2

By repeatedly asking the question "Why" (five is a good

rule of thumb), you can peel away the layers of
symptoms which can lead to the root cause of a problem.
Very often the ostensible reason for a problem will lead
you to another question.

3
How To Complete The 5 Whys

1. Write down the specific problem. Writing the issue helps you
formalize the problem and describe it completely. It also helps a
team focus on the same problem.

2. Ask Why the problem happens and write the answer down
below the problem.

3. If the answer you just provided doesn't identify the root cause
of the problem that you wrote down in step 1, ask Why again
and write that answer down.

4. Loop back to step 3 until the team is in agreement that the

problem's root cause is identified. Again, this may take fewer or
more times than five Whys.

4
5
 Painting
Thick layer of painting

WHY ???

Flow of paint is uneven

WHY ???

Tin tubes are used for applying paint and the nozzle
has round opening.
WHY ???

Tin tubes have to be used as per drawing to

dispense the paint

6
7
Check Sheet is a format for collecting data efficiently.

When to Use a Check Sheet

• When data can be observed and collected repeatedly by the same person
or at the same location.
• When collecting data on the frequency or patterns of events, problems,
defects, defect location, defect causes, etc.
• When collecting data from a production process.

Benefits of Check sheet

l Makes data collection easy

l Arrange data in such a form that they can be used readily and analyzed
automatically.

8
Time (days) No. of Readings Total
3 2

4 4
5 8
6 15
7 27
8 19
9 12
10 11
11 2
100

9
Type of Error No. of Occurrences Total
11
SALES CODE
CUSTOMER
REF. 3

A/C No. 12

COST FIGURE 24

AREA CODE 6

POOR
APPEARANCE
8

OTHER 2

TOTAL 5 3 4 10 1 2 3 3 4 1 4 2 2 5 5 1 5 2 1 3 66

Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

10
• Stratification is used to segregate the process performance
by sources of problem.

• Sources of problem in a process can be typically:

 Men, Machine, Material and Method

• Other sources of problem which can be identified through

stratification are:
 Time: Hour to hour variation, Day to Day variation
 Season: variation in process performance due to season
 Location: Defect location in a product, problem with
customers in a geographical location, etc

11 11
WHEN Trend Continuous, discontinuous, very rare
Time, period Start-up season, (e.g. summer), setup
WHO Men Shift wise, new or old employees
WHAT Materials Lots, type No.
WHERE Location Part, Range, process, equipment
WHICH Trend Direction, increases or decreases
HOW Status Equipment, jigs, tools, machining
conditions, accuracy (dynamic or
stationery)

12
Bales of Fibre with High moisture:
25 out of 1000 bales produced.
Stratified Data:
Shift-A: Production: 400, High moisture:15
Shift-B: Production: 300, High Moisture:6
Shift-C: Production: 300, High Moisture: 4

13
CAR WIND SCREEN MANUFACTURING

x x xxx x
x
x x x
x
x xxx
x

x x x

X shows Location of Air Bubble ( Defect)

14 14
Italian economist Alfred V Pareto found that Large share of Wealth is
held by very small number of people.

Dr. J M Juran applied this to the field of Quality, to classify the quality
problems in Vital Few & Trivial many.

15 15
• When analyzing data about the frequency of problems or
causes in a process.
• When there are many problems or causes and you want
to focus on the most significant.
• When analyzing broad causes by looking at their specific
components.
• When communicating with others about your data.

