(James S Monroe Reed Wicander) Physical Geology PDF

PHYSICAL
GEOLOGY
EXPLORING THE EARTH
James S. Monroe ReedWicander

The Rock Cycle (Figure 1-15)
Ridge axis Transform Subduction zone Zones of extension within continents Uncertain plate boundary
'
The Earth's Plates (Figure 1-13)
Upwelling gp" Asthenospnere

Upwelling
Lithosphere
"^ Three Principle Types of Plate Boundaries (Figure 1 - 14)

PHYSICAL
GEOLOGY
EXPLORING THE EARTH
James S. Monroe
Reed Wicander
Central Michigan University
WEST PUBLISHING COMPANY

St. Paul New York Los Angeles San Francisco
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Copyediting and indexing Patricia Lewis COPYRIGHT © 1992 By WEST PUBLISHING COMPANY
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Cover image Frederic Edwin Church, detail of 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 92 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Cotopaxi (1862). Oil on canvas, 48 in. x 7 ft. 1
in. Copyright © The Detroit Institute of Arts,
Founders Society Purchase with funds from Mr. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-
and Mrs. Richard A. Manoogian, Robert H. PUBLICATION DATA
Tannahill Foundation Fund, Gibbs-Williams Monroe, J. S. (James'S.)
Fund, Dexter M. Ferry, Jr. Fund, Merrill Fund, Physical geology : exploring the Earth / James S. Monroe,
and Beatrice W. Rogers Fund. Reed Wicander.
p. cm.
Frederic Edwin Church was one of America's ISBN 0-314-00559 -5
premier landscape painters of the mid-nineteenth 1. Physical geology. I. Wicander, Reed, 1946- . II. Title.
century. His paintings were magnificent in scope QE28.2.M655 1992

and sought to integrate realism with the majesty 550-dc20 91-29160
of nature. Cotopaxi, which shows the Ecuadoran CIP (go)
volcano erupting, is an excellent example of
Church's work. This painting was chosen for the
cover because of its realism and to show how
geology plays an integral part in the human
endeavor.
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BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface xvii 12 The Sea Floor 314

Developing Critical Thinking and Study Skills xxiii 13 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory 340
1 Understanding the Earth: An Introduction to 14 Deformation, Mountain Building, and the
Physical Geology 2 Evolution of Continents 376
2 A History of the Universe, Solar System, 15 Mass Wasting 414
and Planets 26 16 Running Water 450
3 Minerals 54 17 Groundwater 484
4 Volcanism 80 18 Glaciers and Glaciation 514
5 Igneous Rocks and Intrusive Igneous 19 The Work of Wind and Deserts 546
Activity 110
20 Shorelines and Shoreline Processes 572
6 Weathering, Erosion, and Soil 134
7 Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks 158 Answers to Multiple-Choice and Fill-in-the-Blank
8 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks 190 Review Questions 599
9 Geologic Time 214 Glossary 601
10 Earthquakes 250 Index 617
11 The Interior of the Earth 286 Credits 633
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CONTENTS
Preface xvii Chapter Summary 22

Developing Critical Thinking and Study Important Terms 23
Skills xxiii Review Questions 23
Additional Readings 24
CHAPTER 1
UNDERSTANDING THE EARTH:

CHAPTER 2
An Introduction to Physical Geology

A HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSE,
Prologue 3 SOLAR SYSTEM, AND PLANETS
Introduction 5
What Is Geology? 5 Prologue 27
Geology and the Human Experience 7 Introduction 28
How Geology Affects Our Everyday Lives 8 The Origin of the Universe 29
Perspective 1—1: How Much Science Does the
The Origin and Early Development of the
Solar System 30
Public Need to Know? 10
General Characteristics of the Solar System 30
The Earth as a Dynamic Planet 1
Current Theory of the Origin and Early History of
Perspective 1-2: The Gaia Hypothesis 12 the Solar System 31
Geology and the Formulation of Theories 12 Meteorites 33
The Formulation of Plate Tectonic Theory 14 The Planets 35
Guest Essay: Science: Our Need to Know 15 The Terrestrial Planets 35
Mercury 35
Plate Tectonic Theory 16
The Rock Cycle 16 Perspective 2—1: The Tunguska Event 36
Geologic Time and Uniformitarianism 21 Venus 38
Contents vii
Perspective 2—2: The Evolution of Climate on the Ferromagnesian Silicates 66
Terrestrial Planets 40 Nonferromagnesian Silicates 67
Mars 43 Carbonate Minerals 67
The Jovian Planets 44 Perspective 3-1: Quartz— A Common
Jupiter 44 Useful Mineral 68
Saturn 44 Other Mineral Groups 68
Uranus 45 Physical Properties of Minerals 69
Neptune and Pluto 45 Color and Luster 69
The Origin and Differentiation of the Early Earth 46 Crystal Form 70
The Origin of the Earth-Moon System 49 Cleavage and Fracture 71
Chapter Summary 51 Hardness 72
Important Terms 52 Specific Gravity 72
Review Questions 52
Perspective 3-2: Diamonds and Pencil Leads 73
Other Properties 74
Important Rock-Forming Minerals 74
Mineral Resources and Reserves 76
Chapter Summary 78
Important Terms 78
Review Questions 78
CHAPTER
MINERALS
Prologue 55
Introduction 56
Matter and Its Composition 56
Elements and Atoms 56
Bonding and Compounds 58 VOLCANISM
Ionic Bonding 58
Covalent Bonding 59 Prologue 81
Metallic and van der Waals Bonds 60 Introduction 84
Minerals 60 Magma and Lava 85
Naturally Occurring, Inorganic Substances 60 Composition 85
Guest Essay: Mineralogy: A Career with Diverse Temperature 86
Pursuits 61 Viscosity 86
Volcanism 87
The Nature of Crystals 62
Volcanic Gases 87
Chemical Composition 62
Lava Flows and Pyroclastic Materials 87
Physical Properties 64
Mineral Diversity 64 Perspective 4—1: Volcanism in the Solar
Mineral Groups 64 System 88

Silicate Minerals 65 Perspective 4-2: Volcanic Gases and Climate 90
Contents
Volcanoes 92 Perspective 5-1: Ultramafic Lava Flows 120
Shield Volcanoes 93 Andesite-Diorite 121
Perspective 4—3: Monitoring Volcanoes and Rhyolite-Granite 121
Forecasting Eruptions 94 Other Igneous Rocks 122
Cinder Cones 97 Intrusive Igneous Bodies: Plutons 123
Composite Volcanoes 98 Dikes and Sills 123
Lava Domes 98 Laccoliths 125
Fissure Eruptions 99 Volcanic Pipes and Necks 125
Batholiths and Stocks 125
Guest Essay: Monitoring Volcanic Activity 100
Mechanics of Batholith Emplacement 126
Pyroclastic Sheet Deposits 101
Pegmatites 128
Distribution of Volcanoes 102 Plate Tectonics and Igneous Activity 129
Plate Tectonics and Volcanism 102
Perspective 5-2: Complex Pegmatites 130
Volcanism at Spreading Ridges 103
Volcanism at Subduction Zones 105 Chapter Summary 132
Intraplate Volcanism 106 Important Terms 132
Chapter Summary 107 Review Questions 133
Important Terms 107 Additional Readings 133
Review Questions 108
CHAPTER
CHAPTER 5 WEATHERING, EROSION,
AND SOIL
IGNEOUS ROCKS AND INTRUSIVE
Prologue 135
IGNEOUS ACTIVITY Introduction 136
Mechanical Weathering 137
Prologue 111
Frost Action 138
Introduction 112
Pressure Release 139
Igneous Rocks 113
Thermal Expansion and Contraction 139
Textures 113
Perspective 6 — 1: Bursting Rocks and
Composition 115
Sheet Joints 140
Bowen's Reaction Series 115
Crystal Settling 116 Activities of Organisms 141
Assimilation 117 Chemical Weathering 141
Magma Mixing 118 Solution 141
Classification 118 Oxidation 142
Ultramafic Rocks 119 Hydrolysis 143
Basalt-Gabbro 119 Perspective 6-2: Acid Rain 144
Contents
Factors Controlling the Rate of Chemical Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 168
Weathering 144 Limestone-Dolostone 168
Particle Size 145 Perspective 7—1: The Mediterranean Desert 170
Climate 146 Evaporites 170
Parent Material 146 Chert 171
Soil 147 Coal 172
The Soil Profile 148 Sedimentary Facies 173
Factors Controlling Soil Formation 149 Marine Transgressions and Regressions 174
Climate 149 Environmental Analysis 175
Parent Material 151 Sedimentary Structures 175
Organic Activity 151 Fossils 177
-"-Guest Essay: Environmental Geology: Sustaining Environment of Deposition 179
the Earth 152 Sediments, Sedimentary Rocks, and Natural
Relief and Slope 153 Resources 180
Time 153 Petroleum and Natural Gas 181
Soil Erosion 153 Uranium 183
Weathering and Mineral Resources 154 Banded Iron Formation 183
Chapter Summary 155 Perspective 7-2: Persian Gulf Petroleum 184
Important Terms 156 Chapter Summary 187
Review Questions 156 Important Terms 188
Additional Readings 157 Review Questions 188
CHAPTER 7
SEDIMENT AND
CHAPTER
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS METAMORPHISM AND
Prologue 159 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Introduction 160
Sediment Transport and Deposition 160 Prologue 191
Lithification: Sediment to Sedimentary Rock 162 Introduction 193
Guest Essay: Exploring for Oil and Natural Gas The Agents of Metamorphism 193
164 Heat 193
Pressure 194
Sedimentary Rocks 165
Fluid Activity 195
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks 166
Conglomerate and Sedimentary Breccia 166 Perspective 8 — 1: Asbestos 196
Sandstone 166 Types of Metamorphism 197
Mudrocks 167 Contact Metamorphism 197
Contents
1
Dynamic Metamorphism 200 Radiocarbon Dating Methods 239

Regional Metamorphism 200 Perspective 9-2: Radon: The Silent Killer 240
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks 201
Tree-Ring and Fission Track Dating Methods 242
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks 201
The Development of the Geologic Time Scale 243
Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks 205
Metamorphic Zones and Facies 206 "•-Guest Essay: Paleontology: Tracing Life through
Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics 208 Time 244

