Nature and Elements of communication

What is communication?
 According to Wood (2004), communication is a systematic process in which individuals interact with and through symbols to
create and interpret meanings.
 Wood’s definition suggests the qualities that are inherent in communication.
1. Communication is a PROCESS.
– It is creative, continuing condition of life, a process that changes as the communicator’s environments
and needs change.
– Many words have become obsolete, trite, or altered in their meanings while new words have evolved
2. Communication is SYSTEMATIC
– It occurs within systems of interrelated and interacting parts.
3. Communication is SYMBOLIC
– Symbols, verbal or non-verbal are the basis of language.
4. Communication involves MEANING.
– Meanings are assigned, given or invented, not received.
– It is the production of meaning rather than the production of messages that identifies communication.

The process of communication

Communication is made up of several components:
a) Speaker/sender e) Channel
b) Listener/receiver f) Feedback
c) Message g) Context
d) Medium h) Noise

Sending the message: Receiving the message

1. Speaker/sender – is the source of the message that
is encoded into symbols that are verbal and/or
nonverbal
2. Message – is any information or anything the
speaker wants to communicate using a medium.
3. Medium – is the form in which the speaker conveys
the message (speech, conversation, letter, email,
book, etc.)
4. Channel – is the mode or method, or means of
sending the message (any of the five senses, sound
and light waves, or digital audio or video signals)
1. Listener/receiver – gets the message in the medium
desired through chosen channel, and decodes the
message.
2. Feedback – is the receiver’s response, verbally or
nonverbally
3. Context – is the situation or environment in which
communication takes place (time, place, event,
sender’s and receiver’s feelings, perceptions, beliefs,
attitudes and relationships).
4. Noise or interference or distraction – is anything
that impedes or gets in the way of accurately
sending, receiving, and interpreting the message. It
can be internal or external.
Shannon and Weaver’s Communication Model
It uses eight components to show how the process of communication works in diverse disciplines:

1. Information source – creates and sends the message

2. Message – what the information source sends to the destination
3. Transmitter – has at least two layers of transmission for a face-to-
face communication (1st layer – mouth and body; 2nd layer –
channel)
4. Signal – it flows through a channel
5. Channel – air, light, radio waves, paper, postal system
6. Noise – secondary signal that obscures or confuses the signal carried
7. Receiver – eyes and/or ears
8. Destination – a person who consumes and processes the message

Interactive model by Weiner

A variant of Shannon and Weaver’s model that contains Weiner’s inclusion of feedback, which makes the model a two-way
interchange of ideas.

1. Destination – provides feedback to the message he receives

to allow the information source to modify the message in real
or present time
2. Feedback – a message or a set of messages
3. The original source of feedback becomes an information
source
4. The original consumer of feedback turns into a destination
5. Feedback is transmitted, received, and potentially disrupted
by noise
6. Feedback is delayed because the destination needs to wait until he receives the message from the information source

Schramm’s Communication Model

 It seeks to explain how meaning is transferred between individuals, corporations, and others.
 Most commonly taught and widely used theory of communication

1. The communication process is circular because each communicator takes on both roles of sender and receiver.
2. The sender encodes the a message, which is transmitted in the form of a signal to the receiver who decodes the message and
responds by encoding another signal even before the sender has completely sent the message.
3. Communication is therefore fluid since the sending and the receiving of messages are simultaneous
4. It contains fields of experience which is defined as“life
experiences, attitudes, values and beliefs that each
communicator brings to an interaction and that shape how
messages are sent and received” (McCornack, 2010, p.10
5. The overlap of the sender ‘s and receiver’s fields of experience is
the shared area.
6. Since the model is based on the convergence or network
approach, various kinds of noise can possibly distort the
message at any point in the process till it reaches the receiver.
7. The feedback helps solve the problem.
Intermediary/Gatekeeper Model
– Frequently used in Mass Communication Focuses on the role of
intermediaries or gatekeepers in the communication process, giving
communication a two-step flow (Katz, 1957).

