ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 820–834

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrmms

Numerical investigations of ore pass hang-up phenomena

J Hadjigeorgiou, J.F. Lessard
Department of Mining, Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada G1K 7P4
Accepted 1 December 2006
Available online 21 February 2007

Abstract

Material flow in ore pass systems is critical to the economic performance of mining operations. The design of ore passes, however, does
not seem to receive the same engineering attention as other mining infrastructure. Quite often, it is only when ore pass systems fail to
perform, and material flow is disrupted, that ore pass design and operation come under scrutiny. A survey of ore pass design and
performance in 10 Quebec underground mines has shown that, while cohesive arching is also observed, interlocking hang-ups of coarse
material are by far the most frequently observed phenomena in the surveyed mines. This paper summarizes work undertaken using the
distinct element method to conduct a series of numerical experiments in order to investigate the influence of ore pass geometry, rock
fragments shape and size distribution on material flow in an ore pass. The employed modelling methodology contributes to a better
understanding of interlocking and provides a series of guidelines to help limit the occurrence of interlocking hang-ups in an ore pass.
Better flow is achieved when using vertical ore passes with square cross sections. Particle shape is an important element as demonstrated
by using spherical as well as cubical particles. It is recognised that cubical particles provide more realistic results.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Ore pass; Hang-ups; Interlocking arching; Fragment flow; Modelling; Particle flow code

1. Introduction information is not necessarily applicable to ore pass

The profitability of a mining operation is strongly
influenced by the performance of its material handling
system. In underground mines, ore and waste pass systems
provide a low cost method for the gravitational transport
of material through long vertical distances. Ore pass
related problems can result in the disruption of ore
production with important economic consequences. These
problems have been reviewed by Lessard and Hadjigeor-
giou [1], Hagan and Acheampong [2], Stacey and Swart [3],
Emmerich [4] and Ferguson [5]. The interruption of
material flow either in the ore pass or in the discharge
(chute) zone is a recurring problem. Empirical evidence
suggests that gravity flow of fragmented rock is influenced
by the material properties and configuration of the ore
pass. Available design recommendations, to ensure materi-
al flow in an ore pass are often based on limited laboratory
investigations using small-scale models. There is compar-
ably more information on silos than in ore passes. This
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 418 656 2554; fax: +1 418 656 5343.
E-mail address: john.hadjigeorgiou@gmn.ulaval.ca (J. Hadjigeorgiou).
flow. This is due to fundamental differences in the type
of material, relative size, and inclination. Furthermore, it
should be noted that silos have as a primary use the storage
of material while an ore pass has as primary aim the
transfer of material from one mine level to another.
This paper presents a series of numerical experiments,
using the distinct element method (DEM) (particle flow
code [PFC]) to simulate the interlocking hang up phenom-
enon in ore passes. In particular, the relation between
maximum fragment size and ore pass dimension is explored
for circular and square ore pass systems.
2. Ore pass hang ups
Ore pass system performance can be addressed by
identifying three distinct stages of flow, stage 1 (into the
ore pass), stage 2 (in the ore pass) and stage 3 (out of the
ore pass) Fig. 1. If an ore pass is considered a linear system,
failure at any one stage of the operation will lead to poor or
unacceptable performance.

1365-1609/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijrmms.2006.12.006
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Hadjigeorgiou, J.F. Lessard / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 820–834
Fig. 1. Schematic of an ore pass: tip, section, discharge zones.
After extraction, the ore is transported from the
production stopes to the tipping point of the ore pass.
During this stage, fragment size is often controlled by some
means of screening infrastructure such as scalpers or
grizzlies that are installed at the tipping point. In the
absence of such infrastructure it is necessary to implement
and enforce proper operational procedures to prevent
oversize boulders from being tipped into the ore pass. The
second stage in material transfer involves material flow as it
moves through the ore pass. This is the focus of the current
work. Finally, during the third stage, material is discharged
from the ore pass using through a chute.
A ‘‘hang-up’’ is defined as the impediment of flow in the
filling or in the transit zone of an ore pass while a
‘‘blockage’’ is localised in the discharge zone. This
distinction between hang-up and blockage is important.
The discharge zone of an ore pass usually leads into some
type of flow control infrastructure such as control chains or
chutes. This is often an area of smaller dimensions than the
ore pass and is also characterized by modified geometry
and change in the direction of flow. The majority of flow
problems are in the vicinity of the chute area. Blockages,
the result of flow disruption near the chute area, are often
due to blocks wedged at the restriction caused by the chute
821
throat. Another potential source of blockage is the
accumulation of fine or ‘‘sticky’’ material in or near
the chute, on the ore pass floor. This further reduces the
effective cross sectional area and can result in more
blockages. In operating mines hang-ups are more difficult
to clear than blockages as access is much more difficult
than at the chutes.
Interlocking arches are more likely to form in fragmen-
ted rock of coarse size distribution, Hambley et al. [6],
Fig. 2(a). Cohesive arching, Fig. 2(b), requires that
the material has an important proportion of fines. In the
presence of good blasting practices it is unlikely that the
material transferred through an ore pass would be entirely
made up of fines. In an ore pass context, fines are defined as
material less than 0.07 mm in size. Arguably, the percen-
tage of fines in the overall material distribution influences
the frequency of potential hang-ups or blockages caused by
cohesive arching. Kvapil [7] suggests that the critical
threshold is 410% fines while Beus et al. [8] report that
20% may be more appropriate. Jenike [9], on the other
hand, argues that fines be defined as o0.25 mm as opposed
to o0.07 mm commonly accepted. Under Jenike’s [9]
approach a material is deemed susceptible to cohesive
arching if fines constitute 410% of the total material.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
822 J. Hadjigeorgiou, J.F. Lessard / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 820–834

a b

Fig. 2. Hang-ups in an ore pass due to: (a) interlocking, (b) cohesive arching.