Metamorphism and Natural Resources 208 Chapter Summary 247
Perspective 8—2: Graphite 210 Important Terms 248
Chapter Summary 211
Important Terms 211
CHAPTER 10
CHAPTER 9 EARTHQUAKES
GEOLOGIC TIME Prologue
Introduction
251
253
ElasticRebound Theory 254
Prologue 215
Seismology 255
Introduction 216
The Frequency and Distribution of Earthquakes 258
Early Concepts of Geologic Time and the Age of
the Earth 216 Guest Essay: Geology Meets Public Policy 260
James Hutton and the Recognition of Geologic Seismic Waves 261
Time 218 Body Waves 261
Relative DatingMethods 219 Surface Waves 263
Fundamental Principles of Relative Dating 219 Locating an Earthquake 263
Unconformities 222 Measuring Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude 264
Applying the Principles of Relative Dating to the Intensity 264
Reconstruction of the Geologic History of Magnitude 266
an Area 223 The Destructive Effects of Earthquakes 269
Correlation 227 Ground Shaking 269
Absolute Dating Methods 23 Perspective 10-1: Designing Earthquake-Resistant
Atoms, Elements, and Isotopes 231 Structures 270
Perspective 9-1: Subsurface Correlation and the Fire 273
Search for Oil and Natural Gas 232 Tsunami 274
Radioactive Decay and Half-Lives 234 Ground Failure 275
Sources of Uncertainty 235 Earthquake Prediction 276
Long-Lived Radioactive Isotope Pairs 239 Earthquake Precursors 276
Contents xi
Model 278 Chapter Summary 312
Dilatancy
Important Terms 312
Earthquake Prediction Programs 279
Earthquake Control 280
-^Perspective 10-2: A Predicted Earthquake That
Didn't Occur 281
Chapter Summary 283
Important Terms 284
THE SEA FLOOR

Prologue 315
Introduction 316 '
-
THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH Oceanographic Research 317

Continental Margins 318
Prologue 287 The Continental Shelf 319
Introduction 288 ^Perspective 12-1: Lost Continents 320
Seismic Waves 289
The Continental Slope and Rise 322
The Discovery of the Earth's Core 290
Turbidity Currents, Submarine Canyons, and
Density and Composition of the Core 291
Submarine Fans 322
-•-Guest Essay: Geology: An Unexpected But Types of Continental Margins 323
Rewarding Career 293 The Deep-Ocean Basin 325
The Mantle 294 Abyssal Plains 325
Structure and Composition of the Mantle 295 Oceanic Trenches 326
The Earth's Crust 297 Oceanic Ridges 326
The Earth's Internal Heat 297 Fractures in the Sea Floor 329
-^Perspective 11-1: Kimberlite Pipes -Windows to Seamounts, Guyots, and Aseismic Ridges 329
the Mantle 298 -^Perspective 12-2: Maurice Ewing and His
Heat Flow 300 Investigation of the Atlantic Ocean 330
^Perspective 11-2: Seismic Tomography 301 Deep-Sea Sedimentation 330
Measuring Gravity 302 Reefs 332
Composition of the Oceanic Crust 334
The 303
Principle of Isostasy
Resources from the Sea 334
The Earth's Magnetic Field 306
Chapter Summary 337
Inclination and Declination of the
Magnetic Field 307 Important Terms 338
Magnetic Anomalies 309 Review Questions 338
Magnetic Reversals 310
Contents
Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of
Natural Resources 371
Chapter Summary 373
Important Terms 373
CHAPTER 13
PLATE TECTONICS:
A Unifying Theory
Prologue 341
Introduction 342
Early Ideas about Continental Drift 343
CHAPTER 14
Alfred Wegener and the Continental Drift

Hypothesis 344 DEFORMATION, MOUNTAIN
The Evidence for Continental Drift 345 BUILDING, AND THE EVOLUTION
Continental Fit
Similarity of
345
Rock Sequences and Mountain
OF CONTINENTS
Ranges 346
Prologue 377
Glacial Evidence 347
Introduction 378
Fossil Evidence 349
Deformation 379
Paleomagnetism and Polar Wandering 349
Strike and Dip 379
Sea-Floor Spreading 351
Folds 380
"^ Perspective 13 — 1: Paleogeographic Maps 352 Monoclines, Anticlines, and Synclines 381
Deep-Sea Drilling and the Confirmation of Plunging Folds 383
Sea-Floor Spreading 355 """ Guest Essay: Studying the Earth: Reflections of an
Plate Tectonic Theory 357 Enthusiast 384
Plate Boundaries 357
Domes and Basins 385
Divergent Boundaries 357
Joints 386
^Perspective 13-2: Tectonics of the Faults 389
Terrestrial Planets 358
^"Perspective 14—1: Folding, Joints, and
Convergent Boundaries 361 Arches 390
Oceanic-Oceanic Boundaries 362
Dip-Slip Faults 391
Oceanic-Continental Boundaries 363
Strike-Slip Faults 393
Continental-Continental Boundaries 364
Oblique-Slip Faults 394
"^ Guest Essay: Geoscience Careers— The Diversity is
Mountains 395
Unparalleled 365 Types of Mountains 396
Transform Boundaries 366 Mountain Building: Orogenesis 397
PlateMovement and Motion 366 Plate Boundaries and Orogenesis 397
Hot Spots and Absolute Motion 368 Orogenesis at Oceanic-Oceanic Plate
The Driving Mechanism of Plate Tectonics 369 Boundaries 397
Contents xiii
Orogenesis at Oceanic-Continental Plate Flows 433
Boundaries 399 Complex Movements 437
Orogenesis at Continental-Continental Plate Recognizing and Minimizing the Effects of
Boundaries 399 Mass Movements 439
^"Perspective 14—2: The Origin of the ""'Perspective 15-2: The Vaiont Dam Disaster 440
Rocky Mountains 400 Chapter Summary 448
The Origin and Evolution of Continents 405 Important Terms 448
Shields, Cratons, and the Evolution Review Questions 449
of Continents 405 Additional Readings 449
^Perspective 14—3: Plate Tectonic History of
the Appalachians 406
Microplate Tectonics and Mountain Building 408
Chapter Summary 410
Important Terms 411
CHAPTER 16
RUNNING WATER
Prologue 451
Introduction 452
The Hydrologic Cycle 452
CHAPTER 15 Running Water 454
Sheet Flow versus Channel Flow 455
Stream Gradient 456
MASS WASTING Velocity and Discharge 457
"^ Guest Essay: Managing Our Water Resources 458
Prologue 415 Stream Erosion 459
Introduction 417 Transport of Sediment Load 460
Factors InfluencingMass Wasting 418 Stream Deposition 461
Slope Gradient 419 Braided Streams and Their Deposits 462
Weathering and Climate 420 Meandering Streams and Their Deposits 463
Water Content 420 Floodplain Deposits 464
Vegetation 420 "^ Perspective 16—1: Predicting and
Overloading 421
Controlling Floods 465
Geology and Slope Stability 421
Triggering Mechanisms 421 Deltas 466
"^ Perspective 15—1: The Tragedy at Alluvial Fans 469
Drainage Basins and Drainage Patterns 470
Aberfan, Wales 422
Base Level 472
Types of Mass Wasting 424 The Graded Stream 474
Falls 425 Development of Stream Valleys 475
Slides 426 Superposed Streams 476
"•'Guest Essay: Cleansing the Earth— Waste Stream Terraces 477
Management 427 Incised Meanders 478
xiv Contents
"^ Perspective 16—2: Natural Bridges 479
Chapter Summary 480
Important Terms 480
CHAPTER 18
GLACIERS AND GLACIATION

Prologue 515
Introduction 516
CHAPTER 17 Glaciers and the Hydrologic Cycle 516
The Origin of Glacial Ice 517
Types of Glaciers 518
GROUNDWATER The Glacial Budget 519
Rates of Glacial Movement 520
Prologue 485 Glacial Erosion and Transport 522
Introduction 486 Erosional Landforms of Valley Glaciers 524
Groundwater and the Hydrologic Cycle 486 U-Shaped Glacial Troughs 524
Porosity and Permeability 487 Hanging Valleys 526
The Water Table 488 Cirques, Aretes, and Horns 526
Groundwater Movement 489 Erosional Landforms of Continental Glaciers 528
Springs, Water Wells, and Artesian Systems 489 Glacial Deposits 528
Springs 490 Landforms Composed of Till 528
Water Wells 491 End Moraines 528
"^ Perspective 17—1: Mammoth Cave National Lateral and Medial Moraines 530
Park, Kentucky 492 Drumlins 530
Landforms Composed of Stratified Drift 531
Artesian Systems 493
Groundwater Erosion and Deposition 495 Outwash Plains and Valley Trains 531
Karnes and Eskers 531
Sinkholes and Karst Topography 495
Glacial Lake Deposits 532
Caves and Cave Deposits 496
Pleistocene Glaciation 533
Modifications of the Groundwater System and
Their Effects 498 ^Perspective 18 — 1: Glacial Lake Missoula and the
Lowering of the Water Table 500 Channeled Scablands 534
Saltwater Incursion 500 Pleistocene Climates 536
Subsidence 502 Pluvial and Proglacial Lakes 537
Groundwater Contamination 504 "^ Perspective 18—2: A Brief History of the
"^ Perspective 17—2: Radioactive Waste Disposal 506 Great Lakes 538
Hot Springs and Geysers
506 Changes in 539
Sea Level
Geothermal Energy 509 Glaciers and Isostasy 540
Chapter Summary 511 Causes of Glaciation 540
Important Terms 512 The Milankovitch Theory 541
Review Questions 512 Short-Term Climatic Events 541
Additional Readings 513 Chapter Summary 542
Contents xv
Important Terms 543
CHAPTER 20
SHORELINES AND
SHORELINE PROCESSES
CHAPTER 19
Prologue 573
Introduction 574
THE WORK OF WIND Wave Dynamics 575
Wave Generation 576
AND DESERTS ^Guest Essay: Geophysics and the Search for Oil 576
Prologue 547 Shallow- Water Waves and Breakers 577
Introduction 549 Nearshore Currents 578
Sediment Transport by Wind 549 ^Perspective 20—1: Waves and Coastal
Bed Load 549 Flooding 579
Suspended Load 550 Wave Refraction and Longshore Currents 580
Wind Erosion 550 Rip Currents 580
Abrasion 550 Shoreline Deposition 581
Deflation 551 Beaches 582
^Perspective 19 — 1: Evidence of Wind Activity Seasonal Changes in Beaches 583
on Mars 552 Spits and Bay mouth Bars 584
Wind Deposits 552 Barrier Islands 585
The Formation and Migration of Dunes 553 The Nearshore Sediment Budget 587
Dune Types 554 Shoreline Erosion 587
Loess 556 ^ Perspective 20—2: Rising Sea Level and
Air Pressure Belts and Global Wind Patterns 558 Coastal Management 588
The Distribution of Deserts 559 Wave-cut Platforms and Associated Landforms 591
Characteristics of Deserts 561 Types of Coasts 592
Temperature, Precipitation, and Vegetation 561 Submergent and Emergent Coasts 592
^Perspective 19—2: Death Valley National Tides 594
Monument 562 Chapter Summary 596
Weathering and Soils 564 Important Terms 597
Mass Wasting, Streams, and Groundwater 565 Review Questions 597
Wind 566 Additional Readings 598
Desert Landforms 566
Chapter Summary 569 Answers to Multiple-Choice and Fill-in-the-Blank
Important Terms 570 Review Questions 599
Review Questions 570 Glossary 601
Additional Readings 571 Index 617
Credits 633
xvi Contents
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PREFACE
The Earth dynamic planet that has changed contin-

