total Reflection)
Above the critical angle c, reflection is 100%
2 cos c 1 cos 2
rTE 1
2 cos c 1 cos 2
2 cos 2 1 cos c
rTM 1
1 cos c 2 cos 2
This will happen when cos(2) is imaginary. The condition for the critical angle
is derived from Snell’s Law.
n12
cos 2 1 sin 2 2 1 sin 2 c
n22
n12 n1 sin c n2 sin 2
1 sin 2 c 1
n2 n22
1 c sin 1 n12
n1 n22
sin 2 c 1
Condition for Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
n2
c sin 1
n1
Lecture 3 Slide 57
Brewster’s Angle (Total Transmission)
TE Polarization
2 cos B 1 cos 2 2 1
rTE 0 sin B 2 2 1 2
2 cos B 1 cos 2
1 1 2 1
1 2
We see that as long as 1=2 then there is no Brewster’s angle.
Generally, most materials have a very week magnetic response and there is no Brewster’s
angle for TE polarized waves.
TM Polarization
2 cos 2 1 cos 1 2 1
rTM 0 sin B 2 2 2 1
1 cos 1 2 cos 2 1 1 1 2
1 2
We see that if 1=2 then there is no Brewster’s angle.
For materials with no magnetic response, the Brewster’s angle equation reduces to
2 n2
tan B 1 2 This is the most well known equation.
1 n1
Lecture 3 Slide 58
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Notes on a Single Interface
• It is a change in impedance that causes reflections
• Law of reflection says the angle of reflection is equal to the
angle of incidence.
• Snell’s Law quantifies the angle of transmission as a
function of angle of incidence and the material properties.
• Angle of transmission and reflection do not depend on
polarization.
• The Fresnel equations quantify the amount of reflection
and transmission, but not the angles.
• Amount of reflection and transmission depends on the
polarization and angle of incidence.
• For incident angles greater than the critical angle, a wave
will be completely reflected regardless of its polarization.
• When a wave is incident at the Brewster’s angle, a
particular polarization will be completely transmitted.
Lecture 3 Slide 59
Visualization of Wave
Scattering at an Interface
Lecture 3 Slide 60
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Longitudinal Component of the Wave Vector
1. Boundary conditions require that the tangential component of
the wave vector is continuous across the interface.
Assuming kx is purely real in material 1, kx will be purely real in
material 2.
We have oscillations and energy flow in the x direction.
2. Knowing that the dispersion relation must be satisfied, the
longitudinal component of the wave vector in material 2 is
calculated from the dispersion relation in material 2.
k x2,2 k y2,2 k0 n2
2
Lecture 3 Slide 61
Field at an Interface Above and Below the
Critical Angle (Ignoring Reflections)
n1 n2 n1 n2 n1 n2
No critical angle 1 C 1 C
1. The field always penetrates material 2, but it may not propagate.
2. Above the critical angle, penetration is greatest near the critical angle.
3. Very high spatial frequencies are supported in material 2 despite the dispersion relation.
4. In material 2, energy always flows along x, but not necessarily along y.
Lecture 3 Slide 62
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Simulation of Reflection and Transmission at a
Single Interface (n1<n2)
n1=1.0, n2=1.73 B=60°
Lecture 3 Slide 63
Simulation of Reflection and Transmission at a
Single Interface (n1>n2)
n1=1.41, n2=1.0 C=45°
Lecture 3 Slide 64
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Field Visualization for C=45°
inc = 44° inc = 46°
Lecture 3 Slide 65
Electromagnetic Tunneling
If an evanescent field touches a medium with higher refractive index,
the field may no longer be cutoff and become a propagating wave.
This is a very unusual phenomenon because the evanescent field is
contributing to power flow.
This is called electromagnetic tunneling and is analogous to electron
tunneling through thin insulators.
Lecture 3 Slide 66
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Image Theory
Lecture 3 Slide 67
Image Theory Reduces Size of Models
When fields are symmetric in some manner about a plane, it is
only necessary to calculate one half of the field because the other
half contains only redundant information. Sometimes more than
one plane of symmetry can be identified. Image theory can
dramatically reduce the numerical size of the model being solved.
Reduced model
Device is 75% smaller.
Model is 94% smaller.
G. Bellanca, S. Trillo, “Full vectorial BPM modeling of Index‐Guiding Photonic Crystal Fibers and Couplers,” Optics Express 10(1), 54‐59 (2002).
Lecture 3 Slide 68
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Summary of Image Theory
perfect electric conductor (PEC) perfect magnetic conductor (PMC)
image fields
Duality
Lecture 3 Slide 69
Image Theory Applied to an Airplane
Lecture 3 Slide 70
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