A Historical Background

A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Introduction
When a very large number of elements become known to scientists , it was felt
that they must be arranged in a systematic order because a systematic
classification provides a clear idea and information about the properties of
elements and make it easier to predict the properties of different elements. This
classification provides the inter-relationship of scientific facts.
In old days, element were arranged in the ascending order of their atomic
masses.
The orderly arrangement of elements is called "PERIODIC
CLASSIFICATION".
DOBEREINER’S TRIADS
A group of three elements, which have similar physical and chemical properties,
is known as "TRIADS".
In 1829, a German scientist Dobereiner made use of the relationship between
atomic masses and properties of elements. He proposed,
"If three any three elements are arrange in ascending order of their
atomic masses, such that the atomic mass of middle element is
Arithmetic mean of the first and third elements, then these element will
show similar properties".
This is known as "Law of Triads". This rule is applicable only in a few cases.
For example
TRIADS ARITHMETIC MEAN RESULT
Li (7), Na (23), K (39) 7+39/2=23 atomic mass of Na
Ca (40), Sr (87), Ba nearly equal to the atomic
40+137/2=88
(137) mass of Sr
S (32), Sc (79), Te nearly equal to the atomic
32+128/2=80
(128) mass of Sc
Cl(35.5), Br(80), 35.5+126.5 / 2 = nearly equal to the atomic
I(126.5) 81 mass of Br
Drawback:This rule is not for all the elements.
NEWLAND’S LAW OF OCTAVES
In 1866, a British scientist, Newlands, reported his "law of octave" by arranging
elements according to increasing order of their atomic masses. He noticed that
"Every eight element, starting form any point, approximately has similar
properties".
Newland’s arrangement was applicable only to a few elements after
that it was failed.
ADVANTAGES OF THE LAW
1. This law provided a basis for the classification of element into groups of
elements having similar properties.
2. This law provided a wider scope to arrange all known elements into a tabular
form
DISADVANTAGES OF THE LAW
1. Newland’s law is not applicable to all the elements.
2. This arrangement did not include NOBLE GASES because they were not
discovered then.
3. Heavier elements could not be accommodated
LUTHER MEYER’S CLASSIFICATION
In 1864, a German Chemist Luther Meyer published on incomplete periodic
table .He includes about 56 elements arranged in a group from I to VIII. He
plotted the values of different physical properties and obtained different
curves .In these graphs, he observed that element with similar physical
properties occupy similar positions in the curve
For example :
Alkali metals occupy the peak of the curves.
Halogen occur on the ascending portions of the curve.
Figure (curves)
MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE
In 1869, a Russian chemist, Mendeleev, on the basis of physical and chemical
properties discovered a relation known as "PERIODIC LAW".
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law
According to the law:
"The properties of element are the periodic function of their atomic
masses".
Mendeleev arranged the known elements according to increasing order of their

atomic masses because, according to him fundamental property of an element
was atomic mass. He arranged these eight groups were further divided into
subgroups.
Mendeleev’s periodic table was very precise and provided the basis of modern
periodic classification.
MERITS OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE
Mendeleev’s periodic table offered the following advantages in understanding
the properties of elements.
1. There was a regular gradation in physical and chemical properties of
elements.
2. The group number of an element indicates highest oxidation state that it can
attain.
3. There were many vacant spaces in Mendeleev's periodic table for the
elements to be discovered. He named them Eka-Boron, Eka-Aluminium and
Eka-silicone He also predicted the properties of these undiscovered elements
including atomic masses. These elements were discovered as Sc ,Ga and Ge
with same features as he predicted.
4. Mendeleev’s arrangement helped to correct atomic masses of a number of
elements.
Original statement of Mendeleev's periodic Published: March 1869
law
1. The elements, if arranged according to their atomic weights show an evident
periodicity of properties.
2. Elements which are similar as regards their chemical properties have atomic
weights which are either nearly the same value or which increase regularly.
3. The arrangement of the elements or of groups of elements in the order of
their atomic weights, corresponds with their so called valencies.
4. The elements which are most widely distributed in nature have small atomic
weights, and sharply defined properties. They are therefore typical elements.
5. The magnitude of the atomic weight determines the character of an element.

6. The discovery of many as yet unknown elements may be expected.
7. The atomic weight of an element may sometimes be corrected by the aid of a
knowledge of those of adjacent elements.
8. Certain characteristic properties of the elements can be foretold from their
atomic weights.
DEMERITS IN MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC
TABLE
1. For placing the elements in proper groups, the order of the elements
according to atomic mass was reversed in certain cases. He placed Iodine
(127) after Tellurium (128) Potassium (39) and Ni (58) after Co (59). Which
is against his periodic law but correct according to properties.
2. Mendeleev’s periodic table does not provide a clear idea about the structure
of atom.
3. Lanthanide and Actinide have been assigned places in the periodic table
which is against the periodic law.
4. Alkali metal and coinage metals (Cu, Ag and Au) which differ widely in
properties are placed into the same group.
5. There is no separate position for isotopes in his periodic table.
6. The change in atomic mass of two successive elements is not constant.
Hence it is not possible to predict the number of missing elements by
knowing the atomic masses of two known elements.
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ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
Introduction www.citycollegiate.com
It is an optical instrument used to view heavenly bodies such moon,stars, planets
and distant objects.
Construction
Astronomical telescope consists of two convex lenses:
Objective
Eye piece
Objective www.citycollegiate.com
The objective is a convex lens of large focal length and large aperture. It usually
made of two convex lenses in contact with each other to reduce the chromatic
and spherical aberrations.
Eye piece
The eye piece is also a convex lens .Its focal length is smaller than that of
objective. It is also a combination of two lenses.
The objective is mounted on a wide metallic tube while the eye piece is mounted
on a small tube .The distance b/w the eye piece and the objective can be
changed by moving tubes.
WORKING
The rays coming from a distant object falls on objective as parallel beam at some
angle say "" and these rays after refraction and passing through the objective
converge at its focus and make an inverted & real image AB. This image acts as
an object for the eye piece. The distance of the eye piece is so adjusted that the
image AB lies within the focal length of the eye piece. The eye piece forms the
final image .The final image is magnified ,virtual and inverted with respect to
object. The final image is formed at infinity.
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MAGNIFYING POWER www.citycollegiate.com

The magnifying power (M) of astronomical telescope is given by:
It is because the object is at infinite distance and hence the angle subtended by
the object at eye may be taken as the angle subtended by the object at
objective.
M = 
since  and are small angles, therefore we can take:
 = tan ...................
and..................
 = tan 
................
In right angled triangles AOB & AEB
...................
This expression shows that in order to obtain high magnification, focal length of
object must be large and that of eye piece is small.
LENGTH OF TELESCOPE
The distance b/w objective lens and the eye piece is equal to the length of the
telescope.
From figure:
OE = length of telescope =L
But
OB = Fo & BE = Fe
OE = OB + BE
OR
OR
L = focal length of objective + focal length of eye piece
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COMBINATION OF LENSES
QUESTIONS:
Two convex lenses of focal length f1 and f2 are in contact with each
other. Find their equivalent focal length.
ANSWER:
consider two convex lenses in contact such that their separation is very small as
compared to their focal length.
Let a point object "O" is placed at a distance "p1" from the lenses L1 whose real
image I1 is formed at a distance q1.
Using thin lens formula
.........(1)
Image servers as a virtual object for the second lens. If we neglect small
distance between the lenses ,the distance of this virtual object from lens L2 will
be the same as its distance from L1. If L2 forms an image I2 of this virtual object
at a distance q2 then p2.

........(2)
Adding equation (1) and equation (2)
now if we replace the two lenses of focal lengths"f 1" and "f2" by a single lens of
focal length "f" such that it forms an image at a distance q2 of an object placed
at a distance p1 from it as shown such lens is called equivalent lens and
Its focal length is known as equivalent focal length. For the above lens
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comparing equation (3) and equation (4) , we get
If f1>f2 the combined lens behaves as a concave lens.

If f2> f1 the combined lens behaved as a convex lens.
Note : above two conditions are valid if one lens is convex and the other is
concave lens . If both lenses are convex then the combined lens will behave like
a convex lens.
THIN LENS FORMULA
FOR CONCAVE LENS

Consider an object placed in front of a concave lens of focal length " f "
on the principle axis of the lens. Concave lens forms a virtual and erect image
at a distance of " q " from the optical centre of the lens as shown in the
diagram below.
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Consider similar triangles and
Similarly in similar triangles and
.............
Comparing equation (1) and (2)
p (f - q) = fq
pf - pq = fq
Dividing both sides by "pqf"
1/q - 1/f = 1/p

For a concave lens: f = negative, q = negative , i.e. f = -f and q = -q
Thus,
-1/q + 1/f = 1/p
MAGNIFYING GLASS OR SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
The apparent size of an object depends upon its visual angle subtended on the
eye . The greater is the visual angle ,the larger is the apparent size of the
object. In order to increase the visual angle ,the distance between the object
and eye must be smaller but normal human eye can not see clearly an object if
it is closer than the least distance of distinct vision i.e at 25cm or 250 mm.
In a number of cases one wishes to see the details of smaller object like a
watch maker, finger print expert and writing expert etc. For this purpose a
convex lens of short focal length is used to see the details of an object with in
25 cm. Such a lens is called magnifying glass or simple microscope .A
magnifying glass forms an image at the least distance of distinct vision i.e 25cm
from the eye and the object looks like a big sized object.
Magnifying power of
magnifying glass
By definition magnifying power or angular magnification of magnifying glass is
the ratio of visual angle subtended by the image seen through a magnifying
glass to visual angle subtended by the object when placed at the least distance
of distinct vision ,when see through the naked eye.
M =  
since  and are small angles, therefore we can take:

 = tan .
and.
 = tan 
-------------------(2)
Consider an object OP placed at a distance "p" within the focal length of a
magnifying glass such that an erect ,virtual and magnified image IQ is
produced at 25 cm from the eye.
In right angled triangle ABE:

tan = AB/EB-----
OR
tan = AB/d---------(a)
In right angled triangle OPE:
tan = OP/PE-----
tan = OP/p-------(b)-----
Since OP = AB = height of object
tan = AB/p-------(c)-----
Putting the values of tan and tan in equation (2)
M = (AB/p)/(AB/d)
M = d/p -----------------(d)
Using thin lens formula
Here P = + p, q = - d and f = + f
1/f = 1/-d + 1/p
1/f = -1/d + 1/p
Multiplying both sides by "d"
d/f = -d/d + d/p
d/f = -1 + d/p
1 + d/f = d/p
or
d/p = 1 + d/f-----(e)
Comparing equation (e) and (d)
This expression indicates that for high magnification, focal length of magnifying
glass should be small.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Compound microscope is an optical instrument which is used to obtain high

magnification.
Construction www.citycollegiate.com
It consists of two converging lenses:
Objective
Eye piece
Objective
The lens in front of object is called objective. Its focal length f1= fo is taken to
be very small .The objective forms a real, inverted, and magnified image of the
object placed just beyond the focus of objective.
Eye piece
The lens towards the observer's eye is called piece .Focal length of eye piece is
greater than the focal length of objective. Eye piece works as a magnifying
glass.
Working www.citycollegiate.com
The objective is so adjusted that the object is very closed to its focus. The
objective forms a real ,
inverted and magnified image of the abject beyond 2fo on the right hand side.
The eye piece is so adjusted that it forms a virtual image at the least distance
of distinct vision "d" .The final image is highly magnified.
Magnifying power www.citycollegiate.com
In order to determine the magnifying power of a compound microscope ,we
consider an object oo' placed in front of objective at a distance p1. Objective
forms an inverted image II' at a distance of q1 from the objective.
Magnification produced by the objective is given by:
Mo= size of image / size of object
Mo= q1/ p1--------------- (1)
Eye piece works as a magnifying glass. It further magnifies the first image
formed by objective.
Magnification produced by the eye piece is given by:
Me= size of image / size of object
Me= q2/ p2
We know that the eye piece behaves as a magnifying glass therefore the final
image will be formed at least distance of distinct vision i.e at 25 cm from the
eye. Hence q2 = d
Me= d / p2--------------- (2)
Using thin lens formula for eye piece :
1/f2 = 1/q2 + 1/p2

Here f2 = fe, q2 = - d and p = p2
1/fe = 1/-d + 1/p2
1/fe = -1/d + 1/p2
Multiplying both sides by "d"
d/fe = -d/d + d/p2
d/fe = -1 + d/p2
1 + d/fe = d/p2
d/p2 = 1 + d/fe----------------(3)
Comparing equation (2) and (3)
Me = 1 + d/fe--------(4)
Total magnification is equal to the product of the magnification produced by the
objective and the eye piece.
M =Mo X Me
M = (q1/p1)(1 + d/fe)
In order to get maximum magnification, we must decrease p1 and increase
q1 .Thus maximum possible
value of p1 is fo i.e p = fo and maximum possible value of q1 is the length of
microscope i.e q1 = L
Therefore the magnification produced by a compound d microscope is given by:
M = (L/fO)(1 + d/fe)
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Simple Harmonic Motion

DEFINITION
"Type of vibratory motion in which acceleration of body is directly
proportional its displacement and the acceleration is always directed
towards the equilibrium (mean) position is called Simple Harmonic
Motion. "
acceleration - displacement
a - x
Negative sign indicates that acceleration and displacement are opposite in

direction.
BASIC CONDITIONS TO
EXECUTE SHM
Basic conditions to execute simple harmonic motion are as under:
There must be an elastic restoring force acting on the system.
The system must have inertia.
The acceleration of the system should be directly proportional to its
displacement and is always directed to mean position i.e. a  - x
EXAMPLES OF SHM
Motion of a body attached to the end of an elastic spring.
Motion of the bob os a simple pendulum if it is given small displacement.
Motion of an elastic strip.

Motion of of the prongs of a tuning fork.
Motion of the wire of a guitar or violin
CHARACTERISTICS OF SHM
The motion must be vibratory.
The motion should be a periodic motion.
The restoring force should be directly proportional to the displacement of
the body from its mean position.
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Define the following terms:
PERIODIC MOTION
A motion that repeats itself in equal intervals of time is called Periodic Motion.
VIBRATORY MOTION
If a particle in periodic motion moves back and forth (To and Fro) over the
same path, then this type
of motion is called Vibratory or Oscillatory Motion.
VIBRATION
A complete round trip of a vibrating body is called a Vibration.
or
The motion of a vibrating body from one extreme point to the other
extreme point and back to the first extreme point is called VIBRATION.
For Example the motion of the bob of Simple Pendulum from A to B & back
from B to A via point "O"
is called one Vibration.
TIME PERIOD
Time required to complete one vibration is called Time Period of vibrating
body. It is denoted by "T".
FREQUENCY
Number of vibrations executed by a vibrating body in one second is called its
frequency.
It is denoted by "f".
Frequency is reciprocal of time period f = 1/T
Unit of frequency : Hertz
Other units : cycle/sec or vibration/sec.
DISPLACEMENT
Displacement of the vibrating body at any instant in its distance from the mean
position at that instant either right or left side. Here it is denoted by "x".
AMPLITUDE
Maximum displacement of a vibrating body on either side of its
equilibrium position is called amplitude of vibration. It is denoted by .
Show that the motion of the bob of a simple pendulum SHM if it is given small
displacement
SIMPLE PENDULUM
simple pendulum consists of a heavy mass particle suspended by a light,
flexible and in-extensible string.
MOTION OF THE BOB OF

SIMPLE PENDULUM
The motion of the bob of simple pendulum simple harmonic motion if it is

given small displacement. In order to prove this fact consider a simple
pendulum having a bob of mass 'm' and the length of pendulum is 'l'.
Assuming that the mass of the string os pendulum is negligible. When the
pendulum is at rest at position 'A', the only force acting is its weight and
tension in the string. When it is displaced from its mean position to another
new position say 'B' and released, it vibrates to and fro around its mean
position.
Suppose that at this instant the bob is at point 'B' as shown below :
FORCES ACTING ON THE BOB
1. Weight of the bob (W) acting vertically downward.
2. Tension in the string (T) acting along the string.
The weight of the bob can be resolved into two rectangular components:
a. Wcos along the string.
b. Wsin perpendicular to string.
Since there is no motion along the string, therefore, the component Wcos
must balance tension (T)
i.e. Wcos = T
This shows that only Wsin is the net force which is responsible for the
acceleration in the bob of pendulum.
According to Newton's second law of motion Wsin will be equal to m x a
i.e. Wsin = m a
Since Wsinis towards the mean position, therefore, it must have a negative
sign.
i.e. m a = - Wsin
But W = mg
m a = - mgsin
a = - gsin
In our assumption  is very small because displacement is small, in this
condition we can take sin = 
Hence a = - g ----------- (1)
If x be the linear displacement of the bob from its mean position, then from
figure, the length of arc AB is nearly equal to x
From elementary geometry we know
that:
Where s= x, r = l
Putting the value of  in equation (1)
As the acceleration of the bob of simple pendulum is directly proportional to
displacement and is directed towards the mean position, therefore the motion
of the bob is simple harmonic when it is given a small displacement.
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Analysis of standing or stationary waves

QUESTION
Two sinusoidal waves with the same amplitude , frequency and wavelength
are traveling in opposite direction. Find Their resultant displacement.
ANSWER
Consider two sinusoidal waves with the same amplitude,frequency and wavelength
which are traveling in the opposite direction.
Let the amplitude of the first wave which is traveling to the right is Y1
Y1 = A Sin[kx-t]
O
Let the amplitude of the second wave which is traveling to the left is Y2
Y2 = A Sinkx+t
O
The resultant wave function Y is given by:

Y = Y1 + Y2
Putting the values of Y1 and Y2
Y =A Sin[kx-t] + AOSinkx+t
O
Y =A {Sin[kx-t] + Sinkx+t
O
Using the relation:
Y =A {2Sin (kx-t+kx+t) Coskx-t-kx-t

O
Y =2A Sin kx Cos t
O
When K = 2/andf
This is the expression which represents the wave function for a stationary wave.
Where  = angular velocity of stationary wave.
2AO Sin kx = Amplitude of stationary wave.
POINTS OF MAXIMUM
AMPLITUDE
Points of maximum amplitude are called "ANTINODES".
For maximum amplitude of stationary wave , Sin kx = +-1
Maximum amplitude of stationary wave = 2AO
Thus Kx = /2, 3/2 , 5/2............
Since K = 2/
Similarly x = /4, 3/4 , 5/4............ n/4
when n = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, etc.
POINTS OF MINIMUM
AMPLITUDE
Points of minimum amplitude or zero amplitude are called "NODES".
Minimum amplitude of stationary wave will be at point where Sin kx = 0 or when
Kx = , 2 , 3............ n
OR
x = /2,  , /2 , ............ n/2
when n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ........ etc.
Distance between two consecutive nodes = /2
Distance between two consecutive antinodes= /2
Distance between a node and next antinode = /4
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INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
DEFINITION www.citycollegiate.com
When two light waves from different coherent sources meet together, then the
distribution of energy due to one wave is disturbed by the other. This
modification in the distribution of light energy due to super- position of two
light waves is called "Interference of light".
CONDITIONS FOR
INTERFERENCE
The two sources of light should emit continuous waves of same wavelength
and same time period i.e. the source should have phase coherence.
The two sources of light should be very close to each other.
The waves emitted by two sources should either have zero phase difference
or no phase difference.
COHERENT SOURCES
Those sources of light which emit light waves continuously of same
wavelength, and time period, frequency and amplitude and have zero phase
difference or constant phase difference are coherent sources.
TYPES OF INTERFERENCE www.citycollegiate.com

......There are two types of interference.
Constructive interference.
Destructive interference.
CONSTRUCTIVE
INTERFERENCE
When two light waves superpose with each other in such away that the crest
of one wave falls on the crest of the second wave, and trough of one wave
falls on the trough of the second wave, then the resultant wave has larger
amplitude and it is called constructive interference.
CONDITIONS FOR
CONSTRUCTIVE
INTERFERENCE
For constructive interference, path difference between two waves is m
i.e. path difference = m
or path difference = 0,…..
where m = order = 0, +_1, +_2, +_3,…..
EFFECTS www.citycollegiate.com
In constructive interference, two waves of light reinforce each other.