is a students can see, through relevant and interesting exam-
uously during 4.6 billion years of existence. The size,
its ples, how geology impacts our lives.
shape, and geographic distribution of the continents and

ocean basins have changed through time, as have the
atmosphere and biota. Over the past 20 years, bold new
^ TEXT ORGANIZATION
theories and discoveries concerning the Earth's origin Plate tectonic theory is the unifying theme of geology
and how it works have sparked a renewed interest in and book. This theory has revolutionized geology
this
geology. We have become increasingly aware of how because it provides a global perspective of the Earth and
fragile our planet is and, more importantly, how inter- allows geologists to treat many seemingly unrelated geo-
dependent all of its various systems are. We have learned logic phenomena as part of a total planetary system.
that we cannot continually pollute our environment and Because plate tectonic theory is so important, it is intro-
that our natural resources are limited and, in most cases, duced in Chapter 1, and is discussed in most subsequent
nonrenewable. Furthermore, we are coming to realize chapters in terms of the subject matter of that chapter.
how central geology is to our everyday lives. For these We have organized Physical Geology: Exploring the
and other reasons, geology is one of the most important Earth into several informal categories. Chapter 1 is an
college or university courses a student can take. introduction to geology, its relevance to the human ex-
Physical Geology: Exploring the Earth was designed perience, plate tectonic theory, the rock cycle, and geo-
for a one-semester introductory course in geology that logic time and uniformitarianism. Chapter 2 discusses
serves both majors and nonmajors in geology and the the origin of the universe, the solar system and planets,
Earth sciences. It was written with the student in mind. and the Earth's place in the evolution of this larger sys-
One of the problems with any introductory science tem. Chapters 3-8 examine the Earth's materials (min-
course is that the students are overwhelmed by the erals and igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks)
amount of material that must be learned. Furthermore, and the geologic processes associated with them includ-
most of the material does not seem to be linked by any ing the role of plate tectonics in their origin and distri-
unifying theme and does not always appear to be rele- bution. Chapter 9 discusses geologic time, introduces
vant to their lives. several dating methods, and explains how geologists
One of the goals of this book
is to provide students correlate rocks. Chapters 10—14 deal with the related
with a basic understanding of geology and its processes topics of the Earth's interior, the sea floor, earthquakes,
and, more importantly, with an understanding of how deformation and mountain building, and plate tecton-
geology relates to the human experience; that is, how ics. Chapters 15-20 cover the Earth's surface processes.
geology affects not only individuals, but society in gen- We have found, as have many of the reviewers of this
eral. With this goal in mind, we introduce the major book, that presenting the material in this order works
themes of the book in the first chapter to provide stu- well for most students. We know, however, that many
dents with an overview of the subject and enable them instructors prefer an entirely different order of topics
to see how the various systems of the Earth are interre- depending on the emphasis in their course. We have there-
lated. We also discuss the economic and environmental fore written this book so that instructors can present
aspects of geology throughout the book rather than the chapters in any order that suits the needs of their
treating these topics in separate chapters. In this way course.
Text Organization xvii

^ CHAPTER ORGANIZATION Prologues
All chapters have the same organizational format. Each Many of the introductory prologues focus on the human
chapter opens with a photograph relating to the chapter aspects of geology such as the eruption of Krakatau
material, a detailed outline, and a prologue, which is (Chapter 1), the Loma Prieta earthquake (Chapter 10),
designed to stimulate interest in the chapter material by or the story of Floyd Collins (Chapter 17).
discussing some aspect of the chapter in detail.
The text is written in a clear informal style, making it
Economic and Environmental Geology
easy for students to comprehend the material. Numer-
ous diagrams and photographs complement the text, The topics of environmental and economic geology are
providing a visual representation of the concepts and discussed throughout the text rather than being treated
information presented. Each chapter contains at least in separate chapters at the end of the book as is done in
two Perspectives that present a brief discussion of an many other physical geology books. Integrating eco-
interesting aspect of geology or geological research. nomic and environmental geology with the chapter ma-
The end-of-chapter materials begin with a concise terial helps students see the importance and relevance of
review of important concepts and ideas in the Chapter geology to their lives. In addition, many chapters close
Summary. The Important Terms, which are printed in with a section on resources, further emphasizing the im-
boldface type in the chapter text, are listed at the end of portance of geology in today's world.
each chapter for easy review, and a full glossary of im-
portant terms appears at the end of the text. The Review
Perspectives
Questions are another important feature of book; this
they include multiple-choice questions with answers as The chapter perspectives often focus on aspects of en-
well as short answer and essay questions. Each chapter vironmental, economic, or planetary geology such as
concludes with a list of Additional Readings, many of asbestos and graphite (Chapter 8), radioactive waste dis-
which are written at a level appropriate for beginning posal (Chapter 17), and wind activity on Mars (Chapter
students interested in pursuing a particular topic. 19). The topics for the Perspectives were chosen to pro-
vide students with-tan overview of the many fascinating
aspects of geology. The perspectives can be assigned as
» SPECIAL FEATURES part of the chapter reading, used as the basis for lecture
or discussion topics, or even used as the starting point
This book contains a number of special features that set
for student papers.
it apart from other physical geology textbooks. Among
them and study skills section, the
are a critical thinking
chapter prologues, guest essays by people who chose Guest Essays
geology or geologically related fields for their careers,
A number of guest essays are interspersed throughout the
the integration of economic and environmental geologic
book. These essays focus on three themes— how and why
issuesthroughout the book, and a set of multiple-choice
the individuals became interested in geology as a potential
questions with answers for each chapter.
career, their current areas of research, and the possible so-
ciopolitical ramifications of their specific field. The essayists
include Randolph H. Bromery (University of Massachu-
Study Skills
setts at Amherst and former president of the Geological
Immediately following the Preface is a section devoted Society of America), Susan M. Landon (a consulting geol-
to developing critical thinking and study skills. This sec- ogist), Michael L. McKinney (a paleontologist at the Uni-
tion contains hints to help students improve their study versity of Tennessee), Malcolm Ross (United States Geo-
habits, prepare for exams, and generally get the most logical Survey), and Steve Stow (head of nuclear waste
out of every course they take. While these tips can be disposal at Oak Ridge National Laboratories).
helpful in any course, many of them are particularly
relevant to geology. Whether you are just beginning col-
Planetary Geology
lege or about to graduate, take a few minutes to read
over this section as these suggestions can help you in Planetary geology is discussed in Chapter 2 rather than
your studies and later in life. at the end of the book as it is in many other physical
xviii Preface
geology textbooks. This early coverage of comparative tryorganized by region, all images from the textbook,
planetary geology allows meaningful examples to be in- animated sequences, quiz frames, and clips from appro-
troduced later in the book. Furthermore, it enables the priate topical films.
student to understand how the origin and early evolution Two slide sets will be provided. The first set will
of the Earth fit into the larger context of the origin and include 150 of the most important and attractive figures
history of the solar system. The book has been planned, and photographs of rocks and minerals, as well as pho-
however, so that Chapter 2 can be covered at any time tographs from the book, and the second set will contain
in the course or omitted altogether if the instructor at least 300 slides illustrating important geologic fea-
wishes. The planetary examples later in the book are not tures. The majority of these photographs will be from
dependent on the student having read Chapter 2. North America, but examples from around the world
and the solar system will also be provided.
Transparency masters of the important charts, graphs,
Review Questions and figures will be available as well as a set of full-color
Most physical geology books have a set of review ques- transparency acetates to provide clear and effective illus-
tions at the end of each chapter. This book, however, trations of important artwork from the text. An important
includes not only the usual essay and thought-provoking feature of the transparencies is that the maps will all be the
questions, but also a set of multiple-choice questions, same size, so they can be used as overlays to show, for
something not found in other physical geology text- example, volcano and earthquake distributions and plate
books. The answers to the multiple-choice questions are boundaries.
at the end of the book so that students can check their A Newsletter will be provided to adopters each year
answers and increase their confidence before taking an to update the book with recent and relevant research
examination. disclosures. This will ensure that your students have the
most current information available.
Lastly, in addition to publishing a separate student
Unique Illustrations
study guide, we have incorporated much of the material
The figures include many pieces of original artwork de- usually found in such guides into thebook itself. This saves
signed especially for this book. Many of the illustrations students time and money and also makes the book a more
depicting geologic processes or events are block dia- valuable learning tool. For those students who want fur-
grams rather than cross sections so that students can ther study aid, a study guide is also available.
more easily visualize the salient features of these pro-

cesses
human
and events. In an effort to focus attention
aspects of geology, we have also included
on the
many
^ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
paintings, drawings, and historical photographs. As the authors, we are, of course, responsible for the
organization, style, and accuracy of the text, and any
mistakes, omissions, or errors are our responsibility. The
» INSTRUCTOR ANCILLARY finished product is the culmination of several years of
MATERIALS work during which we received numerous comments
and advice from many geologists who reviewed parts of
To assist you in teaching this course and supplying your
students with the best in teaching aids, West Publishing
the text. We wish to express our sincere appreciation to
the following reviewers whose contributions were in-
Company has prepared a complete supplemental pack-
valuable:
age available to all adopters.
The Comprehensive Instructor's Manual will include
Gary C. Allen
teaching ideas, lecture outlines (including notes on fig-
University of New Orleans
ures and photographs available as slides), teaching tips,
Consider This lecture questions, Enrichment Topics, R. Scott Babcock
global examples, slides, transparency masters and ace- Western Washington University
tates as well as a computerized test bank. Kennard Bork
A videodisc for use in lecture has been developed to Denison University
accompany the text. The videodisc includes, among Thomas W. Broadhead
other things, a wealth of images from around the coun- University of Tennessee at Knoxville
Acknowledgments xix
Anna Buising James F. Petersen
California State University at Hayward Southwest Texas State University
F. Howard Campbell HI Katherine H. Price
James Madison University DePauw University
Larry E. Davis William D. Romey
Washington State University St. Lawrence University
Noel Eberz Gary Rosenberg