1. Intermediaries are editors of books, magazines, newspapers, or any other kind of publication; moderators of internet
discussion groups; reviewers of peer-reviewed publications, or aggregators of clipping services.
2. Intermediaries can decide any or all of the following: (a) what messages they want others to see, (b) in which context they
want the messages to be seen, and (c) when they want the messages to be seen.
3. They have the ability to alter the messages or to prevent them from reaching a particular audience.
4. Intermediaries sometimes act as gatekeepers or censors.

Nature and Elements of Communication

Verbal Communication
– Encompasses any form of communication involving words, spoken, written or signed.
– The most important aspect of verbal communication is the language.
– The person’s language must be clearly understood.

NonVerbal communication
– Includes an extensive scope of concepts we transmit without the use of words or speech
1. Body movements (gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, posture, touch)
2. Sound of Voice (tone, pitch, rate, volume, emphasis, intonation)
3. Physical appearance and characteristics (clothing, hairstyle, height, weight, skin, color, gender, smell)

Positive Body Language

1. Maintaining eye contact with the person to whom you are communicating
2. Smiling (if appropriate) but especially as a greeting and when parting
3. Sitting squarely in chair, leaning slightly forward ▹ Nodding ing agreement
4. A firm handshake
5. Presenting a calm exterior

Negative Body Language

1. Not looking at the person with whom you are speaking 7. Picking at fingers or fingernails
2. Tapping a foot, fingers and the like 8. Yawning or stretching
3. Rocking backward and forward 9. Standing too close to others
4. Scratching 10. Repeatedly looking at your watch or a clock in the room
5. Continually clearing your throat 11. Inattention to the speaker
6. Fiddling with your hair, ear lobes, jewelry, etc

Five main functions of non-verbal communication

1. Reinforces or modifies what is said in words.
2. Conveys information about the emotional state of the speaker or listener and anyone else in the audience
3. Defines or reinforces the relationship between people, especially a speaker and his listener.
4. Provides feedback to the other person.
5. Regulates the flow of communication.

Tips for Improving Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Skills

1. Listen with your heart. Understand what the other person is telling you.
2. Watch people’s body language, facial expressions, and so on.
3. Say what you mean, and mean what you say.
Effective Communication skills
Skill 1: Becoming an engaged listener
 Concentrate on the speaker
 Avoid interrupting
 Set aside judgment or bias
 Show your interest in what is being said;
 Provide feedback.

Skill 2: Paying attention to nonverbal signals

In interpreting nonverbal language, you need to: In delivering nonverbal language, you need to:
 Be aware of both individual and cultural differences  Use nonverbal signals that match your words
 Consider the nonverbal signals as a group, not as single  Adjust your nonverbal signals to the context
cues.  Use body language to convey positive feeling

Skill 3: Keeping stress in check

 Give yourself time to think  Speak clearly and audibly
 Pause to collect your thoughts  Summarize your response and then stop talking.
 Make one point and provide an example or supporting
piece of information

Skill 4: Asserting yourself

– Express your thoughts, feelings, needs, and beliefs openly, honestly, and directly.
 Value yourself and your opinions  Accept compliments graciously
 Learn to express your needs and wants without violating  Learn to say “no,” and do not let others take advantage
the rights of others of you
 Express negative thoughts in a positive way, focusing on
what is and not on what is not

Intercultural Communication
 Intercultural Blunders
 Culture – is the total inherited ideas, beliefs, values and knowledge that constitute the shared bases of social action.
 Intercultural Communication – exchange of messages between and among people with diverse cultures
– Requires both knowledge and skills

Intercultural Communication Skills

1. Demonstrating your willingness to meet others at least 5. Not being afraid to apologize if you have offended
halfway by learning a few phrases in their language someone
2. Talking to people who know the culture about common 6. Using local television to learn about behavioral issues
traps and problems before travelling to another country and norms
3. Adapting your behavior, and not always expecting 7. Reflecting on your experience to help you put it in
others to adapt to you context
4. Checking your understanding and that of others while
you are conversing