Lessard and Hadjigeorgiou [1] report that cohesive hang-

ups in Quebec mines are associated with mining zinc rich
stopes and in mines where ore dilution due to cemented
paste fill is high. Most flow disruption incidents occur in
the immediate vicinity of the chutes and are relatively easy
to clear. Hang-ups, however, are much more difficult and
hazardous to dislodge, especially when they are located
high above the chute. Eight out of the 10 surveyed mines
experienced interlocking hang-up problems.

3. Dimensioning ore pass cross sections

Material flow is facilitated if the ore pass cross section is

greater than the maximum size of rock fragment transiting
through the ore pass. Furthermore, the costs of developing
an ore pass escalate with size and the use of liners. The
engineering objective is to ensure that material flows freely
in an ore pass while keeping development costs low. This
has prompted the development of a series of guidelines
to ensure flow and limit the frequency of interlocking
hang-ups.
Fig. 3. Screening technique at the dump points: (a) grizzly, (b) scalper, (c)
3.1. Defining ore pass dimension and rock fragment size
mantles, (d) no screening

Determining the size of the largest rock fragment (d) that

can be tipped into an ore pass is straight-forward if a
grizzly is installed at the tipping point, Fig. 3(a). If,
however, a scalper is used (Fig. 3(b)) this is open to
interpretation. Given the rectangular opening of a scalper,
the maximum rock fragment size (d) can be either the
spacing between the bars or the longer side of the opening.
Interviews with underground supervisory personnel indi-
cate that ‘‘insistent’’ miners can rotate huge slabs of rock to
pass in order to pass through a scalper. If a mine uses a
mantle as in Fig. 3(c), its diameter provides a good estimate
of the maximum fragment size that can be dumped into an
ore pass.
Fig. 3(d) indicates an ore pass without any flow control
infrastructure. Under these circumstances it is difficult to
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Hadjigeorgiou, J.F. Lessard / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 820–834 823

define the maximum rock fragment size with any degree of the ore pass dimension could be anywhere between 1.5 and
certainty. The only alternative is to rely on visual 5 m to ensure free flow. For a square ore pass, this results in
assessments whereby a miner provides a ‘‘ball-park’’ visual design cross sectional areas that range between 2.25 and
estimate of the biggest fragment he manipulates during a 25 m2. This simple example highlights the economic
shift. Another rule of thumb is to record a maximum rock consequences that result from selecting a particular ore
size as a fraction of the scoop bucket size. These methods pass configuration based on Fig. 5.
are quite subjective and not reliable. Finally, maximum A slightly different approach has been proposed by
fragment size can be determined by using image analysis Jenike [9] who uses the intermediate dimension of the
from a series of pictures of fragmented material. Again largest particles as d since slab-shaped rock fragments tend
these data should be used with caution as fragment size to orient their long axis parallel to the ore pass. Under
may vary from blast to blast. these conditions Jenike [9] suggests that a D/d ratio42
facilitates free flow of material.
3.2. Selecting ore pass dimension as a function of rock
fragment size 4. Numerical modelling of material transport in ore pass
systems
A list of guidelines linking ore pass dimension or
diameter (D), and largest rock block size (d) to ensure free A strong case for the use of numerical modelling, and in
flow in an ore pass is presented in Fig. 4. With the particular distinct element models for investigating materi-
exception of Peele [10] and Joughin and Stacey [11] the al transport in an ore pass has been made by Iverson et al.
guidelines in Fig. 4 can be traced to small-scale laboratory [12] and Nazeri et al [13].
models that often rely on equivalent material using a The authors also illustrated that the PFC could
uniform size distribution of fragments. reproduce the results of simple physical models of material
Given the safety and operational problems associated flow. In particular, the authors used a 3D PFC model to
with restoring material flow, it is good practice to design an reproduce some of the experiments by Aytaman [14],
ore pass so as to ensure free flow. Existing guidelines allow whereby he allowed gravel fragments ranging from 1.88
for a large variation in the definition of the free flow (0.74200 ) to 1.33 cm (0.52500 ) to drop down a vertical 1.22 m
threshold as a function of (D/d). For example, if the largest (4800 ) long steel pipe of internal dimension of 5.08 cm (200 ).
rock fragment in the ore pass is expected to be 0.5 m then This configuration resulted in a D/d ratio of 2.78.

5
FREE FLOW
Kvapil
Minimum ore pass dimension (m)

4 Hambley et al.
Aytaman
Goodwil et al.
3

Peele
2

NO FLOW

Joughin & Stacey

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Largest rock size (m)

Reference: Freeflow
Peele [11] (D/d) > 3
Aytaman [12] (D/d) > 4.21
Kvapil [7] (D/d) > 4.74
Hambley et al. [6] (D/d) > 5
Goodwill et al. [13] (D/d) > 10
Joughin & Stacey [14] (D/d) > 6