California State University at San Jose Indiana University, Purdue University at Indianapolis
Allan A. Ekdale David B. Slavsky
University of Utah Loyola University of Chicago
Stewart S. Farrar Edward F. Stoddard
Eastern Kentucky University North Carolina State University
Richard H. Fluegeman, Jr. Charles P. Thornton

Ball State University Pennsylvania State University
William J. Fritz Samuel B. Upchurch
Georgia State University University of South Florida
Kazuya Fujita John R. Wagner
Michigan State University Clemson University
Norman Gray
University of Connecticut We also wish to thank Professor Emeritus Richard V.
Jack Green Dietrich of Central Michigan University for reading var-
California State University at Long Beach ious drafts of the book, providing us with several pho-
David R. Hickey tographs, and discussing various aspects of the text with
Lansing Community College us on numerous occasions. In addition, we are grateful
R. W. Hodder Geology Department of Cen-

to the other membtJrs of the
tral Michigan University for reading various drafts and
University of Western Ontario
providing us with photographs. They are David J. Matty,
Cornells Klein
Jane M. Matty, Wayne E. Moore, and Stephen D. Stahl.
University of New Mexico
We also thank Mrs. Martha Brian of the Geology De-
Lawrence Knight W partment, whose word processing skills and general ef-
William Rainey Harper College
ficiency were invaluable during the preparation of the
Martin B. Lagoe manuscript, and Bruce M. C. Pape of the Geography De-
University of Texas at Austin partment for providing photographs. David Hickey de-
Richard H. Lefevre serves special thanks for his assistance with the devel-
Grand Valley State University opment of many of the excellent ancillaries for the text,
I. P. Martini and for proofing all of the illustrations in the text. Ad-
University of Guelph, Ontario ditionally, we wish to acknowledge the fine efforts of
Michael McKinney Kathleen Chiras in coordinating the Guest Essay feature.
University of Tennessee at Knoxville

We are also grateful for the generosity of the various
agencies and individuals from many countries who pro-
Robert Merrill
vided photographs.
California State University at Fresno
must go to Jerry Westby, college edi-
Special thanks
Carleton Moore
torial manager West Publishing Company, who
for
Arizona State University
made many valuable suggestions and patiently guided us
Alan P. Morris through the entire project. His continued encourage-
University of Texas at San Antonio ment provided constant inspiration and helped us pro-
Harold Pelton duce the best possible book. We are equally indebted to
Seattle Central Community College our production manager, Barbara Fuller, whose atten-
Preface
tion to detail and consistency is greatly appreciated as sponsible for much of the rest of the art program. They
are her unflagging efforts and diligence in securing many did an excellent job, and we enjoyed working with
of the photographs and paintings used in the book. Bar- them. We would also like to acknowledge our promo-
bara was especially helpful in responding to our last- tion manager, Ann Hillstrom, for her help in the devel-
minute concerns as she guided the book through final opment of the promotional poster that is available with
production.We would also like to thank Patricia Lewis this book, and Maureen Rosener, marketing manager,
for her excellent copyediting and indexing skills. We who developed the excellent videodisc that accompanies
appreciate her help in improving our manuscript. Be- this book.
cause geology is such a visual science, we extend special Our families were patient and encouraging when most
thanks to Carlyn Iverson who rendered the reflective art of our spare time and energy were devoted to this book.
and to the artists at Precision Graphics who were re- We thank them for their support and understanding.
Acknowledgments xxi
DEVELOPING CRITICAL
THINKING AND STUDY
SKILLS
* INTRODUCTION beneficial, waiting until the last minute usually leads to
mistakes and a subpar performance. By setting clear,
College demanding and important time, a time when
is a
specific goals and working toward them on a regular
your values will be challenged, and you will try out new
basis, you can greatly reduce the temptation to procras-
ideas and philosophies. You will make personal and ca-
tinate. It is work efficiently for short periods of
better to
reer decisions that will affect your entire life. With this
time than to put in long, unproductive hours on a task,
new freedom you will enjoy, one of the most important
which is usually what happens when you procrastinate.
things you must learn is how to balance your time
Another key to success in college is staying physically
among work, study, and recreation. If you develop good
It is easy to fall into the habit of eating nothing but
fit.
time management and study skills early in your college
junk food and never exercising. To be mentally alert,
career, you will find that your college years will be suc-
you must be physically fit. Try to develop a program of
cessful and rewarding.
regular exercise. You will find that you have more en-
This section offers some suggestions to help you max-
ergy, feel better, and study more efficiently.
imize your study time and develop critical thinking and
study skills that will benefit you, not only in college, but
throughout your life. While mastering the content of a ^ GENERAL STUDY SKILLS
course is obviously important, learning how to study
Most courses, and geology in particular, build upon pre-
and to think critically is, in many ways, far more im-
vious material, so it is extremely important to keep up
portant. Like most things in life, learning to think crit-
with the coursework and set aside regular time for study
ically and study efficiently will initially require addi-
ineach of your courses. Try to follow these hints, and
tional time and effort, but once mastered, these skills
you will find you do better in school and have more time
will save you time in the long run.
for yourself:
You may already be familiar with many of the sug-
gestions and may find that others do not directly apply Develop the habit of studying on a daily basis.
to you. Nevertheless, if you take the time to read this •*» Set aside a specific time each day to study.
section and apply the appropriate suggestions to your Some people are day people, and others are
own we are confident that you will become a
situation, night people. Determine when you are most
better and more efficient student, find your classes more alert and use that time for study.
rewarding, have more time for yourself, and get better » Have an area dedicated for study. It should
grades. We have found that the better students are usu- include a well-lighted space with a desk and the
ally also the busiest. Because these students are busy study materials you need, such as a dictionary,
with work or extracurricular activities, they have had to thesaurus, paper, pens and pencils, and a
learn to study efficiently and manage their time effec- computer if you have one.
tively. » Study for short periods and take frequent
One of the keys to success in college is avoiding pro- breaks, usually after an hour of study. Get up
crastination. While procrastination provides temporary and move around and do something completely
satisfaction because you have avoided doing something different. This will help you stay alert, and
you did not want to do, in the long run procrastination you'll return to your studies with renewed
leads to stress. While a small amount of stress can be vigor.
General Study Skills xxiii

Try to review each subject every day or at least example, pt (plate tectonics), iggy (igneous),
the day of the class. Develop the habit of meta (metamorphic), sed (sedimentary), rx
reviewing lecture material from a class the same (rock or rocks), ss (sandstone), my (million
day. years), and gts (geologic time scale).
"v Become familiar with the vocabulary of the Rewrite your notes soon after the lecture.
course. Look up any unfamiliar words in the Rewriting your notes helps reinforce what you
glossary of your textbook or in a dictionary. heard and gives you an opportunity to
Learning the language of the discipline will help determine whether you understand the material.
you learn the material. By learning the vocabulary of the discipline
before the lecture, you can cut down on the
amount you have to write— you won't have to
^ GETTING THE MOST FROM write down a definition if you already know
YOUR NOTES the word.
Learn the mannerisms of the professor. If he or
Ifyou are to get the most out of a course and do well on
she says something is important or repeats a
exams, you must learn to take good notes. This does not
point, be sure to write it down and highlight it
mean you should try to take down every word your
in some way. Students have told me (RW) that
professor says. Part of being agood note taker is know-
when I stated something twice during a lecture,
ing what is important and what you can safely leave out.
they knew it was important and probably
Early in the semester, try to determine whether the
would appear on a test. (They were usually
lecture will follow the textbook or be predominantly
right!)
new material. If much of the material is covered in the
Check any unclear points in your notes with a
textbook, your notes do not have to be as extensive or
classmate or look them up in your textbook.
detailed as when the material is new. In any case, the
Pay particular attention to the professor's
following suggestions should make you a better note
examples. These usually elucidate and clarify an
taker and enable you to derive the maximum amount of
important point and are easier to remember
information from a lecture:
than an abstract concept.
-^- Regardless of whether the lecture discusses the Go to class regularly, and sit near the front of
same material as the textbook or supplements the class if possible. It is and see
easier to hear
the reading assignment, read or scan the what is written on the board or projected onto
chapter the lecture will cover before class. This the screen, and there are fewer distractions.
way you will be somewhat familiar with the If the professor allows it, tape record the
concepts and can listen critically to what is lecture, but don't use the recording as a
being said rather than trying to write down substitute for notes. Listen carefully to the
everything. Later a few key words or phrases lecture and write down the important points;
will jog your memory as to what was said. then fill in any gaps when you replay the
-w- Before each lecture, briefly review your notes tape.
from the previous lecture. Doing this will If your school allows and they are available,
it,
refresh your memory and provide a context for buy These are usually taken
class lecture notes.
the new material. by a graduate student who is familiar with the
-*«• Develop your own style of note taking. Do not material; typically they are quite
try to write down every word. These are notes comprehensive. Again use these notes to
you're taking, not a transcript. Learn to supplement your own.
abbreviate and develop your own set of Ask questions. If you don't understand
abbreviations and symbols for common words something, ask the professor. Many students
and phrases: for example, w/o (without), w are reluctant to do this, especially in a large
(with), = (equals), A(above or increases), V lecture hall, but if you don't understand a
(below or decreases), < (less than), > (greater point, other people are probably confused as
than), &c (and), u (you). well. If you can't ask questions during a
Geology lends itself to many abbreviations that lecture, talk to the professor after the lecture or
can increase your note-taking capability: for during office hours.
xxiv Developing Critical Thinking and Study Skills