16 16
 Vital Few

Numerical
Measure
Trivial Many

Causes

The vital few are isolated and displayed In a simple visual format

17
 Delay in Repair of Equipment

100%
330 Vital 94% 100
Few 90%

Percent of hours
300 85% 90
Hours of delay

78%
80
250
63% 70
200 Trivial 60
Many 50
150 38%
40
100 124 84 30
51 20
50 22 17 12 20 10
0 0
Reworking
Waiting for

Waiting for

diagnosis

resource
incorrect

incorrect
Lack of

other
all
SOP
Parts

Men

18
• The Cause & Effect Diagram is a systematic way of listing
down all the possible contributing factors (CAUSES) of a
quality problem (the EFFECT).
• The cause and effect diagram is also known as the
“ISHIKAWA” diagram or the “FISHBONE” diagram.
• Analysis of the cause and effect diagram:
 All factors are critically examined / analyzed w.r.t their
probable contribution of the effect.
 All factors selected as most likely causes of the effect are
then subjected to experimentation to find the validity of their
selection.

19 19
• Application of cause and effect diagram
 Picture of a brain storming session
 To organize free flowing ideas in a logical manner
 Used to analyze the cause of any quality problem and
identify the factors leading to better results / control
 Identifies problem areas where data can be collected and
analyzed

20
 PROCEDURES PEOPLE
Have not learned
computer system
Low pay Low prestige
Typists: Letters written Account Executive:
Perform editing quickly in cars Word processing
Turn in hard-to-read
tasks on road staff unmotivated
handwritten draft
Typists:
Fill in for
receptionists
Letter late
to customer
Word processing Not enough printers
system
Four-hour turnaround
Mail room must on letters
Not Hard to format get out bills first
user on company
friendly stationery

EQUIPMENT POLICIES

21
 MANPOWER MACHINES
Reading ability Temperature gauge
dificient Wrong cake pans set incorrectly
for baking times
Can't Oven is malfunctioning
Temperature understand
dial on oven recipe Thermostat
set wrong - worn out
Language barrier
Cake
burns in
Oveb ore-heated Directions in
oven
too long Cake batter not
recipe not clear
mixed properly

Oven not cooled down Misprint in recipe/

from previously baked goods cook-book
requiring higer temps
METHODS MATERIALS

22
23
• Scatter Diagram is used to study the relationship
between cause (called independent variable
denoted as X) and effect (called dependent
variable denoted as Y).

• Both X and Y have to be quantitative to

construct scatter diagram.

• Scatter diagram helps in understanding if there

is a relationship between X and Y. Is the
relationship strong or weak?

• It is used in explaining the behavior of a process

and the means of controlling it.
24 24
Positive relationship does exist Negative relationship may exist
. . .
. .. . . . .
. .. . .
.... . .. . .
.

Positive relationship may exist Negative relationship does exist

. ..
. ..
. . .. . . ......
. . . .
. .

No relationship exists
.. .
. . . . . ..
. . .. .. . .. . . . . . ..
. . .

25
• Graphs are used for the following namely.

- To organize data
- To summarize data
- To statistically display the analyzed data
- To draw inferences and conclusions

• Following are the types of graphs namely

- Line graph
- Bar graph or Histogram
- Pie chart

26
• It is used to detect changes in qualities such as
production, rejection, rework, etc, over a period
of time
% rejection
60

50

40
% rejection

30

20

10

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
% rejection 10 24 15 10 54 40 30 20 15 10 5 4

27
Histogram is a graphical presentation of large amount of data
generated from measurement of output of a process.

The graph looks like Bar Chart with a difference that bars are
adjacent to each other. This is because the data used to construct
Histogram is continuous in nature whereas the data for Bar Chart is
discrete.

Histogram is useful in understanding the following aspects of a

process:
 The central tendency of the process ; depicted by the tallest
bar usually in the centre of the graph
 The dispersion in the process seen from the extreme data at
two ends of the histogram
 Stability of the process seen by the shape of distribution of the
histogram
28
 60

50

40
Frequency

30

20

10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Thickness of output in mm
29
One End Truncated Two Ends Truncated

Bi- modal Multi-modal

30 30
• To detect at the earliest the causes for process shifts, so
that corrective measures are initiated at the earliest
• To investigate the process being adopted for
manufacturing, take corrective measures if necessary to
see that the number of rejections are minimized.
• To alter and establish new specification for a product
based on the capability of the process.
• To determine and eliminate the assignable causes
• To reduce the cost involved in inspection

31 31
Control charts are of Two types
•Variable data – Measurable and recordable
•Attribute data – Conforming or Non conforming, Y/N

A typical Control Chart

30
Measurem ent

25

20

15

10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

T ime ( Hr/ D ay/ W eek/ Seq uance)

32
 Control
charts

Variables Attributes

X bar - R X bar - S
P - chart np - chart c - chart u - chart
chart chart

33
Chart type Description of chart
Shows control / un-control position of the process over the
X bar chart
process average.