Fig. 4. Guidelines to ensure free flow in an ore pass by selecting appropriate ore pass dimension (D) and largest rock block size (d).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
824 J. Hadjigeorgiou, J.F. Lessard / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 820–834
d
d be defined so as not to break apart.
Fig. 5. Rock fragment shapes used in the numerical models.
The laboratory tests and PFC simulations both indicated
that this configuration results in probable flow. Further-
more, in the physical model tests, no hang-ups were
observed at the bottom 12.70 cm (500 ) of the pipe. Similarly,
in the PFC model no interruption of flow was observed at
the bottom 11.43 cm (4.500 ) of the pipe. These preliminary
investigations by the authors, as well as the work of others
[12,13] illustrate the potential of the PFC code to perform
numerical experiments of flow in ore passes.
Problems related to the flow of granular material exhibit
large-scale discontinuous dynamic behaviour that is not
well represented by conventional continuum-based ap-
proach such as the finite element methods. The DEM is
better suited for simulating the behaviour of discrete bodies
interacting together since it can explicitly model the
dynamic motion and mechanical interaction of each
discrete particle in a simulation.
4.1. The distinct element method
The PFC, available from Itasca, employs the DEM
presented by Cundall and Strack [15] to simulate the
mechanical behaviour of arbitrarily sized circular or
spherical particles bonded together at their contact points.
The fundamental particle is a disc or sphere, but complex
shapes can be produced by bonding particles together.
The DEM is a conceptual departure from finite element,
finite difference or boundary element codes as it uses a
time-stepping explicit method of calculation, instead of the
implicit calculation methodology associated with finite
element, boundary methods, etc. In the PFC, the full
dynamic equations of motion are solved at each time-step.
This explicit scheme offers a major advantage when
modelling systems that exhibit physical instability as they
may be modelled with more robustness. A synthetic
material is created from an assembly of discs (in 2D) or
spheres (in 3D). By defining load–displacement and
strength characteristics at the contacts between the
particles, a simulated material is created that displays
many of the characteristics of granular material. A
synthetic PFC material is, therefore, assembled from a
collection of randomly sized and positioned discs. In the
case of unbonded particles, contacts are formed where the
discs touch and each contact is assigned shear and normal
stiffness and a friction coefficient. The discs or spheres have
mass, but are rigid; therefore, all deformation occurs at
contacts. Bond strengths can be applied at each contact in
order to recreate a solid material composed of individual
spheres ‘‘glued’’ to each other. Particle bonds are allowed
to break, if the forces acting on them exceed their resistance
level. In order to optimise computing time, bonds can also
4.2. Validation and calibration of a DEM model
For granular material, a comparison of the numerical
results with a closed form solution, as is possible with most
continuum models, is not obvious with the DEM. There-
fore, validating the use of DEM is not as straightforward
as it would be with other continuum models. In this work,
validation of the DEM was limited to comparing the
response of the model with the phenomenon being
modelled. In other work, McNearny and Barker [16] have
validated the use of the DEM to model block caving by
comparing results from numerical modelling to those
offered by physical models.
Specification of material properties and solution condi-
tions in PFC are not straightforward. For granular
materials, a compacted state cannot be obtained by pre-
specification. Instead a process of physical compaction,
analogous to what is being modelled must be recreated.
Furthermore, global material properties on the macro-
scopic scale cannot be set directly using DEM. As a result,
calibration requires that the properties for the individual
contacts between particles must be determined and
specified in order for the system to ‘‘mimic’’ the macro-
scopic scale.
Calibration of the micro-properties of DEM models in
order to model the macroscopic response of rock samples
has been presented by Potyondy and Cundall [17] and
Autio et al. [18] amongst others. The usual procedure
implies that simulations of laboratory tests are being
performed on the assembly of bonded particles, to calibrate
the properties of the contacts so that the entire assembly
replicates laboratory defined strength and stress–strain
characteristics of the material being modelled.
Lorig et al. [19] have presented the calibration of micro-
properties in the PFC, in order to simulate the behaviour of
a fractured rock mass under caving. They relied on
adjusting the micro-properties of the particles in simulated
biaxial tests to reproduce the angle of friction of the
granular material. In order to assess the stability of
undercut cemented rockfill, Pierce et al. [20] have used a
calibrating procedure that involved assessing the micro-
properties in order to permit the simulation of the
macroscopic behaviour of rockfill.
4.3. Mechanical properties of blasted rock fragments
An important factor in the development of interlocking
arch hang-ups is the friction angle of the material. The
mechanical properties of blasted rock fragments have been
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Hadjigeorgiou, J.F. Lessard / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 820–834 825