Cultural Differences in Nonverbal Communication

Eye contact
1. People from Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean avoid eye contact to show respect
2. Most western people think that if people are afraid to look others in the eye, it means they are hiding something, or lying.
3. In Japan and Africa, prolonged eye contact is offensive and disrespectful
 Facial Expression
1. The only form of nonverbal communication that can be considered universal.
2. Matsumoto (2006) has cited six universal facial expressions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.
3. Smile is one of the most common facial expressions among different cultures
a) Americans smile freely at strangers
b) Asians smile not only to express joy and friendliness but also to convey pain and embarrassment
c) Russians consider smiling strange and even impolite

Gesture
1. Purposive movement of our fingers, hands, arms, head, 5. Head movement from left to right in the Middle East
shoulders, torso, legs or feet for nonverbal and in Bulgaria means “Yes”.
communication. 6. In some countries, the “OK” means “zero” and is not
2. The amount of gesturing varies from culture to culture. offensive.
3. In Middle East, nodding the head down indicates 7. Americans use their index finger to point; Germans use
agreement, and nodding it up is a sign of disagreement their little finger; the Japanese and Thais, their entire
4. In India, nodding the head means “No” while shaking it hand
means “Yes”

Touch
– is culturally determined.
1. Asians do more touching than Americans.
2. In some cultures, patting a child’s head is affectionate or friendly. While in most Asian countries, it’s inappropriate.

Posture
1. Slouching is rude in most of Northern Europe and even in some Asian countries.
2. Putting hands inside the pocket while standing is disrespectful in Turkey.
3. Sitting with legs crossed is offensive in Ghana.
4. In Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Saudi Arabia, showing the sole of the feet while sitting in formal gatherings is ofensive.

Time
1. In the US, time is gold. Time is monochromic (they do things one at a time).
2. In the East, time is endless and limitless. Time is polychromic (doing several tasks at the same time).
3. In Venezuela, being early or on time is being rude.

Physical Space
1. In the US, people generally stand “at arm’s length” Smell
(about 30 inches) from a person when having a 1. Arabs consider natural body odor as normal.
conversation 2. Asians bathe frequently, but Americans and Europeans
2. In China, people love to stand a little bit closer criticize this practice
3. Europeans are accustomed to smaller personal space.

To be an effective public communicator, take into consideration the cultural values and customs of your audience, and consider the
following:
1. Avoid ethnocentrism, the belief that your group or culture is superior to all other groups or cultures (Lucas, 2000).
2. Treat all cultures and cultural groups as your equal.
3. Do not prejudge anyone by his physical appearance

Function of communication

 Function – refers to the particular purpose for which a thing is used, something exists, or a person is fitted to meet his or her
somebody else’s needs or desires (Padilla, Dagdag, Roxas & Perez, 2016).
1. To provide information
 Communication provides data and information for effective completion of tasks, solution of problems, and elimination
of uncertainty.
 The three flows of information are:
a) Downward flow
b) Upward flow
c) Horizontal flow
 Through communication we get information on what is going on around us.
 The amount of information we share with another person or others varies depending on the degree of our closeness
to each other to one another.

2. Motivation
 is the energy that influences a person’s behavior in different ways in his pursuit of his goal or objective.
 Communication fosters communication.
 Communication helps us specific goals and gives us update or feedback on our progress, whether positive or
negative, toward the accomplishment of these goals.

3. Regulation or control
 To control or regulate is to exercise or restraint or direction formally or informally.
 Rules, regulations, policies, unspoken or unwritten rules.