Shows control / un-control position of the process over the

R chart
process dispersion.

Shows control / un-control position of the process over the

S chart
process standard deviation

Fraction of non-conforming or defective product produced

p chart by a manufacturing process (control chart for fraction non-
conforming).

np chart Control chart for number of defects

c chart Control chart for non conformities
u chart Control chart for non conformities per unit

34
FMEA is a structured analytical technique done on paper that
consists of the following activities

Identifying and evaluating the potential route causes of failure

of a product or process and its effects

Generation of action plans to prevent, detect or reduce the

impact and chance of the potential occurrence of failure

Documenting the process

FMEA encourages the team to consider

What could go wrong?

How badly it could go wrong?

What is to be done to prevent or reduce the problem?

35
FMEA is an activity that is performed before the occurrence of an
event with an aim to implement considerably inexpensive changes
in product design or production process.
Types of FMEA

Design or product FMEA

Process FMEA

Benefits of FMEA

To identify the production or assembly failures

To specify controls in order to reduce occurrences

To document the results of the production process

36
1. Develop a process map and identify process steps.

2. List key process outputs for satisfying internal and

external customer requirements.

3. List key process inputs for each process steps.

4. List ways the process inputs can vary (causes) and

identify associated failure modes and effects.

5. Assign severity occurrence and detection rating for each cause.

37
6. Calculate risk priority number (RPN) for each potential failure mode.

7. Determine recommended actions to reduce RPN’s.

8. Establish time frame for corrective actions.

9. Take corrective actions.

10. Put all controls in place.

38
• Severity (SEV) : Severity indicates how severe is the impact of the effect
on the customer.

• Occurrence (OCC) : This indicates the likelihood of the cause of the

failure mode to occur.

• Detection (DET) : This indicates the likelihood of the current system to

detect the cause or failure mode if it occurs.

• Risk priority number : This number is used to place priority to items for
better quality planning.

RPN = SEV X OCC X DET

Reducing occurrence should be the priority

39
Rating Degree of Severity Likelihood of Occurrence Ability to detect

1 Customer will not at all observe Very remote possibility Sure that the potential failure
the adverse effect will be detected & prevented
before reaching the next
customer

2 Customer will experience Low failure with supporting Almost sure that the potential
slight discomfort documents failure will be detected before
reachig the next customer

3 Customer will experience Low failure without supporting Less chances that the
annoyance because of slight documents potential failure will reach the
degradation of performance next customer undetected

4 Customer dissatisfied due to Occasional failures Some controls may detect

reduced performance the potential from reaching the
next customer

5 Customer is uncomfortable Moderate failure rate with Moderate chances that the
supporting documents potential failure will reach the
next customer
40
Rating Degree of Severity Likelihood of Occurrence Ability to detect

6 Warranty repairs Modearate failure rate without Controls are not likely to detect
supporting documents or prevent the potential failure
from reaching the next
customer

7 High degree of customer High failure rate with supporting Less chances that the potential
dissatisfaction documents failure will be detected or
prevented before reaching
the next customer

8 Vey high degree of customer High failure rate with supporting Very less chances that the
dissatisfaction documents potential failure will be detected
or prevented before reaching
the next customer

9 Negative impact on the Failure is almost certain Existing controls will not detect
customer the potential failure

10 Negative impact on the Assured failure Existing controls will not detect
customer, people & society the potential failure