difficult to define with any degree of certainty. The authors Table 2

have relied on an engineering methodology proposed by Range of peak friction angle of the broken ore from field data
Barton and Kjaernsli [21] where the peak friction angle is Mine Peak friction angle
defined as a function of particle size, uniaxial compressive
strength, origin and the roundness of the rock fragments, Bousquet 40.41–43.01
porosity after compaction and basic friction angle. The Niobec 41.51–44.61
Laronde 42.81–45.91
peak friction angle is then obtained by the following
Kiena 42.11–45.51
relation: Doyon 38.91–41.51
  Mouska 40.81–43.71
0 S
F ¼ R log þ fb , (1) Langlois 43.31–46.41
sn Bouchard-Hébert 40.61–43.31
where R is the equivalent roughness, S the equivalent
strength, fb the base friction angle and sn the normal
stress. ranging from 40 to 120 kPa, that are within the range of
Barton and Kjaernsli [21] have proposed both a testing normal stresses expected at the bottom of an ore pass.
procedure and a series of monographs to evaluate the Depending of the normal stress state, it can be seen that,
equivalent strength and equivalent roughness that can be friction angles range from 391 to 461.
used to determine the peak friction angle. Based on data
collected from a series of mines it was possible to determine 4.4. Rock fragment flow in ore pass systems
typical friction angles for fragmented material. The d50 was
evaluated with the image analysis from pictures of broken The specified micro-properties for individual contacts
ore in the draw points. Results of the size distribution between particles influence how a numerical model reflects
evaluated are presented in Table 1. Fragmented ore the macroscopic behaviour of granular materials. In this
material porosity was determined, based on an indirect work the synthetic material was made of spherical and
method, proposed by Winterkorn and Fang [22]: cubical fragments, Fig. 5. As the basic particle shape
  in PFC3D is a sphere, angular shapes such as the cube in
Dmax
nð%Þ ¼ 38:5  8 log10 Fig. 5 were constructed by grouping a series of spheres
d min
together. Although it is possible to construct more complex
ðfor gravel and rounded sandsÞ, ð2Þ forms, this significantly increases computer run time.
  Several preliminary simulations were undertaken to
Dmax adjust material micro-properties so that they reflect the
nð%Þ ¼ 47:5  8 log10 ðfor crushed rockÞ, (3)
d min friction angle of fragmented ore. A series of triaxial tests
where Dmax is the maximum particle size, dmin the were simulated to evaluate the friction angle of the
minimum particle size. synthetic material. A 2D representation of the triaxial test
Minimum and maximum particle sizes were taken, configuration is illustrated in Fig. 6. The chosen sample
respectively, as d10 and d90 of the size distribution evaluated width was 2.5 m, in order to be representative of the size of
from image analysis, Table 1. The compressive strength a typical ore pass cross section. The height was fixed as 5 m
was evaluated from compressive strength tests on intact so as to keep a height/length ratio of 2. The material
rock samples from the mine sites. Evaluations for the properties are summarised in Table 3.
porosity and compressive strength are presented in Table 1. A typical density for massive sulphide, 3600 kg/m3, was
A range of friction angles, using a basic friction angle of used for each particle. The chosen porosity reflects what
251, obtained from tilt tests on sawed core of ore were was observed from the field data, Table 1. It should be
determined using Eq. (1). The resulting peak angle of noted that a size threshold had to be fixed for the smaller
friction, shown in Table 2, is based on normal stresses particles, in order to keep the numerical simulations within
reasonable computing time. The largest particle size
was chosen to reflect the average d90 from the field data
Table 1 in Table 1. Material micro-properties retained as final
Size distribution, porosity and compressive strength from field data
input to the numerical code are presented in Table 4.
Mine d10 (cm) d50 (cm) d90 (cm) n (%) sc (MPa) Typical stress–strain curves obtained from the triaxial tests
are shown in Figs. 7 and 8 for spherical and cubical
Bousquet 0.9 8.0 30.0 35.3 282
particles. The friction angle of the material was found to be
Niobec 1.5 12.0 50.0 35.3 163
Laronde 0.5 7.3 40.0 32.3 241 around 261 for material composed from spheres and 441 for
Kiena 0.2 6.0 50.0 28.3 125 cube-shaped materials. The friction angle for spherical
Doyon 1.0 4.0 10.0 39.5 138 material is considerably lower than what was evaluated
Mouska 0.7 5.8 21.0 35.7 186 from field data. It is however quite close to the basic
Langlois 0.4 5.1 30.0 32.2 276
friction angle of 251. The friction angle for the cubical
Bouchard-Hébert 0.9 10.0 30.0 35.3 334
particle is well within the range evaluated in Table 3, based
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
826 J. Hadjigeorgiou, J.F. Lessard / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 820–834

Moving plater not have been sufficient to calibrate this model. In order to
approximate more realistic material friction angles, it is
necessary to introduce rock fragment shape as part of the
calibration process.

5. Numerical experiments of interlocking hang-ups

Material flow in vertical and inclined (651) ore passes

Lateral walls
with a length of 30 m was modelled using the PFC3D a
5m three-dimensional numerical code based on the DEM. This
was a continuation of previous work by Lessard and
Hadjigeorgiou [23]. The objective was to evaluate the ratio
Generated particles
of the largest particle to ore pass dimension to prevent
hang-ups. Furthermore, the influence of ore pass shape was
investigated with reference to square and circular cross
sections. This was of interest given that there was contra-
dictory information regarding the influence of ore pass
shape on hang-up occurrences from 10 Canadian mine
2.5 m operations [1].
Fixed plater In order to explore the relationship between ore pass
Fig. 6. 2D representation of triaxial test configuration. dimension (D) and maximum rock block size (d), a series of
numerical experiments were conducted. In an operating
mine, the size distribution of a material that enters the ore
Table 3 pass system may vary from each load in a scoop bucket.
Triaxial test data A uniform size distribution is not well graded and,
Characteristics
therefore, is susceptible to have a higher percentage of
larger fragments present. This makes it more susceptible to
Confining pressure 10, 30, 50, 100 kPa interlocking hang-ups than material that can be described
Particles size distribution 0.1–0.4 m following a uniform distribution by a well-graded distribution. Consequently, uniform rock
Density 3600 kg/m3
size distributions were generated in PFC3D by assigning
Porosity 35%
Sample size 2.5  5 m the dimension of the smallest particles as equal to 30% of
the largest particles. The maximum rock block size used in
the simulations was 2 m. Several distributions were
Table 4 generated for every ore pass dimension (D).
Micro-properties for the numerical modelling Fragment shape was defined as spherical and cubic.
Three opening size configurations were selected (1.5, 2.5
Property Particles Ore pass wall
and 3.5 m) based on representative data collected in mine
Density 3600 kg/m3 — sites. Circular and square shape ore pass sections were used
Normal stiffness (kn) 1.0  109 N/m 1.0  109 N/m for simulating particle flow in vertical and inclined (651)
Shear stiffness (ks) 1.0  109 N/m 1.0  109 N/m
ore passes. A total of 1065 numerical runs were performed
Interparticle friction coefficient 1 1
to characterize the material flow of spherical or cubical
material in circular and square ore passes.
Each simulated ore pass was 30 m long and was
on field data determined using the Barton and Kjaernsli gradually filled up to 20 m by generating batches of rock
[21] methodology. fragments in the upper portion and then allowing these to
The significance of the simulations using spherical fall under the action of gravity as illustrated in Fig. 10. The
particles values lies in presenting a lower bound solution total volume for each generated batch of particles was from
for material flow in an ore pass. It is recognised that ore 3.5 to 6 m3. Since a typical scoop bucket used in Quebec
fragments are not spherical. underground mines has a volume of 5.5 m3 (6 yd3), it can be
The effect of varying the interparticle friction coefficient, argued that the generated batches are typical of the tipping
m, on the material friction angle was evaluated for spherical process in the ore pass. This batch generation process is
particles. It was found that increasing the interparticle similar to material compaction in an ore pass.
friction coefficient above a value of 1 had little influence on Once an ore pass was filled, the model was brought to
the material friction angle, as can be seen in Fig. 9. equilibrium. The bottom wall was removed and the
Considering the limited effect of the interparticle friction material was allowed to flow out of the ore pass.
coefficient, on the material friction angle, in this series of Depending on material properties and ore pass configura-
experiments adjusting the micro-properties alone would tion, the model resulted in either free flow or the
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Hadjigeorgiou, J.F. Lessard / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 820–834 827