In constructive interference, a bright fringe is obtained on the screen.
DESTRUCTIVE
INTERFERENCE
When two light waves superpose with each other in such away that the crest
of one wave coincides the trough of the second wave, then the amplitude of
resultant wave becomes zero and it is called destructive interference.
CONDITIONS FOR
DESTRUCTIVE
INTERFERENCE
If the path difference between two light waves is (m+1/2) , then the
interference between them will be destructive.
Path difference = (m+1/2)
i.e. path difference = 1/2, 3/2, 5/2 , ….
where m = order = 0, +_1, +_2, +_3,…..
EFFECTS www.citycollegiate.com
In destructive interference, two waves cancel the effects of each other.

Due to destructive interference a dark fringe is obtained on the screen.
YOUNG'S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

The first practical demonstration of optical interference was provided by
THOMAS YOUNG in 1801. His experiment gave a very strong support to the
wave theory of light.
EXPERIMENTAL
ARRANGEMENT
'S' is a slit, which receives light from a source of monochromatic light. As 'S' is
a narrow slit so it diffracts the light and it falls on slits A and B. After passing
through the two slits, interference between two waves takes place on the
screen. The slits A and B act as two coherent sources of light. Due to
interference of waves alternate bright and dark fringes are obtained on the
screen.
QUANTITATIVE
ANALYSIS
Let the wave length of light = 
Distance between slits A and B = d
Distance between slits and screen = L
Consider a point 'P' on the screen where the light waves coming from slits A
and B interfere such that PC=y. The wave coming from A covers a distance
AP=r1 and the wave coming from B covers a distance BP=r2 such that PB is
greater than PA.
Path difference = BP-AP = BD
S = r2-r1 = BD
In right angled BAD
Sin = BD/AB
Or
sin = s/d
Or
S = dsin -------(1)
Since the value of 'd' is very very small as compared to L, therefore,  will also
be very small. In this condition we can assume that :
Sin = tan
From (1)
S = dtan ---(2)
In right angled DPEC
Tan = PC/EC = y/L
Putting the value of tan in eq. (2), w get
S = dy/L
Or
y = SL/d -----(3)
FOR BRIGHT FRINGE www.citycollegiate.com
For bright fringe S = m -----(3)
Therefore, the position of bright fringe is:
y = mL/d
FOR DARK FRINGE AT P

For destructive interference, path difference between two waves is (m+1/2)
----(3)
Therefore, the position of dark fringe is:
y = (m+1/2)L/d
FRINGE SPACING www.citycollegiate.com
The distance between any two consecutive bright fringes or two consecutive
dark fringes is called fringe spacing.
Fringe spacing or thickness of a dark fringe or a bright fringe is equal. It is
denoted by x.
Consider bright fringe.
y = mL/d
For bright fringe m=1
y1 = (1)L/d
for next order bright fringe m=2
y2 = (2) L/d
fringe spacing = y2 - y1
or
 x = (2)L/d - (1)L/d
x =L/d (2-1)
x = L/d
Similar result can be obtained for dark fringe.
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
The bending and spreading of light waves around sharp edges or
corner or
through small openings is called Diffraction of Light.
CONDITIONS FOR
DIFFRACTION
Diffraction effect depends upon the size of obstacle. Diffraction of light takes
place if the size of obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of light.
Light waves are very small in wavelength, i.e. from 4 x 10-7 m to 7 x 10-7 m.
If the size of opening or obstacle is near to this limit, only then we can observe
the phenomenon of diffraction.
TYPES OF DIFFRACTION
Diffraction of light can be divided into two classes:
Fraunhoffer diffraction.
Fresnel diffraction.
FRAUNHOFFER
DIFFRACTION
In Fraunhoffer diffraction,
Source and the screen are far away from each other.
Incident wave fronts on the diffracting obstacle are plane.
Diffracting obstacle give rise to wave fronts which are also plane.
Plane diffracting wave fronts are converged by means of a convex lens to
produce diffraction pattern.
FRESNEL DIFFRACTION www.citycollegiate.com
In Fresnel diffraction,
Source and screen are not far away from each other.
Incident wave fronts are spherical.
Wave fronts leaving the obstacles are also spherical.
Convex lens is not needed to converge the spherical wave fronts.
DIFFRACTION GRATING
A diffraction grating is an optical device consists of a glass or polished metal
surface over which thousands of fine, equidistant, closely spaced parallel lines
are been ruled.
PRINCIPLE
Its working principle is based on the phenomenon of diffraction. The space
between lines act as slits and these slits diffract the light waves there by
producing a large number of beams which interfere in such away to produce
spectra.
GRATING ELEMENT www.citycollegiate.com
Distance between two consecutive slits(lines) of a grating is called grating
element. If 'a' is the separation between two slits and 'b' is the width of a slit,
then grating element 'd' is given by;
d=a+b
OR
d = length of grating/no. of lines
DETERMINATION OF
WAVE LENGTH OF LIGHT
BY DIFFRACTION
GRATING
Consider two parallel rays of light r1 and r2 falling on a grating .After passing
through slits they are diffracted and brought to focus on a screen at point B by
using a convex lens.. Draw a perpendicular 'pq' from P on r1. Ray (1) covers a
distance "rq" more than ray (2).
Now consider right angled rpq
rq/rp = sin
Or rq= rp sin
But rp = (a+b)
(a+ b ) = d (grating element)
rq = dsin-----(1)
Where rq= path difference of r1 and r2.
We know that for constructive interference at point 'B', path difference

between r1 and r2 will be 0, , 2, 3l, …….,ml.
Therefore, rq = m for bright point
Putting this value in equation (1), we get
m = dsin
where m = order
This equation is called "grating equation" and is used to determine he
wavelength of light.
CONCLUSION www.citycollegiate.com
'm' is called the order of grating and it is the number of bright or dark fringe
obtained on the screen.
For m=0 , =0, central bright maxima of zeroth order.
m=1 , =1, 1st order bright maxima (path difference =)
m=2 , =2, 2nd order bright maxima (path difference = 2)
With the increase in 'm', fringes of decreasing width and less brightness are
obtained.
No order of line is possible at >90o.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
GRATING SPECTRA
Spectra of different orders are obtained symmetrically on both sides of zeroth
order image.
Spectral lines are almost straight and quite sharp.
Spectral colors are in the order. www.citycollegiate.com
The spectral lines are more and more dispersed as we go to higher orders.
Most of the incident intensity goes to zeroth order and rest of it is distributed
among the other orders.
DIFFRACTION OF X-RAYS THROUGH CRYSTALS-BRAGG'S EQUATION

DIFFRACTION OF
X-RAYS THROUGH www.citycollegiate.com
CRYSTALS
The nature of x-rays is electromagnetic i.e. they are electromagnetic waves.
X-rays have very short wavelength of the order of 10 x 10 -10 m. Therefore it
is not possible to produce interference fringes of x-rays by Young's double slit
experiment or by thin film method. The reason is that the fringe spacing is
 x = L/d and unless the slits are separated by a distance of 10 x 10 -10 m,
the fringes so obtained will be closed together that they can not be observed.
How ever it is possible to obtain x-rays diffraction by making use of crystals
such as rock salt in which the atoms are uniformly spaced in planes and
separated by a distance of order of 2 A to 5A. Therefore, the diffraction of x-
rays takes place when they incident on the surface of crystals.
BRAGG'S
EQUATION
Consider a set of parallel lattice planes having spacing 'd' between each
other as shown.
Consider two rays 'a' and 'b' incident on the surface of crystal of NaCl. After
reflection, these rays reflected and are in phase. After reflection they
interfere each other.
The path difference between the two reflected rays is given by:
Now the X-rays will interfere constructively if the path difference is an

integral multiple of wavelength .
Thus,
This relation is known as Bragg's Law. The spacing of the atomic layers of
crystals can be found from the density and atomic weight. Both 'm' and ''
can be measured and hence the wave length of x-rays can be measured by
using Bragg's equation.
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NEWTON'S RINGS
NEWTON'S RINGS
When a plano-convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass
sheet, an air film of gradually increasing thickness outward is formed between
the lens and the sheet. The thickness of film at the point of contact is zero. If
monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally on the lens, and the film is
viewed in reflected light, alternate bright and dark concentric rings are seen
around the point of contact. These rings were first discovered by Newton,
that's why they are called NEWTON'S RINGS .
WHY NEWTON'S RINGS