4. Emotional expression
 Communication makes it possible to release or unload emotions, resulting in catharsis.

5. Social interaction
 Communication allows us to act and to react to the behavior of people around us. By revealing our thoughts and feelings,
we elicit reactions from others

Barriers of Communication

Reasons for communication breakdown

1. Perceptual and Language Differences
 Perception is generally how each individual interprets the 5. Emotions
world around him.  Emotional state at a particular time also affects
 Linguistic differences also lead to communication communication.
breakdown.
 Words may mean different to different individuals. 6. Complexity in Organizational Structure
 Greater the hierarchy in an organization, more are the
2. Information overload chances of communication getting destroyed.
 It is essential to control the formation flow to avoid
misinterpreting, forgetting or overlooking the information. 7. Poor retention
 Human memory cannot function beyond a limit.
3. Time pressure
 Sufficient time must be given for effective communication.

4. Distraction or Noise
 Poor lighting
 Uncomfortable sitting
 Unhygienic room
 Loud speakers
 Types of speech

Speech according to purpose

 INFORMATIVE SPEECH
 provides knowledge, especially interesting information
 aims to help audience understand the topic to make an educated choice or decision
 discusses topics such as a person, a place, or an event
 needs to have descriptions and definitions, as well as adequate visual aids
 includes reports, lectures, and demonstrations

1. Informative Speaking
 Convey fresh information
 Make material interesting
 Help listeners remember important points

2. Definition Speech
 To define for my listeners the spoils system in American politics
 To define for my audience the meaning of the term ecotourism

3. Description Speech
 To describe to my listeners the inside of a beehive

4. Process Speech
a) First type – To teach my listeners how to remove a stain from clothing
b) Second type – To explain to my listeners how surgeons perform bloodless operations with laser beams
Guidelines:
 Use visual aids
 Involve the audience in physical activity whenever possible
 Proceed slowly
 Give warning of difficult steps

5. Explanation speech
 To explain to the audience why some people keep dangerous exotic pets
Guidelines:
 Relate the speech to the listener’s self-interest  Tailor information for each audience
 Make information interesting  Use the familiar to explain the familiar
 Avoid information overload  Help listeners remember key information

 PERSUASIVE SPEECH
 aims to convince the audience to change their views or beliefs
 includes debates, legal proceedings, and sales talks

Three modes of Persuasion

1. pathos – emotional appeal of sorrow, pity, or compassion
2. ethos – credibility of speaker as a good person who knows what he is talking about
3. logos – logical appeal; speaker’s argument makes sense

1. Entertaining Speech
 Anecdotes and stories
 Descriptions
 Use lowkey humor
 Telling Jokes is risky
 Use self-deprecating humor
 SPEECH ACCORDING TO DELIVERY
 Impromptu Speech
 given when you are asked to speak on the spot, and you do not know ahead of time what you will be speaking before a
group
 Do away with many concerns by doing the following suggestions:
 predict when you may be called upon to speak.
 keep up with the developments in your field.
 have a few good stories and remarks ready

Practical Tips for Impromptu Speech Delivery

1. Content 2. Organization
• present a definite point of view 3. Delivery
• support your point with reason and logic  speak in confidence and wit enthusiasm; appear
• present at least some specific data confident and relaxed; appear to enjoy speaking
• link you speech to what previous speakers have said  maintain eye contact with your audience
 never apologize  stop at the end of an idea; avoid fillers such as ah,
 do not express surprise so, ya know, well, okay
 do not ramble about the subject  maintain good posture
 do not get off the subject

 Extemporaneous Speech
 gives the speaker an opportunity to prepare
 deliver by occasionally referring to an outline or brief notes
 do not write the whole speech or memorize it

Prepare for Extemporaneous Speech Delivery

1. establish a purpose
2. gather data
3. organize the data
4. practice

 Manuscript Speech
 presented when an exact wording is required
 presenting policies, contracts, and scientific reports
 written out word for word and is delivered by reading the manuscript to the audience

Prepare for Manuscript Speech Delivery

1. establish a purpose
2. gather data
3. organize the data
4. write full script
5. practice

 Memorized Speech
 requires the use of exact wording but reading from a manuscript is inappropriate
 commits the speech to memory

Prepare for Memorized Speech

1. establish a purpose 4. write full script
2. gather data 5. memorize
3. organize the data 6. Practice
 Listening Skills

 Listening – is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication process.
– Being aware of verbal and non-verbal messages.
– Psychological process that involves interpreting and giving meaning to what we often hear
– is considered a highly complex and interactive process by which aural language is translated to meaningful
utterances in mind.
 Hearing – Merely receiving the sounds
– Physiological process that involves receiving of vibrations through the delicate structures within the ears.