41
 POTENTIAL FAILURE MODE AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS (PROCESS FMEA)
CURRENT RESP & ACTION RESULTS
PROCESS POTENTIAL POTENTIAL S POTENTIAL O
PROCESS D RECOMMENDE TARGET S O D
FUNCTION / FAILURE EFFECTS OF E CAUSES OF C RPN
V FAILURE MODES C CONTROL ET D ACTION(S) COMPLETIO ACTIONS E C E RPN
REQUIREMENTS MODES FAILURE TAKEN V C T
S N DATE

PROCESS FMEA ON COMPRESSOR ENERGY CONSUMPTION

RISK
POTENTIAL CURRENT ACTUAL
PROCESS FUNCTION / POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF FAILURE PRIORITY
FAILURE SEVERITY POTENTIAL CAUSES OF FAILURE OCC PROCESS DETECTION
REQUIREMENTS MODE NUMBER
MODES CONTROLS ( DET )
( RPN )
Process : 2. Direct impact on monthly
Due to production volume above
Dry air generation electricity billing (10) 5 No control 10 500
capacity
REQUIREMENTS : 3. Diesel consumption will be more in
Low energy consumption case runs in KEB power off time (10)
of compressor Higher Compressor duty cycle 8 No control 10 800

High
compressor Air receiver loading pressure setting
10 10 No control 10 1000
energy is high
consumption
Continuous air loss and leak from
10 No control 10 1000
system and at user end

Improper maintenance of PM checklist

8 7 560
compressor available
42
- It is a group consisting first line employees who continually
improve the quality of their work, product and services
- These small group operate autonomously
- Utilize quality control concepts and techniques and other
improvement tools
- Tap their creativity and promote self and mutual
development

- Customer complaints (Internal or External)

- Rejections and rework
- Cycle time
- House Keeping
- Safety
- Machine break down
- Work simplification
- Cost reduction
- Waste reduction
43
- Record book or Register
- Complete case study write up
- Summary of case study for oral presentation

- Name of the quality circle

- Area of work in the organization
- List of member, leader and facilitator or mentor
- Date of starting
- Day of meeting
- Attendance of members
- List of problems identified
- No. of problems solved
- Agenda of each meeting
- Discussion points and decision taken
- Work distribution for members regarding data collection
- Analysis and evaluation of results of trials etc..
- Gann chart for review and progress
44
 PROGRESS
REQUIRED STEPS FOR QC PROJECT TOOLS REQUIRED
METHOD
STEP -1
IDENTIFICATION OF WORK RELATED PROBLEM
METHOD INDIVIDUAL BRAINSTORMING
1. Generate a list of problems using " BRAIN STORMING "
2. Prioritize problems using A, B, C analysis given below
A' category problem
Minimum involvement of other departments in solving them
B' category problem
Involvement of other departments is a necessity
C' category problem
Management sanction may be needed in implementing the solution
3. classify the problems into sub categories like SAFETY, QUALITY, PRODUCTIVITY, DELIVERY AND
EHS and give ranking & weightage
STEP-2
SELECTION OF PROBLEM
METHOD GROUP BRAINSTORMING
1 select first from 'A' category list and do the 'PARETO ANALYSIS' or 'RATING' based on past data or
DATA COLLECTION
system
PARETO DIAGRAM
2.Register the selected problem with the coordinating agency
3. Make a 'GANN CHART' indicating the time needed for solving the selected problem
STEP-3
DEFINE THE PROBLEM
METHOD GROUP FLOW DIAGRAM
By using 'FLOW DIAGRAM' BRAINSTORMING
Note down the actual time taken