^ GETTING THE MOST OUT OF Whenever you encounter new facts, ideas, or
WHAT YOU READ concepts, be sure you understand and can
define all of the terms used in the discussion.
The old adage "you get out of something what you
that Determine how the facts or information was
put into it" is very true when it comes to reading text- derived. If the facts were derived from
books. By carefully reading your text and following experiments, were the experiments well
these suggestions, you can greatly increase your under- executed and free of bias? Can they be
standing of the subject: repeated? The current controversy over cold
"» Look over the chapter outline to see what the fusion is an excellent example. Two scientists
claim to have produced cold fusion reactions
material about and how it flows from topic
is
using simple experimental laboratory
to topic. If you have time, skim through the
apparatus, yet other scientists have as yet been
chapter before you start to read in depth.
•^ Pay particular attention to the tables, charts, unable to achieve the same reaction by
repeating the experiments.
and figures. They contain a wealth of
information in abbreviated form and illustrate
•- Do not accept any statement at face value.
What is the source of the information? How
important concepts and ideas. Geology, in
reliable is the source?
particular, is a visual science, and the figures
Consider whether the conclusions follow from
and photographs will help you visualize what is
the facts. If the facts do not appear to support
being discussed in the text and provide actual
the conclusions, ask questions and try to
examples of features such as faults or
determine why they don't. Is the argument
unconformities.
^ As you read your textbook, highlight or logical or is it somehow flawed?
underline key concepts or sentences, but make Be open to new ideas. After all, the underlying
sureyou don't highlight everything. Make notes principles of plate tectonic theory were known
in the margins. If you don't understand a term
early in this century, yet were not accepted until
the 1970s in spite of overwhelming evidence.
or concept, look it up in the glossary.
»• Read the chapter summary carefully. Be sure you Look at the big picture to determine how
understand all of the key terms, especially those
various elements are related. For example, how
in bold face or italic type. Because geology builds
will constructing a dam across a river that
flows to the sea affect the stream's profile?
on previous material, it is imperative that you
understand the terminology.
What will be the consequences to the beaches
^ Go over the end-of-chapter questions. Write
that will be deprived of sediment from the
out your answers as if you were taking a test.

river? One of the most important lessons you
Only when you see your answer in writing will can learn from your geology course is how
interrelated the various systems of the Earth
you know if you really understood the material.
are.When you alter one feature, you affect
numerous other features as well.
^ DEVELOPING CRITICAL
THINKING SKILLS IMPROVING YOUR MEMORY
Few things in life and white, and it is impor-
are black
Why do you remember some things and not others? The
tant to be able to examine an issue from all sides and
reason is that the brain stores information in different
come to a logical conclusion. One of the most important
ways and forms, making it easy to remember some
things you will learn in college is to think critically and
things and difficult to remember others. Because college
not accept everything you read and hear at face value.
requires that you learn a vast amount of information,
Thinking critically is particularly important in learning
any suggestions that can help you retain more material
new material and relating it to what you already know.
will help you in your studies:
Although you can't know everything, you can learn to
question effectively and arrive at conclusions consistent "» Pay attention to what you read or hear. Focus
with the facts. Thus, these suggestions for critical think- on the task at hand, and avoid daydreaming.
ing can help you in all your courses: Repetition of any sort will help you remember
Improving Your Memory xxv

material. Review the previous lecture before "•" Focus on what is important. You can't
going to or look over the last chapter

class, remember everything, so focus on the
before beginning the next. Ask yourself important points of the lecture or the chapter.
questions as you read. Try to visualize the big picture, and use the
Use mnemonic devices to help you learn facts to fill in the details.
unfamiliar material. For example, the order of

the Paleozoic periods (Cambrian, Ordovician,
Silurian, Devonian, Mississippian, ^ PREPARING FOR EXAMS
Pennsylvanian, and Permian) of the geologic
For most students, tests are the critical part of a course.
time scale can be remembered by the phrase,
To do on an exam, you must be prepared. These
well
Campbell's Onion Soup Does Make Peter Pale,
suggestions will help you focus on preparing for the
or the order of the Cenozoic epochs (Paleocene,
examination:
Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, and
Pleistocene) can be remembered by the phrase, ^ The most important advice is to study regularly
Put Eggs On My Plate Please. Using rhymes rather than try to cram everything into one
can also be helpful. massive study session. Get plenty of rest the
»' Look up the roots of important terms. If you night before an exam, and stay physically fit to
understand where a word comes from, its avoid becoming susceptible to minor illnesses
meaning will be easier to remember. For that sap your strength and lessen your ability to
example, pyroclastic comes from pyro meaning concentrate on the subject at hand.
fire and clastic meaning broken pieces. Hence a t Set up a schedule so that you cover small parts
pyroclastic rock is one formed by volcanism of the material on a regular basis. Learning
and composed of pieces of other rocks. We some concrete examples will help you
have provided the roots of many important understand and remember the material.
terms throughout this text to help you -* Review the chapter summaries. Construct an
remember their definitions. outline to make sure you understand how
^ Outline the material you are studying. This will everything fits together. Drawing diagrams will
help you see how the various components are help you remember key points. Make up flash
interrelated. Learning a body of related material cards to help you remember terms and
is much easier than learning unconnected and concepts.
discrete facts. Looking for relationships is •*r Form a study group, but make sure your group
particularly helpful in geology because so many focuseson the task at hand, not on socializing.
things are interrelated. For example, plate Quiz each other and compare notes to be sure
tectonics explains how mountain building, you have covered all the material. We have
volcanism, and earthquakes are all related found that students dramatically improved their
(Chapter 13). The rock cycle relates the three grades after forming or joining a study group.
major groups of rocks to each other and to -v Write out answers to all of the end-of-chapter
subsurface and surface processes (Chapter 1). questions. Review the key terms. Go over all of
•^ Use deductive reasoning to tie concepts the key points the professor emphasized in
together. Remember that geology builds on class.
what you learned previously. Use that material If you have any questions, visit the professor or
as your foundation and see how the new teaching assistant. review sessions are
If
material relates to it. offered, be sure to attend. If you are having

•w Draw a picture. If a picture and
you can draw problems with the material, ask for help as
label its parts,you probably understand the soon as you have difficulty. Don't wait until the
material. Geology lends itself very well to this end of the semester.
type of memory device because so much is If old exams are available, look at them to see
visual. For example, instead of memorizing a what is emphasized and what type of questions
long list of glacial terms, draw a picture of a are asked. Find out whether the exam will be
and label its parts and the type of

glacier all objective or all essay or a combination. If
topography it forms. you have trouble with a particular type of
xxvi Developing Critical Thinking and Study Skills

question (such as multiple choice or essay), Furthermore, the multiple-choice questions may
practice answering questions of that type— your contain many of the facts needed to answer
study group or a classmate may be able to help. some of the essay questions.
Read the question carefully and answer only
^ TAKING EXAMS what it asks. Save time by not repeating the
question as your opening sentence to the
It is nowtime to take the exam. The most important answer. Get right to the point. Jot down a
thing to remember is not to panic. This, of course, is quick outline for longer essay questions to
easier said than done. Almost everyone suffers from test make sure you cover everything.
anxiety to some degree. Usually, it passes as soon as the "»- Ifyou don't understand a question, ask the
exam begins, but in some cases, it is so debilitating that examiner. Don't assume anything. After all, it is
the individuals do not perform as well as they should. If your grade that will suffer if you misinterpret
you are one of those people, get help as soon as possible. the question.
Most colleges and universities have a program to help If you have time, review your exam to make
students overcome test anxiety or at least keep it in sure you covered all the important points and
check. Don't be afraid to seek help if you suffer test answered all the questions.
anxiety. Your success in college depends to a large extent » Ifyou have followed our suggestions, by the
on how well you perform on exams, so by not seeking time you finish the exam, you should feel
help, you are only hurting yourself. In addition, the fol- confident that you did well and will have cause
lowing suggestions may be helpful: for celebration.
"w First of all, relax. Then look over the exam

briefly to see its format and determine which
questions are worth the most points. If it helps,
^ CONCLUDING COMMENTS
down any information you are
quickly jot We hope that the suggestions we have offered will be of
you might forget or particularly want to
afraid benefit to you not only in this course, but throughout
remember for a question. your college career. While it is difficult to break old
*• Answer the questions that you know the best habits and change a familiar routine, we are confident
first. Make sure, however, that you don't spend that following these suggestions will make you a better
too much time on any one question or on one student. Furthermore, many of the suggestions will help
that is worth only a few points. you work more efficiently, not only in college, but also
-*" If the exam
is a combination of multiple choice throughout your career. Learning is a lifelong process
and essay,answer the multiple-choice questions that does not end when you graduate. The critical think-
first. If you are not sure of an answer, go on to ing skills that you learn now will be invaluable through-
the next one. Sometimes the answer to one out your life, both in your career and as an informed
question can be found in another question. citizen.
Concluding Comments xxvii