 You can only be an effective speaker if you are an active listener.

 Listening is considered a highly complex and interactive process by which aural language is translated to meaningful utterances in mind

Ten Principles of Listening

1. Stop Talking 6. Be patient
2. Prepare yourself to listen 7. Avoid personal prejudice
3. Put the speaker at ease 8. Listen to the tone
4. Remove distractions 9. Listen for ideas, not just words
5. Empathize 10. Wait and watch for nonverbal communication

The Listening Process

1. Receiving – Recognition of sight words and printed codes
2. Perceiving – Conscious effort to focus his attention to the message by selecting, organizing, and analyzing meaning
3. Interpreting – Making sense of the meaning
4. Responding – giving feedback

Types of listening
1. Informative Listening – Occurs when the listener is primarily concerned with understanding the message
2. Emphatic Listening – Involves being able to blend into the world of the speaker by seeing, hearing, and feeling what the other is
experiencing.
3. Appreciative Listening – Includes listening to music for enjoyment and pleasure, appreciating the style and skills of a speaker, or making
choices of things that give entertainment, such as TV shows, etc.
4. Critical Listening – Relates to the ability of a person to both interpret and evaluate the message
5. Discriminative Listening – Most basic form of listening, which is developed at a very early age.
– Relies not on what the speaker says but on how the speaker says it in terms of his rate, volume, and other nonverbal cues

Roadblocks to effective listening

1. Restlessness, clumsiness, or awkwardness in body movement
2. Excessive body movements and poor coordination
3. Daydreaming, distracted thinking
4. Poor mental organization skills
5. Instructions are often repeated
6. Lack of interest, avoidance, refusa
 The body of the speech

Creating the body Devising Main points

Body → introduction → conclusion  Limit the number of main points
 2 or 3 (occasionally 4)
 Start with the specific Purpose  Restrict each main point to a single idea
 Devise the central idea  1 point → 1 idea
 Select main points  Customize points for each audience
 Choose support materials
 Statistics, example, testimony, narrative

Organizing Main Points

 Chronological pattern
 Avoid announcements
 Spatial pattern
 Cause-effect pattern
 Cause → effect ; effect → cause
 Problem-solution pattern
 Topical pattern
 (EXAMPLE)
King and queen have:
 Absolute power
 Limited power
 No real power
 A variation: Statement-of-reasons pattern

Supplying Transitions
 Bridges
 Internal summaries
 Brief review of material covered in part of a speech
 Signposts
 Spotlights

Introductions and Conclusions

Introductions: Gain Attention & Interest

 Relate a story  Make a provocative statement
 Real-life  Cite a quotation
 Hypothetical  Arouse curiosity
 Ask a question  Provide a visual aid or demonstration
 Rhetorical  Give an incentive to listen
 Overt-response

Introductions: Orient the Audience Introductions: Guidelines

 Give background information  Don’t prepare the introduction first
 Establish your credibility  Don’t be too brief
 Preview the body of the speech  Have an obvious tie-in
 Never apologize
Conclusions
 Signal the End  Guidelines
1. Verbal  Don’t drag out the ending
2. Nonverbal  Don’t end weakly
 Summarize Key Ideas  Don’t end apologetically
 Reinforce the Central Idea with a Clincher  Never bring in new main points
 Issue an appeal or challenge
 Give an illustration
 Refer to the introduction (Use an “Icebreaker” to Start Off a Community Speech)

Outlining the Speech

Outlining
 An aid for organizing
 Why not write a word-for-word script and use it to deliver a speech?
 Advantages of an outline
 An outline helps you see structure and the relationship of ideas
 An outline is streamlined
 Follow three steps
1. Create an outline
2. Prepare speaking notes
3. Deliver the speech
 Why not use an outline while speaking?
 How is outline different from actual speech?