x105 x105
2.6 2.6
2.4 2.4
2.2 2.2
2.0 2.0
1.8 1.8
1.6 1.6 σ3 = 30 kPa
σ1 (Pa) σ3 = 10 kPa

σ1 (Pa)
1.4 1.4
1.2 1.2
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Axial strain (%) x10-2 Axial strain (%) x10-2

x105
2.6 2.6
2.4 2.4
2.2 σ3 = 50 kPa 2.2
2.0 2.0
1.8 1.8
1.6 1.6
σ1 (Pa)

1.4 σ1 (Pa) 1.4 σ3 = 100 kPa

1.2 1.2
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Axial strain (%) x10-2 Axial strain (%) x10-2

Fig. 7. Stress–strain curves for a material composed with spherical particles

development of hang-ups in the ore pass. Between 5 and 10
simulations were run for each configuration in order to
assess the probability of hang-up occurrence. Fig. 11
illustrates snapshots of a simulation where free flow was
obtained in a square cross section ore pass for spherical
rock fragments and Fig. 12 illustrates the same for a
circular ore pass.
6. Ore pass flow data analysis
A total of 1065 numerical simulations were performed.
The time required to run a simulation using a 1.8 GHz with
1.5 Go of RAM and a 1 Meg cache computer, ranged from
5 min to 5 d, depending mainly on the smallest size of the
particles in a given configuration, as the time step selection
is closely related to the size of the particles. The number of
particles also influenced the calculation time, but in a
smaller order of magnitude. The results for different ore
pass geometries and rock particle shapes were analysed to
establish the probability of hang-up occurrences for the
different D/d ratio.
Three different flow conditions are recognized:
Free flow: No hang-ups observed for the entire series of
simulations for a given configuration. Flow almost
always occurs. Frequency of interlocking is very low or
almost nil.
Probable flow: One to five hang-ups were observed
during the series of simulations for a given configura-
tion. This is a state where flow may or may not occur
and interlocking is frequent.
No flow: More than five hang-ups were observed for the
entire series of simulations for a given configuration.
Under these conditions, free flow almost never
occurs and the frequency of interlocking hang-ups is
very high.
This methodology has allowed the development of a series
of charts that quantify the relationship between minimum
ore pass dimension and maximum fragment size. This is
reflected on the number of hang-ups and can provide a first
indication on potential problems in the operation of an ore
pass. In order to construct each chart it was necessary to
undertake 170–200 simulations. This implied that for every
individual D/d ratio it was necessary to undertake 10
simulations under the same conditions. As the objective
was to delineate the zone of flow/no flow using D/d as a
criterion, the number of simulations per D/d ratio was
adequate and arguably statistically representative. Further-
more, it follows at the extremes of the graph the number of
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
828 J. Hadjigeorgiou, J.F. Lessard / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 820–834

5 x105
6.0 x10 6.0
5.5 5.5
5.0 5.0 σ3 = 30kPa
4.5 4.5
4.0 4.0
3.5 3.5
σ1 (Pa)

σ1 (Pa)
σ3 = 10kPa
3.0 3.0
2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
Axial strain (%) x10-2 Axial strain (%) x10-2

x105 x105
6.0 6.0
5.5 5.5
5.0 5.0 σ3 = 100kPa
σ3 = 50kPa
4.5 4.5
4.0 4.0
3.5 3.5
σ1 (Pa)
σ1 (Pa)

3.0 3.0
2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
Axial strain (%) x10-2 Axial strain (%) x10-2

Fig. 8. Stress–strain curves for a material composed with cubical particles

35
Particle generation zone
30
Material friction angle (o)

25

20

15
Filling zone
10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
inter-particle friction coefficient

Fig. 9. Influence of the inter-particle friction angle. Fig. 10. Rock fragment generation and filling procedure for an ore pass.