PHYSICAL
GEOLOGY
EXPLORING THE EARTH
CHAPTER 1
UNDERSTANDING THE
EARTH: An Introduction
to Physical Geology
ÔUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS GEOLOGY?
GEOLOGY AND THE HUMAN
EXPERIENCE
HOW GEOLOGY AFFECTS OUR
EVERYDAY LIVES
~w Perspective 1-1: How Much
' Science Does
the Public Need to Know?
THE EARTH AS A DYNAMIC PLANET
T Perspective 1-2: The Gaia Hypothesis
GEOLOGY AND THE FORMULATION
OFTHEORIES
The Formulation of Plate Tectonic Theory
IT Guest Essay: Science: Our Need to Know
PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
THE ROCK CYCLE
GEOLOGIC TIME AND
UNIFORMITARIANISM
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Volcanic peaks of the island of Moorea, part

of the French Polynesian Islands chain. These
islands formed as a result of volcanic
eruptions caused by plate movement.
PROLOGUE
On August 26, 1883, Krakatau, a
small, uninhabited volcanic island in
the Sunda between Java and Sumatra, exploded
Straits
(Fig. 1-1). In less than one day, 18 cubic kilometers
(km 3 ) of rock were erupted in an ash cloud 80
kilometers (km) high. The explosion was heard as far
away and Rodriguez Island, 4,653 km to
as Australia
the west in the Indian Ocean. Where the 450 meter
(m) high peak of Danan once stood, the water was
now 275 m deep, and only one-third of the km 5x9
island remained above sea level (Fig. 1-2). The
explosions and the collapse of the chamber that held
the magma (molten rock) beneath the volcano
produced giant sea waves, some as high as 40 m. On
nearby islands, at least 36,000 people were killed and
165 coastal villages destroyed by the sea waves that
hurled ashore coral blocks weighing more than 540
metric tons.
So much ash was blown into the stratosphere that
theSunda Straits were completely dark from 10 a.m.,
August 27, until dawn the next day. Ash was reported
falling on ships as far away as 6,076 km. The sun
appeared to be blue and green as volcanic dust, ash,
and aerosols circled the equator in 13 days. As these
"^ FIGURE 1-1 Krakatau's climactic explosion in August
airborne products spread to higher latitudes, vivid red
1883 was preceded by several smaller eruptions. This
sunsets were common around the world for the next
photograph was taken on May 27, 1883, one week after
three years (Fig. 1-3). The volcanic dust in the Krakatau's initial eruption. It shows ash and steam erupting
stratosphere not only created spectacular sunsets, it from a vent at Perbawatan on the south side of the island.
also reflectedincoming solar radiation back into
space; the average global temperature dropped as
much as 1/2°C during the following year and did not
return to normal until 1888. Why have we chosen the eruption of Krakatau as
Of course,animal life was destroyed on
all an introduction to physical geology? The eruption was
Krakatau. The remaining portion of the original island dramatic and interesting in its own right, but it also
was blanketed by tens of meters of volcanic ash and illustrates several of the aspects of geology that we
pumice; two months later, the ash and pumice were will be examining, including the way the Earth's
still so hot that walking was difficult! A year after the interior, surface, and atmosphere are all interrelated.
eruption, a few shoots of grass appeared, and three Sumatra, Java, Krakatau, and the Lesser Sunda
years later 26 species of plants had colonized the Islands are part of a 3,000 km long chain of volcanic
island, thus providing a suitable habitat for animals. islands that make up the nation of Indonesia. Their
The first creatures to reach Krakatau probably flew or location is a result of a collision between two pieces
were lofted in by the wind; later, others either swam of the Earth's outer layer, generally called the crust.
or were rafted to the island on driftwood or other The theory that the Earth's crust is divided into rigid
flotsam. Upon arrival, the various animals rapidly plates that move over a plastic zone is known as plate
multiplied, and today most of the species on Krakatau tectonics (see Chapter 13). This unifying theory
are widely distributed. explains and ties together such apparently unrelated
Prologue
Lampong Bay
Krakatau'^
'"•'
FIGURE 1-2 (a) Krakatau, part of the island nation of
Indonesia, is located in the Sunda Straits between Java and
Krakatau Island-After
Sumatra, (b) Krakatau before and after the 1883 eruption.
After the eruption, only one-third of the island remained
above sea level. (b)
"^" FIGURE 1-3 Airborne volcanic ash and dust particles geologic phenomena as volcanic eruptions,
from the eruption of Krakatau soon encircled the globe, earthquakes, and the origin of mountain ranges.
producing exceptionally long, beautiful sunsets. This sunset In tropical areas such as Indonesia, physical and
was sketched by William Ascroft in London, England, at chemical processes rapidly break down ash falls and
4:40 p.m. on November 26, 1883, three months after lava flows, converting them into rich, productive soils
Krakatau erupted.
for agriculture (see Chapter 6). These soils can
support large populations, and, in spite of the dangers
of living in a region of active volcanism, a strong
correlation exists between volcanic activity and
population density. Indonesia has experienced 972
eruptions during historic time, 83 of which have
caused fatalities. Yet these same eruptions are also
ultimately responsible for the high food production
that can support large numbers of people.
Volcanic eruptions also affect weather patterns;
recall that the eruption of Krakatau caused a global
cooling of 1/2°C. More recently, the 1982 eruption of
El Chichon in Mexico resulted in lower global
temperatures and abnormal weather patterns (see
Chapter 4).
4 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Physical Geology

As you read thisbook, keep in mind that the Earth's interiorand surface. These eruptions not only
different topics you are studying are parts of dynamic have an immediate effect on the surrounding area, but
interrelated systems, not isolated pieces of also contribute to climatic changes that affect the
information. Volcanic eruptions such as Krakatau are entire planet.
the result of complex interactions involving the
^ INTRODUCTION mineralogy, the study of minerals; petrology, the study

of rocks; stratigraphy, the study of the sequence of geo-
One major benefit of the space age is the ability to look
logic events as recorded in successive layers of rock;
back from space and view our planet in its entirety.
structural geology, the study of the deformation of the
Every astronaut has remarked in one way or another on
Earth's crust; geophysics, the application of physical
how the Earth stands out as an inviting oasis in the
laws and principles to the study of the Earth, particu-
otherwise black void of space (Fig. 1-4).
larly its interior; paleontology, the study of fossils; and
The Earth is unique among the planets of our solar
paleogeography, the study of the Earth's past geograph-
system in that it supports life and has oceans of water, a
ical features.
hospitable atmosphere, and a variety of climates. It is
Nearly every aspect of geology has some economic or
ideally suited for life as we know it because of a com-
environmental relevance, so it is not surprising that
bination of factors, including its distance from the Sun
and the evolution of its interior,
many geologists are involved in exploration for mineral
crust, oceans, and at-
and energy resources. Geologists use their specialized
mosphere. Over time, changes in the Earth's atmo-
sphere, oceans, and, to some extent, its crust have been
influenced by life processes. In turn, these physical
changes have affected the evolution of life. "^ FIGURE 1-4 The Earth as seen from Apollo 17.
The Earth is not a simple, unchanging planet. Rather, Almost the entire coastline of Africa is visible in this view,
it is a complex dynamic body which innumerable in which extends from the Mediterranean Sea area to the
Antarctic south polar ice cap. The Asian mainland is on the
interactions are occurring among
many components. its
horizon toward the northeast, where the Arabian Peninsula
The continual evolution of the Earth and its life makes
can be seen, and Madagascar is visible off the eastern coast
geology an exciting and ever-changing science in which of Africa. In addition, numerous storm systems can be seen
new discoveries are continually being made. over the Atlantic and Indian oceans.
^ WHAT IS GEOLOGY?
Justwhat is geology and what is it that geologists do?
Geology, from the Greek geo and logos, is defined as
"the study of the Earth." It is generally divided into two
broad areas — historical geology and physical geology.
Historical geology examines the origin and evolution of
the Earth, its continents, oceans, atmosphere, and life.
However, before one can interpret the Earth's an past,

understanding of physical geology is needed. This in-
volves the study of Earth materials, such as minerals and
rocks, as well as the processes operating within the
Earth and upon its surface.
The discipline of geology is so broad that it is subdi-
many
vided into different fields or specialties. Figure 1-5
shows many of the diverse fields of geology and their
relationship to the sciences of astronomy, physics, chem-
istry, and biology. Some of the specialties of geology are
What is Geology?
,
Geomorp ho|fogy
" an
(landscape
-T.
fc>r»—
aP6,t>rn
»"o!
** ^
^"A#
0?V
FIGURE 1-5 Some of geology's many subdivisions and their relationship to the other sciences.
knowledge to locate the natural resources on which our geology ways in the search
in increasingly sophisticated
industrialized society is based. Such mineral resources as for mineraland energy resources (Fig. 1-6).
coal, petroleum, metals, sand,and gravel are nonrenew- Although locating mineral and energy resources is ex-
able, and once known deposits of them are depleted, tremely important, geologists are also being asked to use
new deposits or suitable substitutes must be found. As their expertise to help solve many of our environmental
the world demand for these nonrenewable resources in- problems. Some geologists are involved in finding ground-
creases, geologists are applying the basic principles of water for the ever-burgeoning needs of communities and
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Physical Geology

industries or in monitoring surface and underground wa- tent to which we depend on geology in our everyday
ter pollution and suggesting ways to clean it up. Geolog- livesand also at the numerous references to geology in
ical engineering is being used to find safe locations for the arts, music, and literature (see the articles by R. V.
dams, waste disposal sites, and power plants, as well as to Dietrich listed at the end of this chapter for an extensive
help design earthquake-resistant buildings. discussion of these topics).
Geologists are also involved in making short- and Rocks and landscapes are realistically represented in
long-range predictions about earthquakes and volcanic many sketches and paintings. Examples by famous art-
eruptions and the potential destruction that may result. ists include Leonardo da Vinci's Virgin of the Rocks and
In addition, they are working with civil defense planners Virgin and Child with Saint Anne, Giovanni Bellini's
to help draw up contingency plans should such natural Saint Francis in Ecstasy and Saint Jerome, and Asher
disasters occur. Brown Durand's Kindred Spirits (Fig. 1-7).
As this em-
brief survey illustrates, geologists are In the field of music, Ferde Grofe's Grand Canyon
ployed wide variety of pursuits. As the world's pop-
in a Suite was, no doubt, inspired by the grandeur and time-
ulation increases and greater demands are made on the lessness of Arizona's Grand Canyon and its vast rock
Earth's limited resources, the need for geologists and exposures. The rocks on the Island of Staffa in the Inner
their expertise will become even greater. Hebrides provided the inspiration for Felix Men-
delssohn's famous Hebrides Overture (Fig. 1-8).
In literature, references to geology abound in The Ger-
^ GEOLOGY AND THE man Legends of the Brothers Grimm. Jules Verne's jour-
HUMAN EXPERIENCE ney to the Center of the Earth describes an expedition
into the Earth's interior (see Chapter 10 Prologue). On
Most people are aware of the importance of geology in one level, the poem "Ozymandias" by Percy B. Shelley
the search for energy resources and in the prediction and deals with the fact that nothing lasts forever
and even
minimization of damage caused by various natural di- solid rock eventually disintegrates
under the ravages of
sasters. Many people, however, are surprised at the ex- time and weathering. References to geology can even be
^ FIGURE 1-6 (a) Geologists

measuring the amount of erosion on
a glacier in Alaska, (b) Geologists
increasingly use computers in their
search for petroleum and other
natural resources.
Geology and the Human Experience

found in comics, two of the best known being B.C. by
Johnny Hart and The Far Side by Gary Larson (Fig. 1-9).
Geology has also played an important role in history.
Wars have been fought for the control of such natural
resources as oil, gas, gold, silver, diamonds, and other
valuable minerals. Empires throughout history have
risen and fallen on the distribution and exploitation of
natural resources. The configuration of the Earth's sur-
face, or its topography, which is shaped by geologic
agents, plays a critical role in military tactics. Natural
barriers such as mountain ranges and rivers have fre-
quently served as political boundaries.
^ HOW GEOLOGY AFFECTS