ARE FORMED
Newton's rings are formed due to interference between the light waves
reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the air film formed between the
lens and glass sheet.
EXPLANATION
The phenomenon of the Newton's rings can be explained on the basis of
formation of the wave theory of
light.
An air film of varying thickness is formed between the lens and the glass
sheet.
When a light ray is incident on the upper surface of the lens, it is reflected
as well as refracted.
When the refracted ray strikes the glass sheet, it undergo a phase change of
180O on reflection.
Interference occurs between the two waves which interfere constructively if
path difference between them is (m+1/2)and destructively ifpath
difference between them is mproducing alternate bright and dark rings.
RADIUS OF RINGS
Let the radius of curvature of
the convex lens is R and the
radius of ring is 'r'. Consider
light of wave length '' falls on
the lens. After refraction and
reflection two rays 1 and 2
are obtained. These rays
interfere each other producing
alternate bright and dark
rings. At the point of contact
the thickness of air film
is zero and the path difference
is also
zero and as a 180O path
difference occurs, so they
cancel each other and
a dark ring is obtained at the
centre.
As we move away from the central point , path difference is also changed and
alternate dark and bright rings are obtained.
Let us suppose that the thickness of air film is 't'.
By using the theorem of geometry,
r2 = 2Rt
In thin films, path difference for constructive interference is:
2nt = (m+1/2)
Where n= refractive index
For air n = 1
Therefore,
2t = (m+1/2)
For first bright ring m = 0
For second bright ring m = 1
For third bright ring m = 2
Similarly
For Nth bright ring m = N-1
Putting the value of m in equation (2)
2t = (N-1+1/2)
2t = (N-1/2)
t =1/2 (N-1/2)
Putting the value of 't' in equation (1)
r2 = 2Rt
2
r = 2R . 1/2 (N-1/2)
r2 = R (N-1/2)
This is the expression for the radius of Nth bright ring where
rn = radius of Nth bright ring
N = Ring number
R = radius of curvature of lens
 = Wave length of light
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INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS

THIN FILM
Soap bubbles and thin layers of oil floating on water surface are common
examples of thin films. When light is reflected from such a thin film, we
observe different colors.
INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS www.citycollegiate.com
In thin films of soap and oil , visible color bands are the result of interference
of light in thin films . The interference in this situation is caused by the
interference of light waves reflected from the opposite surfaces of thin films.
White light consists of seven colors each of different wave length, Therefore,
interference may be constructive or destructive.
ANALYSIS OF INTERFERENCE IN
THIN FILMS
To understand the interference of light in thin films, consider two plates X &
Y of ultra thin glass separated by a thin uniform film of air as shown in the
diagram. www.citycollegiate.com
The film has a refractive index equal to 'n' and is surrounded by air whose
refractive index is equal to one.
The ray of light 'AB' strikes the upper surface of film at point B on the air-
glass inter phase. The ray 'AB' is partially reflected as a ray 'BC' and
partially transmitted as ray 'BD'. At point D another partial reflection takes
place as ray 'EF'. The ray BC & EF interfere each other and produce
constructive and destructive interference depending upon the phase relation.
For nearly normal incidence, the path difference = 2t,
If path difference is an integral multiple of  , we expect constructive
interference otherwise destructive interference. Unfortunately here the
situation is different. First we consider what happened to the phase of rays
which are reflected and transmitted. We also consider that two wave lengths
are involved here.
The wave length in medium is  n = /n ------- (1)
What happens to phase of rays?
When uniform thickness of air film is converted into a thin film of variable
thickness along the line where plates are in contact, there is no path
difference and we expect a constructive interference . But in actual practice
this does not happen.
One of the two rays has gone under a phase change of 180o during reflection
and therefore, conditions for constructive and destructive interference are
reversed. Here we observe that only ray BC undergoes phase reversal. Ray
BC and EF which are out of phase interfere each other.
Path difference in case of thin film for constructive interference is:
Path difference = (m +1/2)  n
But
path difference = 2t
Thus www.citycollegiate.com
2t = (m +1/2)  n
From equation (1)  n =  /n
2t = (m +1/2)  /n
2nt = (m +1/2) 
Similarly for destructive interference
2nt = m 
Where m = 0,1,2,3,4, ........
Position of bright and dark fringes depend on the wave length of light. When
white light is used, colored fringes are obtained.
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STATICS
..
Statics www.citycollegiate.com
Static is the branch of mechanics which deals with the study of bodies at rest
under a number of forces, the equilibrium, conditions of equilibrium, types of
equilibrium, torque etc.
Equilibrium
A body is said to be in equilibrium if it is at rest or moving with
uniform velocity.
In other words if the linear and angular acceleration of a body are zero,
the body is said to be in equilibrium.
Or we can say that when two or more forces act on a body such that
their resultant or combining effect on the body is zero and the body
retains its state of rest or of uniform motion then the body is said to be
in equilibrium.
Example www.citycollegiate.com
A book lies on the table, suspended bodies, all stationary bodies , jump by
using parachute.
Types of equilibrium
With respect to the state of a body, equilibrium may be divided into two
categories:
1. Static equilibrium.
2. Dynamic equilibrium.
Static equilibrium
If the combined effect of all the forces acting on a body is zero and the body is
in the state of rest then its equilibrium is termed as static equilibrium.
For example: All stationary bodies
Dynamic equilibrium
when a body is in state of uniform motion and the resultant of all forces acting
upon it is zero then it is said to be in dynamic equilibrium.
For example: Jump by using parachute.
Conditions of www.citycollegiate.com
equilibrium
There are two conditions of equilibrium are as follows
First condition of
equilibrium
The first condition of equilibrium stated as follows:
To maintain transitional equilibrium in a body the vector sum of all the
forces acting on the
body is equal to zero.
i.e.
In other words we can say that to maintain equilibrium the sum of all the
forces acting along X-axis is zero and the sum of all the forces acting along Y-
axis is zero.
i.e.
Second condition of
equilibrium
The second condition of equilibrium stated as follow:
A body will be in rotational equilibrium when the vector sum of all the
torques acting on it is
zero.
.
STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM
.
States of equilibrium
There are three states of equilibrium:
Stable equilibrium
Unstable equilibrium
Neutral equilibrium
Stable equilibrium
When the center of gravity of a body lies below point of suspension or support,
the body is said to be in STABLE EQUILIBRIUM. For example a book lying on a
table is in stable equilibrium.
Explanation
A book lying on a horizontal surface is an example of stable equilibrium. If the
book is lifted from one edge and then allowed to fall, it will come back to its
original position.
Other examples of stable equilibrium are bodies lying on the floor such as
chair, table etc.
Reason of stability
When the book is lifted its center of gravity is raised . The line of action of
weight passes through the base of the book. A torque due to weight of the
book brings it back to the original position.
Unstable equilibrium
When the center of gravity of a body lies above the point of suspension or
support, the body is said to be in unstable equilibrium
Example
pencil standing on its point or a stick in vertically standing position.
Explanation:
If thin rod standing vertically is slightly disturbed from its position it will not
come back to its original position. This type of equilibrium is called unstable
equilibrium, other example of unstable equilibrium are vertically standing
cylinder and funnel etc.
Reason of instability
when the rod is slightly disturbed its center of gravity is lowered . The line of
action of its weight lies outside the base of rod. The torque due to weight of
the rod toppled it down.
Neutral equilibrium
When the center of gravity of a body lies at the point of suspension or support,
the body is said to be in neutral equilibrium. Example: rolling ball.
Explanation
If a ball is pushed slightly to roll, it will neither come back to its original nor it
will roll forward rather it will remain at rest. This type of equilibrium is called
NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM.
Reason of neutral
equilibrium
If the ball is rolled, its center of gravity is neither raised nor lowered. This
means that its center of gravity is at the same height as before.
COUPLE OF FORCE
DEFINITION
Two forces which are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction and not acting along the
same line constitute a couple.
Consider two equal and opposite forces F and -F acting oppositely along parallel lines on two
points A and B as shown below:
Let and are their position vectors with respect to origin.

Magnitude of torque is given by:
= r F sin
Where  is the angle between and .
rsin is the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the two forces. Let it is
denoted by d.
Thus the magnitude of the torque of couple will be:
= Fd
Where d is called the moment arm of the couple.
Now
the magnitude of the couple = Magnitude of any of the forces forming couple X moment arm of
couple
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.
.
.TORQUE- CENTRE OF GRAVITY
.
DEFINITION citycollegiate.com
“ The tendency of a force to produce rotation in a body

about an axis is called torque or momentum of force."
MATHEMATICAL
DEFINITION
Torque produced in a body is numerically equal to the product of
force and moment arm.
Torque = (force ) ( moment arm)
VECTORIAL DEFINITION
Torque produced in a body is equal to the cross product of
force arm ( ) and the force ( ).
The turning effect of a force depends upon two factors:

Magnitude of force (F)
Magnitude of moment arm (r) citycollegiate.com
The torque about any axis is given by the product of force and moment
arm.
EXPLANATION
Consider a particle of mass 'm' which is acted upon a force . Let be
the position vector of the particle which is also the position vector of the
point of application of force. We can resolve this force into two rectangular
components:
1. Parallel to the position vector i.e. Or Fcos
2. Perpendicular to the position vector i.e. Or Fsin

From figure it is clear that can pull the particle but it cannot rotate it or
it is unable to produce torque in the mass. It is the component which

produces rotation in the mass.
Let r and be the magnitude of and respectively.
The magnitude of of the torque produced about the centre 'O' is defined as:
Where  is the smaller angle between the positive direction of and .