simulations can in fact be reduced without a loss in the that material flow often results in smoothing of the ore pass
quality of the results. walls, particularly along the footwall and the sidewalls
The influence of wall friction on material flow in ore no matter the method of excavation. This is illustrated in
passes is also of interest. It is recognised that the method of Fig. 13. Fig. 13(a), shows a blasted ore pass and the
excavation will have an influence on the relative roughness resulting smooth wall after material flow while Fig. 13(b) is
of the ore pass side. Raise-bored ore passes result in from a different mine operation also in a drill and blast
smoother wall surface than ore passes developed using drill excavated ore pass. In both cases, material flow resulted in
and blast techniques. However, it is the authors’ experience smoothing of the walls of the ore pass. Fig. 13(b) is of
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Hadjigeorgiou, J.F. Lessard / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 820–834 829

Fig. 11. Free flow in a square ore pass (D/d ¼ 2.1).

further interest as material flow inflicted considerable wear
on the installed rebar rock bolts resulting in a very smooth
surface.
The presented analysis in this paper is arguably more
applicable to raise-bored and ore passes that are or have
been smoothed by ore flow. It is also recognised that flow
will be further facilitated by the application of liners in an
ore pass. This was demonstrated in a previous study [24]
where lowering the wall friction to simulate the effect of
liners resulted in fewer hang-ups. The present paper,
however, does not address the impact on hang-ups of ore
pass cross section enlargement. This phenomenon is
usually attributed to several factors such as stress
and structural related damage, impact loads, or blast
induced damage as a result of efforts to restore flow after a
hang-up [1].
6.1. Vertical, circular cross section ore passes
Ore passes with circular cross sections, are traditionally
developed using raise borers. In Quebec mines, ore pass
systems with circular cross section are seldom used,
Lessard and Hadjigeorgiou [1]. This is probably due to
local expertise in developing Alimak raise excavations.
Numerical simulation results for circular ore passes are
presented in Fig. 14 for spherical rock fragments, and in
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
830 J. Hadjigeorgiou, J.F. Lessard / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 820–834

Fig. 12. Free flow in a circular ore pass (D/d ¼ 2.1).

Fig. 15 for cubical rock fragments. It has been observed
that particle shape has an impact on the frequency of hang-
ups. There were 73 incidents of hang-ups using spherical
particles to 115 for cubical particles. The higher incidence
of hang-ups is attributed to the higher friction angle of
cubic particles. Figs. 14 and 15, show that free flow of
spherical particles would be ensured with a (D/d) ratio of
2.8 and a (D/d) of 4.0 for cubical particles. In practice the
results imply that the ore pass cross section must be greater
for cubical particles in order to ensure flow.
6.2. Vertical, square cross section ore passes
Lessard and Hadjigeorgiou [1] reported that square
section ore passes are the most frequently encountered in
Quebec mines. Numerical simulation results for square ore
passes, for spherical and cubic rock fragments are
summarized in Figs. 16 and 17. Free flow of spherical
rock blocks in square ore passes requires a (D/d) ratio
greater than 2.6. This is slightly lower than the ratio
required for a circular ore pass, given an identical material,
as illustrated in Fig. 14. The number of hang-ups observed
is 75, which is close to 73 hang-ups observed using circular
ore pass configurations.
The required ratio to ensure free flow of cubic rock
fragments through circular ore passes was 3.8, Fig. 17. This
is slightly lower than 4.0, necessary for free flow in a
circular ore pass, Fig. 15. The number of observed hang-
ups in the square-shaped ore pass was 102, which is slightly
lower than the 115 hang-ups in circular ore pass. These
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Hadjigeorgiou, J.F. Lessard / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 820–834 831

Minimum ore pass dimension (m)

FREE FLOW D/d = 4.0 NO FLOW OR
OCCASIONAL HANG-UP
4

3
Number of simulations: 185
Number of hang-ups: 115

2
Ore pass shape Particle shape

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Largest rock size (m)
Free flow Probable flow No flow

Fig. 15. Free flow threshold for cubic rock fragments in circular ore
passes.

5
Minimum ore pass dimension (m)
D/d = 2.6 NO FLOW OR
FREE FLOW
OCCASIONAL
4 HANG-UPS

3
Number of simulations: 165
Number of hang-ups: 75
2
Ore passshape Particle shape

Fig. 13. Smoothing of ore pass walls: (a) drill and blast excavated ore 1
pass, (b) drill and blast excavated ore pas also showing wear of rock
reinforcement. 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Largest rock size (m)
Free flow Probable flow No flow
5
Minimum ore pass dimension (m)

FREE FLOW D/d = 2.8 NO FLOW OR Fig. 16. Free flow zones threshold for spherical rock fragments in square
OCCASIONAL ore passes.
HANG-UPS
4

3
Number of simulations: 165
Number of hang-ups: 73
5
Minimum ore pass dimension (m)

2 NO FLOW OR
FREE FLOW D/d = 3.8
Ore pass shape Particle shape OCCASIONAL HANG-UPS
4
1

3
0 Number of simulations: 180
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Number of hang-upss: 102

Largest rock size (m) 2

Ore pass shape Particle shape
Free flow Probable flow No flow
1
Fig. 14. Free flow threshold for spherical rock fragments in circular ore
passes.
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Largest rock size (m)
Free flow Probable flow No flow
numerical modelling results seem to indicate that square
cross sectional ore pass systems facilitate flow of angular Fig. 17. Free flow threshold zones for cubic rock fragments in square ore
(cubic) rock fragments. passes.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
832 J. Hadjigeorgiou, J.F. Lessard / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 820–834

6.3. Inclined, square cross section ore passes 5

Minimum ore pass dimension (m)