45
 REQUIRED STEPS FOR QC PROJECT PROGRESS METHOD TOOLS REQUIRED

STEP-4
ANALYSE THE PROBLEM
METHOD GROUP DATA COLLECTION

DATA COLLECTION' on the problem on all the possible aspects C&E DIAGRAM

Note down the actual time taken STRATIFICATION

GRAPH

STEP-5
IDENTIFICATION OF THE CAUSES
METHOD INDIVIDUAL FLOW DIAGRAM

BRAINSTORMING' and make 'CAUSE and EFFECT' diagram BRAINSTORMING

Note down the actual time taken C&E DIAGRAM

STRATIFICATION
GRAPH

STEP-6
FINDING OUT THE ROOT CAUSES
METHOD GROUP FLOW DIAGRAM
Identifying the main causes in 'CAUSE' and 'EFFECT' diagram by
DATA COLLECTION
'DATACOLLECTION' and discussion
Note down the actual time taken STRATIFICATION
GRAPH
SCATTER DIAGRAM
HISTOGRAM

46
 REQUIRED STEPS FOR QC PROJECT PROGRESS METHOD TOOLS REQUIRED

STEP -7
DATA ANALYSIS
METHOD GROUP PARETO DIAGRAM
STRATIFICATION
Using techniques LINE GRAPH, BAR GRAPH, PIE GRAPH, AREA GRAPH, HISTOGRAMME,
STRATIFICATION, SCATTER DIAGRAM etc. GRAPH
SCATTER DIAGRAM
Note down the actual time taken HISTOGRAM
CONTROL CHART

STEP -8
DEVELOPING SOLUTION
METHOD INDIVIDUAL FLOW DIAGRAM
'BRAIN STORMING' DATA COLLECTION
Note down the actual time taken GRAPH
SCATTER DIAGRAM
CONTROL CHART
STEP -9
FORESEEING PROBABLE RESISTANCE
METHOD INDIVIDUAL FLOW DIAGRAM
Identifying the probable constraints and finding ways to overcome through 'BRAINSTORMING' BRAINSTORMING
Make a presentation to all involved with the solution
Exam: Dept.head, facilitator, other officials and non-members involved with the implementation.
Discuss and evaluate a system for implementation
Note down the actual time taken 47
 REQUIRED STEPS FOR QC PROJECT PROGRESS METHOD TOOLS REQUIRED
STEP -10
TRIAL IMPLEMENTATION AND CHECK PERFORMANCE

METHOD GROUP DATA COLLECTION

Data collection after implementation compared with the data collected before
solving the problem. Collect fresh data using 'CONTROL CHART' and watch STRATIFICATION
process trends. Analyse the result, discuss and incorporate the changes needed.

Note down the actual time taken GRAPH, SCATTER DIAGRAM

HISTOGRAM
CONTROL CHART
STEP -11
REGULAR IMPLEMENTATION
METHOD GROUP DATA COLLECTION

Once validity is checked and improvement observed with data, regular

GRAPH
implementation can be effected

Note down the actual time taken CONTROL CHART

STEP -12
FOLLOW UP / REVIEW
METHOD GROUP FLOW DIAGRAM

Implement evaluation procedure, use control chart, have six monthly report for
DATA COLLECTION
evaluation. Make modification , if necessary

Make the final 'GANN CHART' showing estimated and actual time. GRAPH
48
CONTROL CHART
49
(Pronounced POH-kah YOH-kay)

Transition from
“Fool Proofing”

To –
“Mistake Proofing”

50
Baka = Fool +
Yokeru = To avoid

Poka = Inadvertent
Mistakes
Yokeru = To avoid
51
“Inadvertent mistakes
increase work”

- Hiroyuki Hirano,
JIT Mgmt. Research Inst.

52
 Poka Yoke is a formidable tool for
achieving zero defects and eventually
eliminating quality control inspections

Respecting the intelligence of

operating personnel, Poka Yoke frees
time and mind to pursue more
creative/ value adding activities, by
taking over repetitive tasks or actions
that depend on vigilance or memory.

Poka Yoke is not a Top Management

speciality/ expertise tool. Ordinary
operators can think up PY solutions.
53
 Poka Yoke is all about Creativity
- at the elemental level.
Poka yoke is a major step in achieving
Six Sigma quality levels.