Using vector notation, above expression can also be written as :
DIRECTION OF TORQUE citycollegiate.com

The direction of torque is directed along the normal to the plane formed by
and as given by right hand rule.
SIGN CONVENTION
Positive torque:
If a body rotates about its axis in anti clockwise direction, then the torque
is taken positive .
Negative torque:
If the body rotates in the clockwise direction, then the torque is taken as
negative .
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DETERMINANT FORM OF
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TORQUE
Let the position vector is = x i+ y j+ z k and the force = Fx i+

Fy j+ Fz k
The torque is given by:
UNIT OF TORQUE
In SI system unit of torque is N-m ( Newton . Metre)
DIMENSION OF TORQUE
[L2MT-2]
Centre of gravity
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CENTRE OF MASS
.
DEFINITION www.citycollegiate.com
The centre of mass of a body or a system of particles is defined as
"A single point at which the whole mass of the body or system is
imagined to be concentrated and all the applied forces acts at that
point."
EXPLANATION
In translational motion each point on a body undergoes the same
displacement as any other point as time passes, so that motion of one particle
represents the motion of the whole body. But when a body rotates or vibrates,
there is one point on the body, called "centre of mass", that moves in the same
way that a single particle would move under the influence of the same external
forces.
Centre of mass of a body is that point that moves when forces are applied on
the body. The motion of a body can be described as the motion of its centre of
mass.
The centre of mass , has translational motion under the influence of forces. If
a single force acts on a body and the line of action of the force passes through
the centre of mass, the body will have linear acceleration but possess no
angular acceleration.
CENTRE OF MASS
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CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The centre of mass often confused with the centre of gravity. The two terms
are so similar in many respects that one can use the two interchangeably. The
centre of gravity of an extended object coincides with its centre of mass if the
object is in a completely uniform gravitational field. If the body is not located
in a uniform gravitational field,its centre of mass and centre of gravity will be at
two different locations.
CENTRE OF MASS OF
DIFFERENT OBJECTS
Centre of mass of a body depends on its geometrical shape. If a body is
symmetrical and of uniform composition, the centre of mass will be located at
its geometrical centre.
For example:
Centre of mass of a square is at the point of intersection of its
diagonals.
Centre of mass of a sphere is at its centre.
Centre of mass of a rigid bar is at the middle point.
DETERMINATION OF
CENTRE OF MASS OF
Consider a system of "n" particles of masses
whose position vectors are respectively.
The centre of mass of the system is defined as the point having the position
vector "r" and is equal to:
Where M is the total mass of the system.

If are the coordinates of the centre of mass of a system of "n"
particles then,
OR
Also
OR
Similarly
Thus are the coordinates of the centre of mass.
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
.
The measure of the quantity of motion possessed by a body in rotational

motion is called ANGULAR MOMENTUM.
Definition www.citycollegiate.com
Angular momentum of a body is defined as :
"The angular momentum of a body about an axis is the product of its
linear
momentum and the perpendicular distance of the body from the axis."
In other words
"The angular momentum of a body is equal to cross product of its
linear momentum and the vector distance from the axis of rotation."
Mathematical
representation
If a body of mass "m" is moving in a circle or radius with velocity ,
the linear momentum of body is
The angular momentum of the body is given by:
= X
Putting the value of
= Xm
Magnitude of Angular
momentum
Since
Angle between and is equal to 90o

L = m rv sin
L = m rv sin90
L = m rv (1)
L=mrv
But v = r
L = m r(r
L = m r2
We know that m r2 is equal to moment of inertia i.e. I = m r2
Thus
Unit of Angular
momentum
In S.I. System unit of angular momentum is "joule.second".
Dimension of Angular
momentum
[L2MT -1]
.LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

.
THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM STATES THAT:

"When the net external torque acting on a system about a given axis
is
zero , the total angular momentum of the system about that axis
remains constant."
Mathematically,
If then = constant
Proof
According to the second law of motion net force acting on a body is equal to
its rate of change of linear momentum.
i.e.
Taking vector product of on both side if above expression
But is the torque acting on the body
... (i)
Angular momentum is defined as:
= x
Differentiating both sides with respect to "t"
Which is the required equation.
This expression states that the torque acting on a particle is the time rate of
change of its angular momentum. If the net external torque on the particle
is zero, then,
OR
Integrating both sides

Thus the angular momentum of a particle is conserved if and only if the net
external torque acting on a particle is zero.
PROJECTILE MOTION
PROJECTILE www.citycollegiate.com
Any object that is given an initial velocity and the object subsequently follows a
path determined by the gravitational force acting on it and by the frictional
resistance of the atmosphere is called a projectile.
EXAMPLES OF PROJECTILES:
A missile shot from a gun
A bomb released from a bomber
Kicked or thrown balls
Jumping of animals
Object thrown from a window are some examples of projectile.
PROJECTILE TRAJECTORY www.citycollegiate.com
The path followed by a projectile is called it's trajectory. Trajectory of a
projectile is a parabola.
PROJECTILE MOTION
When a body is projected in a vertical plane making some angle with the
horizontal, the motion of such a body is called as projectile motion.
In projectile motion there are two components of motion or velocity i.e. vertical
component and horizontal component.
ASSUMPTIONS FOR
PROJECTILE MOTION
To analyze projectile motion following three assumptions are made.
The acceleration due to gravity is constant over the range of motion and is
directed downward.
The medium of projectile motion is assumed to be non-resistive (i.e. air
resistance is negligible).
The rotation of earth does not affected the motion.
ANALYSIS OF PROJECTILE
MOTION
Suppose a ball is projected towards the sky (in XY-plane) with an initial velocity
Vo in a direction making an angle  with the horizontal. To study the motion of
the ball, it is convenient to resolve the velocity of the projectile along x and y
plane. These components are Vocos and Vosin .
As the ball starts moving, it is subjected to a vertically downward force due to
gravity. This causes a retardation in the motion of the ball along y-plane.
However, there is no force acting on it along horizontal direction. Hence, the
horizontal component of velocity (Vocos ) remains constant throughout its
flight. The retardation along vertical direction continues till the body reaches to
point B, the highest point on its trajectory. At this point the vertical component
of velocity is reduced to zero and the body momentarily moves along horizontal
direction with a velocity Vocos . Beyond point B, there is an acceleration due to
gravity along the vertically downward direction. Hence, the vertical component
of the velocity gradually increases in the downward direction until the body
strikes the ground at point 'C' and instead of a straight line the trajectory of
projectile becomes curved.
Another correct result is that the body strikes the ground at point 'C' with its
initial velocity, Vo again making the same angle  with the horizontal direction.
CIRCULAR MOTION-ANGULAR MOTION-RADIAN

UNIFORM
CIRCULAR www.citycollegiate.com
MOTION
When an object moves in a circular path such that the magnitude of velocity
is constant then, the motion is called uniform circular motion.
ANGULAR
MOTION
When a body moves along a circular path it traverses a certain angle in a
given interval of time. This type of motion is called 'angular motion'.
ANGULAR
DISPLACEMENT
"The angle traveled by a body during its motion
around
a circular path is called its angular
displacement."
Consider a particle moves in a circular path from a point P1 to P2 in an

interval of time t. It travels an angle <P1OP2 =  which is called angular
displacement of the particle.
RADIAN www.citycollegiate.com
One radian is the angle traced by an arc of length equal to radius of
circle.
Length of circular track of radius r is 2 r. Therefore numbers of radians in a

circle of radius r will be
=2 r / r
= 2
Angle at the centre of circle in one complete rotation = 360o = 2 rad
180o =  rad or 1o =  / 180 rad

RELATION BETWEEN LENGTH OF ARC AND THE ANGLE SUBTENDED
The length of arc "S" is directly proportional to angle  subtended (measured
in radians) traced at the centre of circle by ends of the arc.
S
S = r
Where r is radius of circle.
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ANGULAR VELOCITY-ANGULAR ACCELERATION
DEFINITION citycollegiate.com
Angle traversed by a body in circular motion in unit time is called
angular velocity.
OR
The rate of change of angular position of a body is called angular
velocity.
Consider a particle "P" moving in a circular path of radius "r". The angular
position P1 is 1 at instant t1 and 2 at instant t2.
The angular displacement is 2 - 1 =  .
Time interval = t2 –t1 =t
Since the angle traced per sec by a body moving in circle is called its average
angular speed
denoted by  av.
Therefore,
 av =  / t
Unit for angular velocity is rad /sec OR rev/sec.
INSTANTANEOUS
ANGULAR citycollegiate.com
VELOCITY
The angular velocity at a particular instant is called instantaneous angular
velocity.
If  t is very small i.e.  t  0 then  / t is called instantaneous angular
velocity.
Unit for angular velocity is rad /sec OR rev/sec.
DIRECTION OF
ANGULAR
VELOCITY
Direction of angular velocity is given by right hand rule, which states that if we
curl the fingers of right hand in the direction of rotation then thumb will
represents the direction of angular velocity.
ANGULAR
ACCELERATION
Rate of change of angular velocity of a body is called angular acceleration. It is
denoted by  .
If  1 is angular velocity of a body moving in circle at instant t1 and  2 is
angular velocity of body at
instant t2 then,
if t is very small then acceleration is called instantaneous angular

acceleration.
citycollegiate.com
UNIT
Unit of angular acceleration is rad/sec2.
DIRECTION
Direction of angular acceleration is same as of 
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RELATION BETWEEN LINEAR VELOCITY AND ANGULAR
VELOCITY
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Consider a particle "P" in an object (in XY-plane) moving along a circular
paths of radius "r" about an
axis through "O" , perpendicular to plane of the figure i.e. z-axis. Suppose
the particles moves through
an angle  in time t sec.
If S is its distance for rotating through angle  then,