Guidelines

Parts of the Outline

1. Title
2. Purposes and Central Idea
3. Introduction and conclusion
4. Body
5. Transitions
6. Bibliography
7. Visual Aid
 Speaking notes Controlling your material
Option 1: Use note cards 1. Revise outline and notes whenever they need alterations
2. Test the outline
Option 2: Use a full sheet of paper
3. Revise for continuity
Option 3: Use visual aids as prompts 4. Make deletions if you are in danger of exceeding time limit

(When No Time Limit is Set, Speak Briefly) (Decide How You Will Reveal Your Sources)

Principles of Speech Writing

and Speech Delivery

Principles of Speech Writing

I. Choosing the Subject and Topic
II. Analyzing the Audience
III. Sourcing the Information
IV. Outlining and Organizing the Speech Content

Choosing the Subject and Topic Analyzing the Audience

 Subject is broad area of knowledge (psychology, baseball, etc.)  Age
 Topic is some specific aspect of the subject.  Gender
 To brainstorm topics, bear in mind these principles:  Education
 Personal Inventory  Religion
 Clustering  Culture
 Internet Search  geographic uniqueness
 group affiliation/membership

Sourcing the information Outlining and organizing the speech

 Internet, Library, Interview content
 To support your ideas in your speech, you may choose from  Write the thesis statement
the following:  Write the main points as complete sentences
 Examples  Determine the best order for your speech
 Statistics  Time/Chronological Order
 Testimony/Expert opinion  Spatial Order
 Anecdote and narratives  Causal Order
 Comparisons  Problem-Solution Order
 Quotations  Logical Order
 Definitions
 Audiovisual Aids

Principles of Speech Delivery

 Delivery refers to the actual presentation of the speech.
 It consists of vocal and physical elements

Vocal Delivery  Rate (number of words an Visual Delivery

 Volume (intensity, loudness, individual utter in one  is the nonverbal aspect of
softness of the voice) minute) communication.
 Articulation ( clarity and  Pronunciation (combination
enunciation of the words, of vowels, consonants,  Eye contact
phrases, sentences) syllables and accent used to  Appearance
 Pitch (highness or lowness of emphasize a specific word)  Gestures
sounds)  Pause (breaks or  Facial Expressions
 Quality (sound or timbre of interruptions)  Body position and movement
the voice eg. Hoarse, nasal,  Emphasis and Phrasing
melodious)
 Communicative Competence Strategies
in Various Speech Situations

Intrapersonal
 This refers to communication that centers in one person
where the speaker acts both as the sender and the
receiver of message.
 Takes place within a single person, often for the purpose
of clarifying ideas or analyzing a situation.
 Other times, intrapersonal communication is
undertaken in order to reflect upon or appreciate
something.
Interpersonal
 This refers to communication between and among
people and establishes personal relationship between
and among them.
 Because of interpersonal communication’s immediacy
(it is taking place now) and primacy (it is taking place
here), it is characterized by a strong feedback
component.

Interpersonal can be categorized by the number of participants:

1. Dyadic communication – involves two people.
2. Small Group communication – involves three or more persons
– Often done for the purpose of problem solving or decision making.
3. Public communication – involves a large group with a primarily one-way monologue style generating only minimal feedback.
– Information sharing, entertainment and persuasion are common purposes of public communication

Type of Speech Style

1. Intimate
 Highly private.
 Intimacy is the level of closeness or belongingness we have with a special person in our life.
 It is a style among intimate members of a family or friends that do not need a complete language with clear articulation.
 Enough to use short utterances.