D/d = 4.6 NO FLOW OR OCCASIONAL
FREE FLOW
HANG-UPS
The same type of numerical experiments and analysis 4
was undertaken for ore passes inclined at 651. Only ore
passes with square sections were considered, based on 3
information gathered in the database, where square section Number of simulations: 200
Number of hang-ups: 137
ore passes were predominant. Numerical simulation results 2
for inclined ore passes for spherical and cubic rock Ore pass shape Particle shape
fragments are illustrated, respectively, in Figs. 18 and 19.
1
Spherical rock fragments transiting in an inclined, 65°
square section, ore pass required a ratio of 3.4 to ensure
0
free flow, Fig. 18, while cubical rock fragments necessitate 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
a ratio of 4.6 for uninterrupted flow, Fig. 19. Both these Largest rock size (m)
ratios are higher than those required for free flow in a Free flow Probable flow No flow
vertical, square section, ore pass. The number of hang-ups
observed for spherical and cubical fragments are, respec- Fig. 19. Free flow threshold zones for cubic rock fragments in square ore
tively, 91 for spherical and 137 for cubical. These are higher passes (inclined at 651).
compared to the number of hang-ups observed for the
vertical ore pass. The numerical modelling results confirm
that, all things being equal, vertical ore passes seem to Table 5
facilitate the flow of material more adeptly than inclined Influence of ore pass geometry and fragment shape on material flow
ore passes.
Ore pass Ore pass Rock D/d ratio Section area required
inclination shape fragment for free for free flow (for
6.4. Interpretation of the numerical simulation results shape flow d ¼ 1.0 m) (m2)

901 Circular Spherical 2.8 6.2

Table 5 summarizes the guidelines illustrated in Circular Cubical 4.0 12.6
Figs. 14–19. The section area required for free flow is Square Spherical 2.6 6.8
given considering a largest rock fragment dimension (d) of Square Cubical 3.8 14.4
1.0 m. It is evident that fragment shape has the strongest 651 Square Spherical 3.4 11.6
impact on the D/d ratio required to facilitate free flow, and Square Cubical 4.6 21.2
that ore pass inclination and section shape are relatively of
less importance. In practice, there is no real control over
fragment shape. For practical purposes, the guidelines
based on cubic-shaped fragments would provide a more
realistic strategy to limit the formation of interlocking Vertical ore passes, moving rock fragments of the same
hang-ups, as spherical particles only provide a lower limit shape, square ore passes require smaller D/d ratio for free
solution. flow. Representing flow as a function of D/d is the industry
standard. This approach does not account for the fact that
ore pass section can be analysed using section area. Under
these circumstances the numerical modelling results suggest
5
that circular ore passes will require a smaller section for
Minimum ore pass dimension (m)

FREE FLOW D/d = 3.4

NO FLOW OR OCCASIONAL flow.
HANG-UPS
The choice of ore pass shape is often dictated by
4
excavation costs, local experience, and ground conditions
with little consideration to the mechanics of material flow.
3
Number of simulations: 170
In high stress environments, circular ore passes are seen as
Number of hang-ups: 91 more favourable from a stability point of view.
2 From a design perspective, ore pass inclination is the
Ore pass shape Particle shape
factor that has the most pronounced influence on the
1 dimensions required for free flow. Interviews with mine
65°
engineering personnel have shown that inclined ore passes
0 are used to reduce material velocities. Results obtained
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 demonstrate that vertical ore passes do facilitate the flow of
Largest rock size (m) material. Considering this ore passes should be driven at
Free flow Probable flow No flow
901 whenever possible. Ore pass performance can be
Fig. 18. Free flow threshold zones for spherical rock fragments in square improved by using shorter ore passes as empirical evidence
ore passes (inclined at 651). shows that long ore passes are almost always associated
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Hadjigeorgiou, J.F. Lessard / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 820–834 833

with wall degradation problems. Wall degradation pro- 5

Minimum ore pass dimension (m)

blems associated with material flow have not been D/d = 3.8 D/d =2.6

addressed in this paper. 4

NO FLOW OR
7. Conclusions OCCASIONAL
3 FREE FLOW
HANG-UPS

Empirical rules to prevent interlocking hang-ups suggest

a minimum ratio of ore pass dimension (D) over the 2 Ore pass shape

particle size dimension (d) to ensure material flow in an ore

pass. For the most part, these rules have been derived from 1
the use of small-scale models.
This paper has suggests a methodology to calibrate the 0
synthetic material in order to model the transfer of ore in 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
ore passes. It has been shown that the rock fragment shape Largest rock size (m)
is the factor that has the most influence on the resultant
Fig. 21. Guidelines for dimensioning vertical square ore passes and
friction angle.
ensuring free flow.
This paper proposes quantitative guidelines to ensure
free flow based on undertaken numerical simulations using
the PFC. A total of 1065 numerical simulations were done 5
NO FLOW OR

Minimum ore pass dimension (m)

FREE FLOW
using a 3D PFC to evaluate the influence of ore pass D/d = 4.6 D/d = 3.4 OCCASIONAL HANG-UPS
geometry and particle shape on the occurrence of inter- 4
locking hang-ups. The results are presented as a function of
the minimum rock pass dimension and largest rock size so
3
as to allow comparison with other guidelines. Previous
Ore pass shape
design tools have been shown to be more conservative than
the numerical models. This is attributed to the fact that 2
most small-scale test models employed uniform-sized 65°

material and ignored material shape. 1

In conclusion, this paper proposes three charts for
dimensioning vertical and inclined ore passes so as to 0
ensure the free flow of materials. For vertical ore passes of 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
circular and square cross section respectively these are Largest rock size (m)
presented in Figs. 19 and 20. The chart for inclined ore
Fig. 22. Guidelines for dimensioning inclined square ore passes and
passes of square cross section is presented in Fig. 21. Ore
ensuring free flow.
pass inclination is arguably the parameter that can be
modified during the design stage that will have the greater
impact on material flow (Fig. 22). Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Institut de

Recherche Robert Sauvé en Santé et en Sécurité du Travail
(IRSST) for its financial support. The authors would also
5
like to acknowledge the cooperation of the Ground
Ore pass minimum dimension (m)

D/d = 4.0 D/d = 2.8

Control Committee of the Quebec Mining Association
4 and mine personnel at the following operations: Louvi-
FREE FLOW NO FLOW OR court, Bell-Allard, Bouchard-Hébert, Langlois, Niobec,
OCCASIONAL HANG-UPS
3 Agnico-Eagle, Kiena, Mouska, Doyon and Bousquet II.