 = S / r
Dividing both sides byt, we get
 / t = S / r. t
 r / t = S/t

If time interval t is very small , then the angle through which the
particle moves is also very
small and therefore the ratio  /t gives the instantaneous angular speed
 ins.
i.e.
V = r
TANGENTIAL
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VELOCITY
If a particle "P" is moving in a circle of radius "r", then its linear velocity at
any instant is equal to
tangential velocity which is :
V = r
TANGENTIAL
ACCELERATION
Suppose an object rotating about a fixed axis changes its angular velocity by
 in time t sec,
then the change in tangential velocity Vt at the end of this interval will be
Vt = r  w
Change in velocity in unit time is given by:
V / t = r. w / t
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if t approaches to zero then V/t will be instantaneous tangential
acceleration and /t
will be instantaneous angular acceleration " ".
at = r
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TIME PERIOD - CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION

TIME PERIOD www.citycollegiate.com
Time taken to complete one revolution or cycle is called time period
denoted by "T".
If angular velocity of a body moving in circle is  then time to complete one
revolution will be
T = angular displacement / angular velocity
Angular displacement in one cycle is 2
T = 2 / 
CENTRIPETAL
ACCELERATION
If an object is moving in a circle with constant speed, then direction of its
motion is continuously changing. Due to change in direction of body an
acceleration is produced in the object The direction
of acceleration is towards the center of circle. This acceleration is called is
called "centripetal acceleration".
It is denoted by ac.
MAGNITUDE
OF ac
Suppose a body is moving in a circle of radius r with constant speed V. Let it
travels from point A to B
in a time interval of t sec and covers a distance S meter. Let velocity
vector of the body at point
A be V1 and at point B be V2.Angle traced at the center during this interval
t sec is say  .
Take a point O outside circle, draw velocity vector OP and OQ equal and
parallel to V1 and V2. Join PQ from vector addition head and tail rule OQ i.e.
V2 is resultant of OP = V1 and PQ = V. It means PQ is the change in
velocity V during interval t sec.
V = V2 – V1
angle POQ is equal to angle at the center of circle becomes V1 and V2 are
perpendicular to radius lines at A and B. From geometry ACB and OPQ are
similar because both are in closed triangles and  are same
By similar triangles properties
V/V=S/r
 V = V.  S/r
Dividing both sides by t
 V /  t = V/r .  S/ t
When t is very small  t 0
 V /  t is lim V / t
 t 0
V / r lim S / t
 t 0
ac = V / r * V
ac = V2 / r
this gives the magnitude of centripetal acceleration.
Since direction of change of velocity is towards center, therefore direction of

ac will be towards center.
We know that
V = r
ac = r2 2 / r
ac = r 2 -------- (1)
But  = 2 / T, putting the value of 

ac = r ( 2 /T)2
ac = 4 2r / T2
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TENSION IN THE STRING
The tension is defined as:

"The force exerted by a string when it is subjected to pull".
If a person is holding a block of weight W attached to the end of a string, a
force is experienced by him . This force is known as Tension. When the body is
at rest, the magnitude of tension is equal to the weight of the body suspended
by the string. Tension and the weight acts in the opposite direction. Tension is
vector quantity, which has both magnitude and direction. Its magnitude
remains constant at all points of the string.
UNIT OF TENSION
Since tension is a force,therefore, it has same units as that of force.
In S.I. system : NEWTON
In C.G.S. system : DYNE
In F.P.S. system : POUND
MOTION OF BODIES CONNECTED BY A STRING
When the bodies move vertically
Consider two bodies of unequal masses m1 and m2 connected by the ends of a
string, which passes over a frictionless pulley as shown in the diagram.
If m1>m2, the body ‘A’ will move downward with acceleration ‘a’ and the body
‘B’ will move up with same acceleration. Here we have to find the value of ‘a’
and tension ‘T’.
Forces acting on body A
There are two forces acting on A
(i)Weight of body: w1 = m1g
(ii) Tension in the string = T
The net force acting on the body is

F= m1g – T
Net force acting on body 'A' is given by Newton’s 2nd law as m1a. Thus we have
the equation for the motion of body "A" as:
m1g – T = m1a --------- (i)
Forces acting upon body B
There are also two forces acting on B
(i)Weight of body: w2 = m2g
(ii) Tension in the string = T
Since body "B" is moving up, the net force acting on body is
F= T – m2g
T – m2g = m2a---------- (ii)
Adding (i) & (ii)
(m1 – m2)g = (m1 + m2)a

putting the value of 'a' in equation (ii) to find the magnitude of T
T – m2g = m2a
T – m2g = m2
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INCLINED PLANE
Any plane surface which makes an angle  with the horizontal surface is called
inclined plane such that
0< <90.
. Inclined plane is an example of simple machine which is used to lift heavy
bodies without applying very huge force.
MOTION OF A BODY ON AN
INCLINED PLANE
Consider a block of mass "m" placed on an inclined plane, which makes an angle
 with the horizontal plane. The weight "W" of the block is acting vertically
downward. The weight of the block can be resolved into two rectangular
components:
wcos and wsin
other forces acting on the block are:
(i) Surface reaction (R) which is perpendicular to the plane
(ii) Force of friction (f) acting opposite to the direction of motion of block.
Let us take x-axis perpendicular to the inclined plane. If the block is at rest, then
wsinq acting down the plane balances the opposing frictional force.
Applying 1st condition of equilibrium.
Fx = 0
f – wsin = 0 -------(1)
Fy = 0
R– wcos = 0 -------(2)
Since there is no motion in the direction perpendicular to the inclined plane,

therefore wcos is balanced by R i.e. R = wcos
If block slides down with an acceleration equal to 'a', then the resultant force is
equal to 'ma' and the force on block will be:
wsin – f
According to 2nd law of motion
wsin – f = ma
If the force of friction is negligible, then
wsin = ma
but w = mg
This expression shows that if friction is negligible the acceleration of a body on

an inclined plane is independent of mass but is directly proportional to sin .
WHEN FRICTION IS NOT
NEGLIGIBLE
(i) If block moves upward
f - wsin = ma
(ii) If block moves downward
wsin – f = ma
MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE OF
INCLINED PLANE
MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE OF INCLINED PLANE IS GIVEN BY
M.A = 1/sin
PARTICULAR CASES
(i) When =0

a = g sin0
a=gx0
a=o
(ii) When  = 30
a = g sin30
a = g x 0.5
a = g/2
a = 4.9 m/s2
(iii) When  = 60
a = g sin60
a = g x 0.866
a = 4.9 m/s2
(iv) When  = 90
a = g sin90
a=gx1
a=g
a = 9.8 m/s2
Above analysis shows that the acceleration of a body on an inclined plane
depends upon the angle of inclination.
>
Momentum
Physical quantity that describes the quantity of motion in a body is called
momentum.
The momentum of a moving body is defined as
"the product of mass and velocity of a moving body is called linear
momentum"
Mathematically,
Momentum is a vector quantity and its direction is the same as that of velocity.
Explanation
Momentum is that property of a moving body which determines how much effort
is required to accelerate or stop a body.. Hence it may also be termed as
quantity of motion of a body. From various observations it is concluded that
greater effort is required to stop a body if it possess either greater mass or
greater velocity or both.
Units Of
Momentum
In S.I. system : NS [1 NS = 1 kg m/s]
In C.G.S. system : Dyne.S
In F.P.S. system : Lb.S
Dimensions Of
Momentum
The dimension of momentum is [MLT-1]
Law Of Conservation Of Momentum
The law of conservation of momentum states that:
"When some bodies constituting an isolated system act upon
one another, the total momentum of the system remains constant."
In other words
"Total momentum of an isolated system before and after collision is
constant."
Proof
Consider an isolated system of two bodies "A" & "B" having masses m1 & m2
moving initially with velocities u1 & u2 respectively. They collide with each other
and after the impact their velocities become v1 & v2.
Total momentum of system before collision = m1u1 + m2u2
Total momentum of system after collision = m1v1 + m2v2
When the two bodies collide with each other, they come in contact for a short
time "t". During this interval, let the average force exerted one of the bodies is
F.
We know that the rate of change of linear momentum is equal to applied force,
therefore
FA = ( m1v1- m1u1)/t -------------(1)
FB = ( m2v2- m2u2 )/t--------------(2)
According to the third law of motion :
FA = -FB
Putting the values of FA and FB
( m1v1- m1u1)/t = - ( m2v2- m2u2 )/t
m1v1 - m1u1 = - ( m2v2- m2u2 )

m1v1 - m1u1 = - m2v2 + m2u2
This is known as the Law of conservation of momentum. This expression shows

that the total momentum of an isolated system before and after collision remains
constant i.e. the total momentum of the system is conserved.
Isolated System
An isolated system is one in which constituents of the system interact with one
another and no external force is applied on any of them. Actually a perfect
isolated system is not possible in the physical world,
but a group of objects whose mutual interaction with other objects can
frequently be treated as if they are isolated. For example molecules of gas
enclosed in a vessel at constant temperature.
ELASTIC AND INELASTIC COLLISION
ELASTIC COLLISION www.citycollegiate.com