2. Casual
 Sometimes refer to “group” language because the language used is very familiar with those involved.
 With fillers like “ahh”, “ahem”, “super”, and “like.
 With natural rhythm of language
 Sometimes we interrupt the speaker to clarify his message.

3. Consultative
 Often follows the norms of communication.
 Both the sender and the receiver are engaged in a structure they both agree.
 There is an active participation and involvement of the participants
 There is societal expectation. A high respect is given to the one giving the advice.

4. Formal
 The language usually follows an accepted format.
 Objective and formal
 Speeches, pronouncements, homilies, official meetings

5. Frozen
 This level of communication uses language that barely and at no time changes.
 Used in very a respectful occasion or formal ceremony
 Also called oratorical style which is characterized by the very careful, has fixed form, and has symbolic or historical nature.
 Liturgical prayers (“Our Father”), the Preamble, Pledge of Allegiance, constitutions.
Young (2012 illustrates the five levels of communnication using the following chart::
Register Definition Explanation
Frozen Language that never changes Wedding vows, Miranda rights
Formal Standard English Speeches, school lessons
Consultative Less formal standard English News casting, employee to employer
Loose sentence structure, vernacular
Casual Language between friends
speeches
Intimate Language between lovers or other close family and friends Pet names, inside jokes

Speech Act

 A speech act is a spoken word, phrase, or sentence that performs a function of a language.
 It is an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve an intended effect
 Actions performed via utterances

Types of Speech Acts according to Austin

1. Locutionary Act (utterance)

 Is the actual act of uttering.
 Requires not only knowledge of the meaning of the words but also the appropriate context given the culture in which they
are spoken.
 It can be used for:
a) Greeting d) Refusal g) Compliment
b) Invitation e) Promise
c) Request f) Apology

2. Illocutionary Act (intention)

 It is the social function of what is said.
 Categories:
a) Assertive – the speaker commits to belief in a certain premise
b) Directive – meant for the hearer to take a specific action such as orders, requests, and advice)
c) Commissive – Speaker commits to a future action such as promises and oaths.
d) Expressive – Conveys the speaker attitudes and emotions towards someone or something such as
congratulations, thanks, and complaints.
e) Declarative – Performs an official function by their declaration such as pronouncing someone husband
and wife, pronouncing someone not guilty.
– Brings a change in external situation.

3. PERLOCUTIONARY ACT (Response)

 It is the resulting act of what is said. This effect is based on the particular context in which the speech act was mentioned.
 It is the psychological impact of a given speech act
 It can include persuading, convincing, scaring, enlightening, or inspiring.

Types of Communicative Strategies

 Cohen (1990) states that strategies must be used to start and maintain a conversation.
 The following are some strategies that people use when communicating.
 1. Nomination – You try to open a topic with the people you are talking to
2. Restriction – Refers to any limitation you may have as a speaker
3. Turn-taking – A process by which people who takes conversational floor.
– The primary idea is to give all communicators a chance to speak
– “What do you think?”
4. Topic Control – Covers how procedural formality or informality affects the development of topic in conversations
– is achieved cooperatively.
– For example, meetings vs casual conversation
5. Topic Shifting – Moving from one topic to another
– Use transitional devices such as “by the way”, “in addition to”
6. Repair – How speakers address the problems in speaking, listening, and comprehending that they may
encounter in a conversation.
– Self-righting mechanism in any social interaction
7. Termination – Conversation participants’ close-initiating expressions that end a topic in a conversation.