Ore pass shape

2 References

1 [1] Lessard JF, Hadjigeorgiou J. Ore pass database: Quebec under-

ground metal mines. CIM Bull 2006;99(1093):12.
[2] Hagan TO, Acheampong E. Current design, support and main-
0 tenance of rockpasses and assessment of practices applicable at depth.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 In: Hagan TO, editor. Proceedings of the 2nd Southern African rock
Largest rock size (m) engineering symposium. South Africa: ISRM; 1999. p. 62–79.
[3] Stacey TR, Swart AH. Investigation into drawpoints, Tips orepasses
Fig. 20. Guidelines for dimensioning vertical circular ore passes and and chutes. Report to the safety in Mines Research Advisory
ensuring free flow. Committee, Steffen, Robertson and Kirsten vol. 1, 1997. 112p.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
834 J. Hadjigeorgiou, J.F. Lessard / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 820–834
[4] Emmerich SH. Report on rockpass problems in Anglo American
corporation gold division mines. Proceedings of the symposium on
orepasses and combustible materials underground ass. Mining
Managers of Southern Africa, 1992. p. 83–111.
[5] Ferguson G. Ore pass design guidelines. Report to Mining Research
Directorate, 1991. 188p.
[6] Pariseau WG. Rock flow in ore pass systems. Chapter 3 in guidelines
for open-pit ore pass design. Contract report, US Bureau of Mines,
contract no J0205041. Engineers International Inc., Hambley DF,
Pariseau WG, Singh MM. 1983. 170p.
[7] Kvapil R. Gravity flow of granular material in Hoppers and Bins in
mines—II coarse material. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 1965;2:277–304.
[8] Beus MJ, Pariseau WG, Stewart BM, Iverson SR. Design of
ore passes. In: Underground mining methods, Chapter 71, SME,
2001. p. 627–34.
[9] Jenike AW. Gravity flow of bulk solids. Bulletin no. 108, The
University of Utah, 1961. 309p.
[10] Peele R. 3rd ed. Mining engineer handbook, vol. 1. New York: Wiley;
1947.
[11] Joughin A, Stacey TR. The behaviour of ore passes in deep level
tabular mines. Second international seminar on deep and high stress
Mining, Saimm, February 23–25, 2004. p. 395–411.
[12] Iverson S, Jung SJ, Biswas K, Shogan C. Ore pass computer
simulations based on existing design criteria. SME annual meeting,
Cincinnati, February 24–26, 2003.
[13] Nazeri H, Mustoe GGW, Rozxonyi TG, Wienecke CJ. Implementa-
tion of a discrete element methodology for the modelling of gravity
flow in ore pass. In: Hammah, et al., editors. NARMS-TAC 2002.
University of Toronto; 2002. p. 1307–12.
[14] Aytaman V. Causes of hanging in ore chutes and its solution. Can
Min J 1960;81:77–81.
[15] Cundall PA, Strack ODL. A discrete numerical model for granular
assemblies. Géotechnique 1979;29(1):47–65.
[16] McNearny RL, Barker KA. Numerical modeling of large-scale
block cave physical models using PFC2D. Min Eng February 1998;
72–5.
[17] Potyondy D, Cundall P. The PFC model for rock: predicting rock-
mass damage at the underground research laboratory. Ontario Power
Generation, Nuclear Waste Management Division Report No.
06819-01200-10061-R00, 2001; 141p.
[18] Autio J, Wanne T, Potyondy D. Particle mechanical simulation of the
effect of schistosity on strength and deformation of hard rock. In:
Hammah, et al., editors. Proceeding of the NARMS-TAC 2002.
University of Toronto; 2002. p. 275–82.
[19] Lorig JL, Gibson W, Alvial J, Cuevas J. Gravity flow simulations
with the particle flow code (PFC). ISRM News J 1995;3(1):
18–24.
[20] Pierce ME, Potyondy D, Andrieux P, Lessard JS. Use of particle flow
code (PFC2D) to assess stability of undercut rockfill at Brunswick
mine. In: Hammah, et al., editors. Proceedings of the NARMS-TAC
2002. University of Toronto; 2002. p. 173–80.
[21] Barton N, Kjaernsli B. Shear strength of rockfill. J Geotechn Eng
Div, ASCE 1981;107(1):873–91.
[22] Winterkorn HF, Fang HY. Foundation engineering handbook. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold; 1975. p. 751.
[23] Lessard JF, Hadjigeorgiou J. Design tools to minimize the occurrence
of ore pass interlocking hang-ups in metal mines. ISRM 2003—
technology roadmap for rock mechanics. S Afr Inst Min Metall 2003;
757–62.
[24] Hadjigeorgiou J, Lessard JF. The case the case for liners in ore pass
systems. Chapter 41 in surface support in mining. Australian Centre
for Geomechanics, 2004. p. 365–71.