An elastic collision is that in which the momentum of the system as well as
kinetic energy of the system before and after collision is conserved.
INELASTIC COLLISION
An inelastic collision is that in which the momentum of the system before and
after collision is conserved but the kinetic energy before and after collision is
not conserved.
ELASTIC COLLISION
IN ONE DIMENSION
Consider two non-rotating spheres of mass m1 and m2 moving initially along
the line joining their centers with velocities u1 and u2 in the same direction. Let
u1 is greater than u2. They collide with one another and after having an elastic
collision start moving with velocities v1 and v2 in the same directions on the
same line.
Momentum of the system before collision = m1u1 + m2u2

Momentum of the system after collision = m1v1 + m2v2
According to the law of conservation of momentum:
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
m1v1 – m1u1 = m2u2 – m2v2
m1(v1 – u1) = m2(u2 – v2) -------(1)
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K.E of the system before collision = ½ m1u12 + ½ m2u22
K.E of the system after collision = ½ m1v12 + ½ m2v22
Since the collision is elastic, so the K.E of the system before and after collision
is conserved .
Thus
½ m1v12 + ½ m2v22 = ½ m1u12 + ½ m2u22
½ (m1v12 + m2v22) = ½ (m1u12 + ½ m2u22
m1v12-m1u12=m2u22-m2v22
m1(v12-u12) = m2(u22-v22)
m1(v1+u1) (v1-u1) = m2(u2+v2) (u2-v2) ------- (2)
Dividing equation (2) by equation (1)
V1+U1 = U2+V2
From the above equation
V1=U2 +V2 -U1_________(a)
V2=V1+U1 -U2_________(b)
Putting the value of V2 in equation (1)
m1 (v1-u1) =m2 (u2-v2)
m1 (v1-u1) =m2{u2-(v1+u1-u2)}
m1(v1-u1)=m2{u2-v1-u1+u2}
m1(v1-u1)=m2{2u2-v1-u1}
m1v1-m1u1=2m2u2-m2v1-m2u1
m1v1+m2v1=m1u1-m2u1+2m2u2
v1(m1+m2)=(m1-m2)u1-2m2u2
In order to obtain V2 putting the value of V1 from equation (a) in equation (i)
m1 (v1-u1) = m2(u2-v2)
m1(u2+v2-u1-u1)=m2(u2-v2)
m1(u2+v2-2u1)=m2(u2-v2)
m1u2+m1v2-2m1u1=m2u2-m2v2
m1v2+m2v2=2m1u1+m2u2-m1u2
v2(m1+m2)=2m1u1+(m2-m1)u2
SCALARS & VECTORS

SCALAR
QUANTITIES
Physical quantities which can completely be specified by a number
(magnitude)
having an appropriate unit are known as "SCALAR QUANTITIES".
Scalar quantities do not need direction for their description.
Scalar quantities are comparable only when they have the same physical
dimensions.
Two or more than two scalar quantities measured in the same system of
units are equal if they have the same magnitude and sign.
Scalar quantities are denoted by letters in ordinary type.
Scalar quantities are added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the simple
rules of algebra.
EXAMPLES
Work, energy, electric flux, volume, refractive index, time, speed, electric
potential, potential difference, viscosity, density, power, mass, distance,
temperature, electric charge etc.
VECTORS
QUANTITIES
Physical quantities having both magnitude and direction
with appropriate unit are known as "VECTOR QUANTITIES".
We can't specify a vector quantity without mention of deirection.
vector quantities are expressed by using bold letters with arrow sign such as:
vector quantities can not be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the

simple rules of algebra.
vector quantities added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the rules of
trigonometry and geometry.
EXAMPLES
Velocity, electric field intensity, acceleration, force, momentum, torque,
displacement, electric current, weight, angular momentum etc.
REPRESENTATION
OF VECTORS
On paper vector quantities are represented by a straight line with arrow head
pointing the direction of vector or terminal point of vector.
A vector quantity is first transformed into a suitable scale and then a line is
drawn with the help of the
scale choosen in the given direction.
Addition of vectors by Head to Tail method (Graphical Method)
Head to Tail method or graphical method is one of the easiest method used
to find the resultant vector of two of more than two vectors.
DETAILS OF
METHOD
Consider two vectors and acting in the directions as shown below:
In order to get their resultant vector by head to tail method we must follow
the following steps:
STEP # 1
Choose a suitable scale for the vectors so that they can be plotted on the
paper.
STEP # 2
Draw representative line of vector

Draw representative line of vector such that the tail of coincides
with the head of vector .

STEP # 3
Join 'O' and 'B'.
represents resultant vector of given vectors and i.e.
STEP # 4
Measure the length of line segment and multiply it with the scale choosen
initially to get the magnitude of resultant vector.
STEP # 5
The direction of the resultant vector is directed from the tail of vector to
the head of vector .
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ADDITION OF VECTORS
PARALLELOGRAM
LAW OF VECTOR
ADDITION
Acccording to the parallelogram law of vector addition:
"If two vector quantities are represented by two adjacent sides or a
parallelogram
then the diagonal of parallelogram will be equal to the resultant of
these two vectors."
EXPLANATION
Consider two vectors . Let the vectors have the following

orientation
parallelogram of these vectors is :
According to parallelogram law:
MAGNITUDE OF
RESULTANT VECTOR
Magintude or resultant vector can be determined by using either sine law or
cosine law.
UNIT VECTOR-FREE VECTOR-POSITION VECTOR-NULL VECTOR

UNIT VECTOR
"A unit vector is defined as a vector in any specified direction whose
magnitude
is unity i.e. 1. A unit vector only specifies the direction of a given
vector. "
A unit vector is denoted by any small letter with a symbol of arrow hat ( ).
A unit vector can be determined by dividing the vector by its magnitude.
For example unit vector of a vector A is given by:
In three dimensional coordinate system unit vectors having

the direction of the positive X-axis, Y-axi and Z-axis are used as unit
vectors.These unit vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other.
FREE VECTOR
A vector that can be displaced parallel to itself and applied at any point is
known as a FREE VECTOR.
A free vector can be specified by giving its magnitude and any two of the
angles between the vector and coordinate axes.
POSITION
VECTOR
Avector that indicates the position of a point in a coordinate system is
referred to as POSITION VECTOR.
Suppose we have a fixed reference point O, then we can specify the position
the position of a given point P with respect to point O by means of a vector
having magnitude and direction represented by a directed line segment OP
.This vector is called POSITION VECTOR.
In a three dimensional coordinate system if O is at origin then,O(0,0,0) and P
is any point say P(x,y,z)
in this situation position vector of point P will be:
NULL VECTOR
A null vector is a vector having magnitude equal to zero.It is represented by
. A null vector has no direction or it may have any direction. Generally a
null vector is either equal to resultant of two equal vectors acting in opposite
directions or multiple vectors in different directions.
MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION OF VECTOR BY A NUMBER (SCALAR)

MULTIPLICATION
OF A VECTOR
BY A SCALAR
When a vector is multiplied by a positive number (for example 2, 3 ,5, 60 unit
etc.) or a scalar only its magnitude is changed but its direction remains the
same as that of the original vector.
If however a vector is multiplied by a negative number (for example -2, -3 ,-5,
-60 unit etc.) or a scalar not only its magnitude is changed but its direction
also reversed.
The product of a vector by a scalar quantity (m) follows the following rules:
(m) = (m) which is called commutative law of multiplication.
m(n ) = (mn) which is called associative law of multiplication .
(m + n) =m +n which is called distributive law of

multiplication .
DIVISION
OF A VECTOR
BY A SCALAR
The division of a vector by a scalar number (n) involves the multiplication

of the vector by the reciprocal of the number (n) which generates a new
vector.
Let n represents a number or scalar and m is its reciprocal then the new vector
is given by :
where m = 1/n
and its magnitude is given by:
The direction of is same as that of if (n) is a positive number.
The direction of is opposite as that of if (n) is a negative number.
RESOLUTION OF VECTOR
DEFINITION
The process of splitting a vector into various parts or components is called
"RESOLUTION OF VECTOR"
These parts of a vector may act in different directions and are called
"components of vector".
We can resolve a vector into a number of components .Generally there are
three components of vector viz.
Component along X-axis called x-component
Component along Y-axis called Y-component
Component along Z-axis called Z-component
Here we will discuss only two components x-component & Y-component

which are perpendicular to each other.These components are called
rectangular components of vector.
METHOD OF
RESOLVING
A VECTOR INTO
RECTANGULAR
COMPONENTS
Consider a vector acting at a point making an angle with positive X-axis.
Vector is
represented by a line OA.From point A draw a perpendicular AB on X-
axis.Suppose OB and BA
represents two vectors.Vector OA is parallel to X-axis and vector BA is
parallel to Y-axis.Magnitude
of these vectors are Vx and Vy respectively.By the method of head to tail we
notice that the sum of these vectors is equal to vector .Thus Vx and Vy are
the rectangular components of vector .
Vx = Horizontal component of .
Vy = Vertical component of .
MAGNITUDE OF
HORIZONTAL
COMPONENT
Consider right angled triangle 
MAGNITUDE OF
VERTICAL
COMPONENT
Consider right angled triangle 
ADDITION OF VECTORS BY RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS METHOD

INTRODUCTION
Rectangular component method of addition of vectors is the most simplest
method to add a number of vectors acting in different directions.
DETAILS OF
METHOD
Consider two vectors making angles   and   with +ve x-axis

respectively.
STEP #01
Resolve vector into two rectangular components and .

Magnitude of these components are:
and
STEP #02
Resolve vector into two rectangular components and .