OUR EVERYDAY LIVES
Destructive volcanic eruptions, devastating earth-
quakes, disastrous landslides, large sea waves, floods,
and droughts are headline-making events that affect
many people (Fig. 1-10). Although we are unable to
prevent most of these natural disasters, the more we
know about them, the better we are able to predict, and
possibly control, the severity of their impact. The envi-
ronmental movement has forced everyone to take a
closer look at our planet and the delicate balance be-
FIGURE 1-7 Kindred Spirits by Asher Brown Durand tween its various systems.
(1849) realistically depicts the layered rocks occurring along Most readers of this book will not go on to become
gorges in the Catskill Mountains of New York State. Asher professional geologists. However, everyone should have
Brown Durand was one of numerous artists of the
a basic understanding of the geological processes that
nineteenth-century Hudson River School, who were known
ultimately affect all of us. Such an understanding of
for their realistic landscapes.
geology is important so that one can avoid, for example,
"^ FIGURE 1-8 Felix Mendelssohn was

inspired by the rocks on the Island of Staffa in
the Inner Hebrides, when he wrote the famous
Hebrides (also known as Fingal's Cave)
Overture. Mendelssohn wrote the opening bars
of this overture while visiting Staffa.

building in an area prone to landslides or flooding. Just
ask anyone who purchased a home in the Portuguese jtted hits Caucasus region, 40 de
Bend area of southern California during the 1950s (Fig.

15-31) or who built along a lakeshore and later saw the
lake level rise and the beach and sometimes even their
house disappear.
As society becomes increasingly complex and techno-
logically oriented, we, as citizens, need an understand- <;^:
ing of science so that we can make informed choices
'§5 #*•<&
about those things that affect our lives (see Perspective
1-1). We are already aware of some of the negative as-
pects of an industrialized society, such as problems re-
lating to solid waste disposal, contaminated groundwa-
ter, and acid rain. We are also learning the impact that
humans, in increasing numbers, have on the environ-

ment and that we can no longer ignore the role that we -^ FIGURE 1-10 As these headlines from various
play in the dynamics of the global ecosystem. newspapers indicate, geology affects our everyday lives.
"^ FIGURE 1-9 References to geology are frequently

Most people are unaware of the extent to which ge-
found in comics as illustrated by this Gary Larson Far Side ology affects their everyday lives. For many people, the
cartoon. connection between geology and such well-publicized
problems as nonrenewable energy and mineral re-
THE FAR SIDE By GARY LARSON
sources, let alone waste disposal and pollution, is simply
too far removed or too complex to be fully appreciated.
But consider for a moment just how dependent we are
on geology in our daily routines.
Much of the electricity for our appliances comes from
the burning of coal, oil, or natural gas or from uranium
consumed in nuclear-generating plants. It is geologists
who and uranium. The cop-
locate the coal, petroleum,
per or other metal wires through which electricity trav-
els are manufactured from materials found as the result
of mineral exploration. The buildings that we live and

work in owe their very existence to geological resources.
A few examples are the concrete foundation (concrete is
a mixture of clay, sand, or gravel, and limestone), the
drywall (made largely from the mineral gypsum), the
windows (the mineral quartz is the principal ingredient
in the manufacture of glass), and the metal or plastic
plumbing fixtures inside the building (the metals are
from ore deposits and the plastics are most likely man-
ufactured from petroleum distillates of crude oil).
Furthermore, when we go to work, the car or public
transportation we use is powered and lubricated by
some type of petroleum by-product and is constructed
of metal alloys and plastics. And the roads or rails we
ride over come from geologic materials, such as gravel,
'You know, I used to like this hobby ... But shoot! asphalt, concrete, or steel. All of these items are the
Seems like everybody's got a rock collection." result of processing geologic resources.
How Geology Affects our Everyday Lives

Perspective 1-1
HOW MUCH SCIENCE DOES

THE PUBLIC NEED TO KNOW?
We live in an age of increasingly greater complexity in victim to charlatans. How can we make informed
which scientific and technological innovations are decisions about nuclear power, toxic water, and a host
emerging at an astonishingly rapid rate. New of other critical issues that affect us all if we cannot
discoveries in medicine, chemistry, and electronics are separate fact from fiction and logically follow debates
announced almost daily. Advances in computer about issues involving science and technology?
technology have revolutionized the way we live and In a 1985 Gallup poll, 55% of American teenagers
work. For example, we use computers to type letters believed that astrology works, and a poll in Great
and documents, to get cash from automated teller Britain revealed that 75% of the population accepts the
machines, and to read the prices of our purchases idea that astrology is scientific. One does not have to
through bar code scanners at the supermarket. look much beyond the supermarket checkout counter to
Computers even control the engines of our cars and see the public's interest in and fascination with such
operate robots in many of our mines and factories. pseudosciences as astrology, parapsychology, UFOs, and
As jobs become more technologically oriented, it is New Age "science," particularly the belief in the healing
imperative that everyone know more science and how and spiritual powers of crystals.
it impacts on our lives, particularly in terms of its An unquestioning obedience to the dictates of some
application to technology. According to a 1985 pseudosciences, or to a discredited scientific theory, can
National Science Board report, however, the last time have devastating results. One of the most tragic
most high school students ever take a math or science examples of adherence to a disproved scientific theory
course is the tenth grade. Furthermore, students in the involved Trofim Denisovich Lysenko (1898-1976) who
United States spend only one-half to one-third as became president of the So\aet Academy of Agricultural
much time learning science as do students in Sciences in 1938. Lysenko endorsed the theory of
Germany, the Soviet Union, China, and Japan. If our inheritance of acquired characteristics according to
nation is to compete in the global marketplace, we which plants and animals could be changed in desirable
must have a scientifically literate work force. ways simply by exposing them to a new environment.
It is becoming increasingly clear that the American For example, according to Lysenko, seeds exposed to
public knows and understands very little science. In dry conditions would acquire a resistance to drought,
1988, one American in five knew what DNA was, yet and this trait would be inherited by future generations.
we are debating whether and under what conditions Lysenko accepted inheritance of acquired characteristics
the genetic code of organisms should be purposely because of its apparent compatibility with
altered. About 50 percent of American adults said Marxist-Leninist philosophy. As president of the
they did not understand the concept of radiation. Yet academy, Lysenko did not allow any other research to
we are being asked to decide whether we should have be conducted concerning inheritance mechanisms.
our homes checked for radon concentrations (see Unfortunately for the Soviet people, inheritance of
Perspective 9-2) and to vote on measures to build or acquired characteristics had been discredited as a
close down nuclear power plants. scientific theory more than 50 years before. The
Based on a study conducted in 1985, John Miller, results of Lysenko's belief in the political correctness
director of the Public Opinion Laboratory at Northern of this theory were widespread crop failures,
Illinois University, estimated that only 5% of the U. S. starvation, and misery for millions of people.
public was scientifically literate. According to Dr. Miller, The lesson to bedrawn from this example is that
scientific literacy means understanding the scientific scientific research must be based on scientific realities,
method, knowing the common vocabulary of science, not philosophical beliefs. Science proceeds on the basis
and appreciating the social impact of scientific advances. of the scientific method, and all persons need at least
The essential point of Dr. Miller's survey was that a rudimentary knowledge of this method and the way
only 1 in every 20 Americans understands science and science works if they are to make intelligent and
the way science works. One implication of this is that informed decisions.
we, as consumers and citizens, run the risk of falling
"^ FIGURE 1-11 A cross section of the Earth
illustrating the core, mantle, and crust. The enlarged
portion shows the relationship between the lithosphere,
composed of the continental crust, oceanic crust, and
upper mantle, and the underlying asthenosphere and
lower mantle.
It is quite apparent that as individuals and societies, ers as a function of variations in composition, temper-
the standard of living we enjoy is directly dependent on ature, and pressure.
the consumption of geologic materials. Therefore, we The core, the innermost part of the Earth, has a cal-
need to be aware of geology and of how our use and culated density of 10 to 13 grams per cubic centimeter
3
misuse of geologic resources may affect the delicate bal- (g/cm ) and occupies about 16% of the Earth's total
ance of nature and irrevocably alter our culture as well volume. Seismic (earthquake) data indicate that the core
as our environment. and a larger, appar-
consists of a small, solid inner core
ently liquid, outer core.The core is inferred to consist
^ THE EARTH AS A largely of iron and a small amount of nickel.
The mantle surrounds the core and comprises about
DYNAMIC PLANET 83% ot t he Earth's volume. It is less dense than the core
The Earth is a dynamic planet that has continuously (475 g/cm J and is thought to be composed largely^ of
)
changed during its 4.6-billion-year existence. The size, peridotite, a dark, dense rock containing abundant iron
shape, and geographic distribution of continents and and magnesium. The mantle is divided into three dis-
ocean basins have changed through time, the composi- tinct zones. The lower mantle is solid and forms most of
tion of the atmosphere has evolved, and life-forms ex- the volume of the Earth's interior. The asthenosphere,
isting today differ from those that lived during the past. which surrounds the lower mantle, is also solid, al-
We can easily visualize how mountains and hills are though it behaves plastically and slowly flows. Partial
worn down by erosion and how landscapes are changed melting within the asthenosphere generates magma,
by the forces of wind, water, and ice. Volcanic eruptions some of which rises to the Earth's surface because it is
and earthquakes reveal an active interior, and folded less dense than the rock from which it was derived. The
and broken rocks indicate the tremendous power of the upper mantle surrounds the asthenosphere. This solid
Earth's internal forces. upper mantle and the overlying crust constitute the
The Earth consists of three concentric layers: the lithosphere, which is broken into numerous individual
core, the mantle, and the crust (Fig. 1-11). This orderly pieces called plates that move over the asthenosphere.
division results from density differences between the lay- Interactions of these plates are responsible for such phe-
The Earth as a Dynamic Planet 11