"A direct correlation exists between

the application of Poka-yoke
(mistake proofing) and defects ppm.
As our Poka-yoke applications
increased, our customer defects ppm
decreased."
-- Johnson Controls Inc. 54
 The idea behind Poka yoke is to
respect the intelligence of
professionals,
as well as the workers.
By taking over repetitive task or
actions that depend on vigilance or
memory, Poka yoke can free a
professional’s time and mind to
pursue more creative and value
adding activities.
55
The main purpose of Poka Yoke is to
achieve
- ZERO DEFECTS

The Zero Defects approach of Shigeo

Shingo aimed at avoiding all
‘inspection’. Hence he worked on
the concept of ‘ZQC’ or ‘ZERO
QUALITY CONTROL’.
56
• Two approaches: Both search for
abnormalities
• Prevention based :
Senses an abnormality that is about to
happen by one of the methods given next.

• Detection based :
Senses the abnormality that has already
taken place through one of the methods
described later.
57
1. CONTACT METHOD – Here the sensing agency
recognizes an abnormality or an error through actual
contact.
2. FIXED VALUE METHOD – Recognition through
measurement of actual value, whether higher or lower
than right.
3. MOTION STEP METHOD – You study the motion
and its steps and recognize anything that is missed or
wrongly taken.

58
4. SEQUENCE – We study whether the sequence of
operations are right or wrong.
5. DIRECTION - Whether the directions of various
elemental steps or right or wrong.
6. CONTROL – Here the aim is to control the operation
such that the error or defect is prevented or segregated
and removed as soon as detected.
7. WARNING – In this approach one aims to warn the
affected or associated people that an error or defect has
occurred and they must immediately respond.

59
There are FOUR recognised types:

1. ELIMINATION

2. FACILITATION

3. FLAGGING

4. MITIGATION
60
1. ELIMINATION :

• Here the system is redesigned to totally eliminate

possibility of error.
• That is, even if you try or even inadvertently you
cannot go wrong.
• The error itself cannot occur.
• Hence there is no possibility of a defect occurring.
• This is a PREVENTION based Poka Yoke.
This is the best and true Poka Yoke, which was
the aim of Shingo.
61
2. FACILITATION :

• Here the Poka Yoke provides a guidance – hard or

soft – to minimise the chance of error.
• Thus the error is detected just before it occurs.
• Alternatively the error is detected before a defect
occurs.
• It is like a monitoring system that warns that an
error or defect is about to happen.
• This is also a PREVENTION based Poka Yoke
• It is the second best Poka Yoke.
62
3. FLAGGING :
• Here an error may occur and may even lead to a
defect.
• Poka Yoke takes over and stops it from going
beyond the point of occurrence.
• It adopts proven methods of ensuring 100 %
chance of capturing and removing all defective
units prior to shipment to the next stage.
• This is the third best type of Poka Yoke.
• If one cannot device either of the first two types of
PY, one must aim to at least reach this level.
63
4. MITIGATION :

• Here one detects a defect AFTER IT HAS

OCCURRED AND REACHED THE
CUSTOMER.
• The user is protected from any negative effects it
may have – the so called FAIL-SAFE type.
•This is the last type and if nothing better is possible,
one must work to have a Poka Yoke of this
type.

64
Poka Yoke Mechanisms can be -
 Electrical
 Electronic
 Mechanical
 Procedural
 Visual
 Audio
 Human response based
 Computer logic based or
 Any other form that prevents incorrect
execution of a process step.
65
Six sigma is a business initiative started at Motorola by a
reliability engineer named Bill Smith in the 1980’s.
At the time, growth within Motorola was stagnant and the
company was spending up to 20 percent of revenues
correcting poor quality.
With up to $900 million each year going towards finding
and correcting defects, executives at Motorola believed
Higher quality products should actually cost less.
A 5 year program was started for chip manufacture