Interview Tips

 Know your interest and value.  Let your body language speak well of you

 What do you value in life? – eye contact; smile at everyone

 Know your likes and dislikes  Stop, listen and respond

 Know your resume – Let your interviewer speak without interruption;

– tool to get you in the door; add more examples Listen carefully to each question; Avoid short
and study in advance answers; Brief and heartfelt answers; Avoid
 Use a strong voice, and commit to your answers negative talk
– energetic, serious and how prepared you are

15 things you should not do at an interview

1. Not doing your research
(You might have the skills to do the job but do you know the
how the company operates? Check the ‘About Us’ link on the
company website and read their mission statement. Find out
who the competition and major players in the market are.)
2. Turning up late
(Unless you have a very good excuse and ring ahead to
rearrange, turning up late for an appointment will not endear
you to any employer.)
3. Dressing inappropriately
(While smart casual might be the current trend, professional
attire is still proper business etiquette for interviews. It’s all
about first impressions)
4. Fidgeting with unnecessary props
(This can include mobile phones, nail files and chewing gum.
They all have one thing in common — they don’t belong at the
interview table.)
5. Poor body language
(Eye contact, good posture, a cheerful demeanour and a firm
handshake will get you a long way in an interview.)
6. Unclear answering and rambling
(Take time to think before you answer questions and avoid
bumbling to an uncomfortable halt; it doesn’t inspire
confidence. Also, don’t mumble; the interviewer doesn’t want
to have to ask you to repeat an answer or have to strain to
hear every word you’re saying)
7. Speaking negatively about your current employer
(Never complain about your current employer no matter how
despotic or ineffectual they are. Badmouthing won’t reflect
well on you.)
8. Not asking questions
(Employers want to see you’re interested enough to hear
more about the post or company and will look kindly on any
well placed questions.)
9. Lying on your CV
(Anything written on your CV could be discussed at an
interview and a fabrication about your work or education
record could damage your reputation in the long run.)
10. Getting personal or too familiar
(Avoid giving sob stories about how much you need the job
due to the mountain of debt you’ve accrued. Also, don’t
behave in a conceited or over familiar and flirty manner; it’s
not a good look no matter how much you fancy your chances.)
12. Sitting down before invited
(It’s common courtesy to wait until you’re shown a seat to sit
down. Also, avoid slouching or putting your feet anywhere but
firmly on the ground.)
13. Discussing money or time off
(Unless an offer is put on the table it’s not recommended that
you discuss money or future working and holiday
arrangements.)
14. Cursing
(Using foul and inappropriate language is generally not
acceptable at any time in the workplace, so at an interview it
won’t win you any accolades.)
15. Not following up
(You might not think you’ve performed well in an interview
but a simple email reiterating your interest is a courtesy that
might just pay off in the long run.)

11. Not bringing along additional CVs

(If you’re unsure how many people will be interviewing you,
bring along surplus copies of your CV to hand out. It will show
that you’re highly prepared.)

Most common reasons why people are not hired

1. Bad personal appearance 8. Not willing to start at the 14. Late arrival for interview
2. Too aggressive bottom 15. Did not show appreciation for
3. Unable to express self clearly 9. Discourteous interviewer’s time
4. Poor interest and enthusiasm 10. Immature 16. Asked no questions about the
5. No career planning, no goals 11. Speaks ill of former employers company
6. Overly nervous, under confident 12. Cannot make eye contact with 17. Could not give direct answers
7. Too much emphasis on money interviewer when questioned
13. Messy application form

Common nonverbal mistakes made at a job interview

1. Playing with hair or touching face (21%)
2. Having little or no knowledge of the company is the most common mistake job seekers make during interviews (47%)
3. Failure to make eye contact (67%)
4. Lack of smile (38%)
5. Bad posture (33%)
6. Crossing arms over their chest (21%)
7. Using too many hand gestures (9%)
8. Hand shake that is too weak (26%)
9. Fidgeting too much (33%)

Statistics show that when meeting Clothes:

new people the impact is: 1. Bright colores are a turn off
1. From what they actually say (7%) 2. Employers claiming they don’t want applicants to be
2. The quality of our voice grammar and overall confidence fashionable or trendy (70%)
(38%) 3. Of bosses said clothes could be the deciding factor
3. The way we dress, act and walk through the door (55%) between two similar candidates (65%)