Magnitude of these components are:
and
STEP #03
Now move vector parallel to itself so that its initial point (tail) lies on the
terminal point (head) of vector as shown in the diagram.
Representative lines of and are OA and OB respectively.Join O and B
which is equal to resultant vector of and

STEP #04
Resultant vector along X-axis can be determined as:
STEP # 05
Resultant vector along Y-axis can be determined as:
STEP # 06
Now we will determine the magnitude of resultant vector.
In the right angled triangle BOD:
HYP2 = BASE2 + PERP2
STEP # 07
Finally the direction of resultant vector will be determined.
Again in the right angled triangle BOD:
Where is the angle that the resultant vector makes with the positive X-axis.
In this way we can add a number of vectors in a very easy manner.
This method is known as ADDITION OF VECTORS BY RECTANGULAR
COMPONENTS METHOD.
PROPERTIES OF VECTOR ADDITION
COMMUTATIVE LAW
OF
VECTOR ADDITION
Consider two vectors and . Let these two vectors represent two adjacent
sides of a parallelogram. We construct a parallelogram
OACB as shown in the diagram. The diagonal OC represents the resultant
vector
From above figure it is clear that:

This fact is referred to as the commutative law of vectr addition .
ASSOCIATIVE LAW
OF
VECTOR ADDITION
The law states that the sum of vectors remains same irrespective of their order
or grouping in which they are arranged.
Consider three vectors , and
Applying "head to tail rule" to obtain the resultant of ( + ) and ( + )

Then finally again find the resultant of these three vectors :
This fact is known as the ASSOCIATIVE LAW OF VECTOR ADDITION.
Multiplication of two vectors

MORE DETAILS ON VECTORS
There are two types of the multiplication of two vectors:
Scalar Product OR Dot Product
Vector Product OR Cross Product
SCALAR PRODUCT
OR
DOT PRODUCT
Type of multiplication of two vectors in which the product is a scalar quantity is
referred to as "Scalar Product OR Dot Product"
MATHEMATICAL
REPRESENTATION OF
SCALAR PRODUCT
Consider two vectors and making an angle  with each other. Their scalar
product or dot product is defined as:
Scalar product of two vectors and is a scalar quantity which is
equal to the
product of the magnitudes of and and the cosine of the angle
between them.
EXPLANATION
EXAMPLE # 01
When we multiply two vector quantities force and displacement we get work
which is a scalar quantity. Therefore, we can say that work is the scalar
product or dot product of force and displacement.
EXAMPLE # 02
When we multiply two vector quantities electric intensity and normal area we
get electric flux which is a scalar quantity. Therefore, we can say that electric
flux is the scalar product or dot product of electric intensity and normal area
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COMMUTATIVE LAW FOR DOT PRODUCT

COMMUTATIVE
LAW
FOR
DOT PRODUCT
This law states that :
"The scalar product of two vectors and is equal to the
magnitude
of vector times the projection of onto the direction of vector
. "
Consider two vectors and ,the angle between them is 
where represents the projection of vector onto the direction of vector

.
Similarly,
Where represents the projection of vector onto the direction of vector

.
Since
This shows that the dot product of two vectors does not chanfe with the
change in the order of the vectors to be multiplied.
This fact is known as the commutative of dot product.
DISTRIBUTIVE LAW FOR DOT PRODUCT
DISTRIBUTIVE
LAW FOR
DOT PRODUCT
According to distributive law for dot product:
PROOF
Consider three vectors , and .Here we will use geometric interpretation of

dot product by drawing projection as shown below. First we obtain the sum of
vectors and by head to tail rule then we draw projection and from
the terminal point of vector respectively onto the direction of .
The dot product is equal to the projection of vector onto the

direction of multiplied by the magnitude of . i.e.
VECTOR PRODUCT
MORE DETAILS ON VECTORS
VECTOR PRODUCT
OR
CROSS PRODUCT
Type of multiplication of two vectors in which the product is also a vector
quantity is referred to as "Vector Product OR Cross Product"
MATHEMATICAL
REPRESENTATION OF
VECTOR PRODUCT
Consider two vectors and making an angle  with each other. Their vector
product or cross product is defined as:
vector product of two vectors and is a third vector whose
magnitude is equal
to the product of the magnitudes of and and the sine of the angle
between them. The direction of the product vector is perpendicular to
the plane containing both the vectors.
DIRECTION OF THIRD
VECTOR
The vector which represents the cross product or vector product is
perpendicular to the plane containing vectors and and points in the
direction in such a way as to make A , B and C vectors in order.
Direction of third vector C can be determined by using right hand rule:
EXPLANATION
EXAMPLE # 01
When we multiply two vector quantities force arm and force we get torque
which is also a vector quantity. Therefore, we can say that torque is the vector
product or cross product of force arm and force.
EXAMPLE # 02
When we multiply two vector quantities velocity and magnetic flux density we
get force which is also a vector quantity. Therefore, we can say that force is
the vector product or cross product of velocity and magnetic flux density.
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AREA OF PARALLELOGRAM
If two sides of a parallelogram are represented by two vectors A and B, then

the magnitude of their cross product will be equal to the area of
parallelogram i.e.
PROOF
Consider a parallelogram OABC whose two sides are represented by two
vectors A and B as shown. The area of parallelogram OABC is equal to :
 = hA----------------(1)
Draw perpendicular CD on side OA.

Consider right angled triangle COD
sin = h/OC
h= OC sin
h= B sin
Putting the value of h in equation (1), we get,
 = B sin A
 = AB sin
OR
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WORK
PHYSICAL
DEFINITION OF
WORK
"Work is said to be done if a force causes a displacement
in a body in the direction of force".
OR
"The work done by a constant force is defined as the product of
the component of the force and the displacement in the direction of
displacement."
MATHEMATICAL
DEFINITION
"Work is the scalar product of force and displacement".
OR
"Work is the dot product of force and displacement".
Work is a scalar quantity.

UNIT OF WORKS
• In S.I system: Joule (j)
• In C.G.S. system: Erg
• In F.P.S. system: ft X lb
CATEGORIES
OF WORK
(i) POSITIVE WORK:
If force and displacement are in the same direction, work will be positive or if
or  < 90°
(ii) ZERO WORK:

If force and displacement are perpendicular to each other, work will be zero. i.e.
since = 90°
Work = 0
as
Work = Fd Cos
Work = Fd Cos 90°
Work = (F)(d)(0)
Work = 0
NEGATIVE WORK:
In force and displacement are in the opposite direction, work will be negative.
since = 180°

Work = - ve
as
Work = Fd Cos
Work = Fd Cos 180°
Work = (F)(d)(-1)
Work = -Fd
ENERGY
ENERGY
"The ability of a body to perform work is called Energy".
A body cannot perform work if it does not posses energy.A body cannot
perform work more than the amount of energy.
It is a scalar quantity.
UNITS OF
ENERGY
(i) Joule
(ii) Calorie [NOTE: 1 Calorie = 4.2 joule.]
(iii) KWatt-Hour
TYPES OF
ENERGY
There aree numerous types of energy such as:
Heat Energy
Light Energy
Sound Energy
Nuclear Energy
Chemical Energy
Electrical Energy
Solar Energy
Wind Energy
Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy etc. etc.
POWER
"The rate of work done of a body is called Power".
AVERAGE
POWER
Average power of a body doing work is numerically equal to the totla work
done divided by the time taken to perform the work.
MATHMATICALLY
Power = Work done/time
Power = Work/t
but [work = Fd]
therefore
Power = Fd/t
UNITS OF
POWER
(i) watt [1 watt = 1joule/sec ]
(ii) Kilo watt [1Kw = 1000 watt]
(iii) Mega watt (Mw) [1Mw = 106 watt]
(iv) Horse power [1Hp = 746w]
POTENTIAL ENERGY
INTRODUCTION
Energy stored by a body by any means is called "Potential Energy".
DEFINITION
"The energy stored by a body due to its position in gravitational field is known
as ‘Gravitational Potential Energy’".
FORMULA
Consider a body of mass "m" placed at a height of "h" from the surface of
earth.
Force = Weight = W
but displacement (d) = h
Work done = Fd
OR
Work done = Wh
[but W = mg]
work done = mgh
WE know that the work done in lifting the body is stored in the body in the
form of Potential Energy. Thus P.E. =
mgh
WORK
PHYSICAL
DEFINITION OF
WORK
"Work is said to be done if a force causes a displacement
in a body in the direction of force".
OR
"The work done by a constant force is defined as the product of
the component of the force and the displacement in the direction of
displacement."
MATHEMATICAL
DEFINITION
"Work is the scalar product of force and displacement".
OR
"Work is the dot product of force and displacement".
Work is a scalar quantity.

UNIT OF WORKS
• In S.I system: Joule (j)
• In C.G.S. system: Erg
• In F.P.S. system: ft X lb
CATEGORIES
OF WORK
(i) POSITIVE WORK:
If force and displacement are in the same direction, work will be positive or if
or  < 90°
(ii) ZERO WORK:

If force and displacement are perpendicular to each other, work will be zero. i.e.
since = 90°
Work = 0
as
Work = Fd Cos
Work = Fd Cos 90°
Work = (F)(d)(0)
Work = 0
NEGATIVE WORK:
In force and displacement are in the opposite direction, work will be negative.
since = 180°

Work = - ve
as
Work = Fd Cos
Work = Fd Cos 180°
Work = (F)(d)(-1)
Work = -Fd

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A Historical Background

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A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

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The turning effect of a force depends upon two factors:

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But is the torque acting on the body

Integrating both sides

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