66
Six sigma was initiated as an attempt to reduce the cost
of poor quality that resulted from scrap, rework, inspection
process, lost revenue & other hidden cost associated with
“Not doing it right the first time”.
Dr. Michael harry founded the Motorola Institute to train
people for six sigma methods.
Motorola, by adopting 6 sigma, moved from 4 sigma
quality level to about 5.5 sigma level. This resulted in a
saving of $2.2 billion.
GE, Xerox, Allied Signals, HP, IBM and others followed. 67
 Lean Six Sigma

Six Sigma

Total Quality
Management
(1980)

Quality
Assurance
(1970)

Quality Control
(1960)

Inspection
(1950)

68
20,000 lost articles of mail per hour
Unsafe drinking water almost 15 minutes per day
5,000 incorrect surgical operations per week
2 short or long landings at most airports each day
2,00,000 wrong drug prescriptions each year
No electricity for almost 7 hours per month

69
To meet global competition
To increase market share
To stay in business – present sales decreasing and
operating cost are increasing
To create new businesses
To improve quality – reduce customer complaints &
increase customer satisfaction for existing products &
services

70
Having a measurable way to track performance
Focusing your attention on process management at all
organizational levels
Improving your customer relationships by addressing
defects
Improving the efficiency and effectiveness of your
processes by aligning them with your customers’ needs
Developing new processes, products & services that meet
critical customer requirements upon initial offering

71
1. Understanding your organizations work
from a PROCESS VIEW POINT
2. Clearly defining the CUSTOMER
REQUIREMENTS

72
 S C
U U
P S
P T
L O
I M
E E
R R
S S

 To make changes that last, you must view your organizations

work as a result of interactive functions, operations and methods
called Systems or Processes
 To improve the quality of products and services, you must
improve the systems and processes involved

73
 Customer requirements in Six Sigma are
represented as Critical to Quality (CTQ)
Characteristic
 CTQs are those features of your product or
service that are critical from the perspective of
your customers
 Hence identify right CTQs for improvements

74
 Metrics
S
Benchmark
I
Vision
X
Philosophy

S Method

I Tool

G Symbol
M Goal
A
Value
75
• A Philosophy - make fewer mistakes in all we do
• A Statistical Measurement - helps gage adequacy of product,
process and services
• A Metric - a measuring system
• A Business Strategy - good quality reduces cost

76
 Quality

Speed
&
Cost
HigherSpeed
&
Cost

Quality

Quality the cause not the effect

77
“Sigma” (σ) is a letter in Greek alphabet used in statistics to describe
variability. (Sigma is also known as Standard Deviation)

A “Sigma Quality Level” or “Sigma Level” or “Sigma Rating” is used as an

indicator of how often defects are likely to occur.

The higher the sigma quality level, the less likely a process is to create
defects. (i.e. less is the variation or Sigma / Std. Deviation)

A Six sigma quality level, which is considered “World Class”, is

approximately 3.4 defects per million opportunities.

In order to achieve higher sigma quality levels, and thus lower defect rates, we
need to continuously drive out variation from our processes. 78
Sigma Level / Parts Per Million
Sigma Rating PPM
2 3,08,537 5 times
3 66807 10 times
4 6210 30 times
5 233 10 times
6 3.4
Process Defects per
Capability Million Opportunities

79
80
81
82
83
 TO REDUCE VARIATION
TO REDUCE DEFECTS
TO IMPROVE YIELD
TO ENHANCE CUSTOMER SATISFACTION
TO IMPROVE THE BOTTOM-LINE

84
• Y - X1, X2, …….,
• Dependent variable - Independent variable
• Output of the process - Input of the process
• Effect - Cause
• Symptom - Problem
• It is monitored - It is controlled

To get results should we focus on Y or X ?

85
It is a breakthrough improvement

It is a data driven analytical approach

It aims at tangible bottom line improvements

It is a top-down approach

It is tied with organizational goals

It focuses on customer critical factors

It focuses on Process control rather than on Product control.

86
87