Lovelock proposed a mathematical model that he called composition of the atmosphere has changed through
Daisyworld, in which an imaginary planet is populated geologic time. And many of these changes were
only by white and black daisies. If the temperature on detrimental to life, as indicated by the various mass
Daisyworld rises, the black daisies absorb too much heat extinctions seen in the fossil record. If, according to
and die, thus leaving mostly white daisies that reflect the Gaia hypothesis, the biosphere was able to
more heat and cool down. When Daisyworld
the planet regulate the environment to suit itself, why have there
cools sufficiently, black daisies thrive again and absorb been periods of biological instability?
more heat. In short, there is a feedback mechanism for As one would expect, there are strong objections to
temperature controls. the Gaia hypothesis. Many biologists dismiss it
Unquestionably, biologic processes are important, but because it is teleological; that is, it appeals to design
those who accept the Gaia hypothesis also claim that the or purpose in nature and thus cannot be tested. Some
proportions of various gases in the atmosphere are kept geologists point out that plate tectonics alone can
in balance by purposeful feedback mechanisms. They control the Earth's temperature through the recycling
point out that the present-day atmosphere is dominated of carbon dioxide (see Perspective 2-2).
by nitrogen and oxygen, both reactive gases that should While the Gaia hypothesis is, to say the least,
have long ago combined with other elements to form controversial, it remains to be seen whether it will
nitrates. Furthermore, they claim that without life, eventually become an acceptable theory. As in any
carbon dioxide should have become the dominant scientific endeavor, new and radical ideas must
atmospheric gas, as it is on Venus. Such feedback demonstrate their worth in the competitive field of
mechanisms, according to proponents of the Gaia hypothesis, evidence testing, and prediction. Perhaps
hypothesis, indicate that the Earth is a giant self- Gaia will be supported as scientists investigate its
regulating body in which there is an intimate connection theoretical postulates, or it may be rejected or
between the evolution of the living and nonliving modified depending on future discoveries. In any case,
components of the planet. Gaia has forced scientists to critically evaluate the
As some critics point out, however, the relationship between life and the global environment.
From a theory are derived predictive statements that can The fact that a scientific theory can be tested and is
be tested by observation and/or experiment so that their subject to such testing separates science from other
validity can be assessed. The law of universal gravitation is forms of human inquiry. Because scientific theories can
an example of a theory describing the attraction between be tested, they have the potential of being supported or
masses (an apple and the Earth in the popularized account even proved wrong. Accordingly, science must proceed
of Newton and his discovery). without any appeal to beliefs or supernatural explana-
Theories are formulated through the process known tions, not because such beliefs or explanations are nec-
as the scientificmethod. This method is an orderly, log- essarily untrue, but because we currently have no way to
ical approach that involves gathering and analyzing the investigate them. For this reason, science makes no
facts or data about the problem under consideration. claim about the existence or nonexistence of a supernat-
Tentative explanations or hypotheses are then formu- ural or spiritual realm.
lated to explain the observed phenomena. Next, the hy- Each scientific discipline has certain theories that are
potheses are tested to see if what they predicted actually of particular importance for that discipline. In geology,
occurs in a given situation (see Perspective 1-2). Finally, the formulation of plate tectonic theory has changed the
ifone of the hypotheses is found, after repeated tests, to way geologists view the Earth. Geologists now view
explain the phenomena, then that hypothesis is pro- Earth history in terms of interrelated events that are part
posed as a theory. One should remember, however, that of a global pattern of change.
in science, even a theory is still subject to further testing Before plate tectonic theory was generally accepted by
and refinement as new data become available. geologists, however, numerous interrelated hypotheses
Geology and the Formulation of Theories 13

'' ------- : •
3;e
— FIGURE 1-12 The Earth's

T;*t :
\:~. ~.:.\ ~zs. '''- ~ t '
\ \
-r." "' . r. 11: "i —:-•;

convection oeQs in which warm
-- -
i:;r ; :';-.rr :ttr :: :.-.t
Ii~- • f - .-. ir: :.-.; :

..-r'iit
:m.;. i- : :-t-. .r-'.r. .: - _
-;;-. :r;;t-i; ri:v ;- •

- = .-:
-:• •-; -:tr -.: Tr.t ~- trr.tr.:
of these coarectioa cells is

believed to be the mechanism
:; ;
:.-; .:.; ::: :.-.; ~: --.—.it.: ::
the Earth's plates, as shown in

this diagrammatic cross section.
were proposed and tested. Thus, the evolution of this the- and plants are found on different continents, and why
ory illustrates the scientific method at work. Because plate rocks indicating glacial conditions are now found on
tectonics affects and unifies so many aspects of geology, we continents located in the tropics.
will briefly examine the formulation of this theory. Wegener's hypothesis and its predictability could be
by asking what type of rocks or fossils would one
tested
expect to find at a given location on a continent if that
The Formulation of Plate Tectonic Theory
continent was in the tropics 180 million years ago. To
The idea that continents moved during the past goes test the hypothesis of continental drift, all researchers
back to the time when people first noticed that the mar- had to do was to go into the field and examine the rocks
gins of eastern South America and western Africa and fossils for a particular time period on any continent
looked as if they fit together. Geologists also noticed to see if they indicated what the hypothesis predicted for
that similar or identical fossils occur on widely sepa- the proposed location of that continent. In almost all
rated continents, that the same types of rocks from the cases, the data fit the hypothesis. However, there was
same time period are found on different continents, and one problem with Wegener's hypothesis: it did not ex-
that ancient rocks and features indicating former glacial plain how continents moved over oceanic crust and
conditions occur in today's tropical areas. As more and what the mechanism of continental movement was.
more facts were gathered, hypotheses were proposed to During the late 1950s and early 1960s, new data
explain them. In 1912, Alfred egener, a German me- W abouTthe sea floor emefgBihhat enabled geologists to
teorologist, amassed a tremendous amount of geologT- propose the hypothesisof sea-floor spreading. This hy-
-
cal, paleontologicai, and cGmatological ^lata thatlhdi- pothesis suggested that the continents and segments of
cated continents movortirough time; he proposed the oceanic crust move together as single units, and that
Hypothesis of continental drift to explain and synthesize some type of thermal convection cell system operating
this myriad of tacts. within the Earth was the mechanism responsible for
Wegener stated that at one time all of the continents plate movements Fig. 1-12 .
were united into one single supercontinent that he Sea-floor spreading and continental drift were then
named Pangaea. Pangaea later broke apart, and the in- combined into a single hypothesis in which moving rigid
dividual continents drifted to their current locations. plates are composed of continental and/or oceanic crust
The continental drift hypothesis explained why the and the underlying upper mande. These plates are
shorelines of different continents fit together, how dif- bounded by mid-oceanic ridges, oceanic trenches, faults,
ferent mountain ranges were once part of a larger con- and mountain belts. In this hypothesis, plates move
tinuous mountain range, why the same fossil animals away from mid-oceanic ridges and toward oceanic

Guest Essay JAMES D. WATKINS
rrmrnTTTTTTTTTmnTTT i > *?TtT TTT TT T TTTTTfT TT T T »?> ?TTT TTTT
SCIENCE: OUR NEED TO KNOW
The following essay is based on a speech ghen by genuine problems from false alarms. For example, a
toy Watkhis at the annual competition of the newspaper in Washington State reported, with big
American Neuspaper Publishers .\ssoaation in May 1°^1. headlines, that there was "Uranium in the Asparagus"
grown locally. Wiat the article did not say— although it
One of the goals of our society is the development oi
was reported two days later in a tiny item rucked behind
a comprehensive energy strategy that will assure us of
the sports section — is that you would have to eat 5,000
the energy we need economic growth into the
to sustain
metric tons of the asparagus per year for 50 yean
next century. But such a strategy cannot be limited to
a radiation dose equivalent to one ski trip to Aspen. At
energy production alone— it must also take steps to curb
best, the writer and editor of that story did not know
our growing demand for energy and must include
that radioactivity occurs naturally in some forms of
measures that will protect the environment.
plant life. Nor did they have any idea of what that
A major impediment to achieving this comprehensive
radiation level meant. Basic scientific literacy, including
energy strategy is the lack of scientific literacy in America.
knowledge of the most elementary facts about radiation,
How can we expect our population to understand the
would have enabled the newspaper and its readers to
intricacies of the debate on global climate change when
focus their attention on real problems.
half the adults in one survey did not know that the Earth
Finally, scientific literacy is essential if we are to fulfill
rakes one year to revolve around the Sun?
our duties as citizens. Consider the issue of global
How can we expect to compete on a world scale in
warming. How do scientists measure carbon dioxide so
the twenty-first century when most of our population
we can tell if things are getting better or worse? Does all
cannot speak the language of the disciplines of mathe-
the carbon dioxide come from power plants? How
matics and the various sciences? For example, the units
much is produced naturally — by rice fields and
thatwe use to compute energy consumption are quads.
cows — and how much is generated by human activities?
Does a quad have any meaning for you? It should — it is
These are the kinds of issues that we and our elected
the energy equivalent to burning half a million barrels of
representatives must increasingly grapple with. How
oil each day for one year, or a quadrillion BTU. The
prudent we are in our polio- choices will be determined
United States uses about 85 quads of primary energy
by the amount of informed knowledge we have at our
each year— nearly 25% of world consumption. That is
The fact is that informed public policy decision
disposal.
something that should concern all of us.
making can no longer be made without a fundamental
You may is not a problem
think that scientific literacy
understanding of science and technology. A
foryou personally; as long as our society produces
enough scientists to fill its laboratories, there is no crisis.
James D. Watkins graduated from the United Stares Naval
But you would be wrong. Scientific literacy has become
Academy and later earned a master's degree in mechanical
mandatory for even citizen. Today even- American
-
engineering from the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey.

household contains products and equipment that defy California. He then joined the navy's new nuclear submarine
explanation by the average rocket scientist, much less program where he became an administrative assistant to
the average adult, îhat is a microwave oven, and how Admiral H>tnan G. Rickover. Eventually. Watkins commanded
does it work? What happens to the water table when we the nuclear submarine IBS Snook and the navy's first
nudear-powered cruiser, the USS Long Beach. In 19S2, he was
use fertilizers and pesticides in our gardens? Is the
named chief of naval operations
asbestos insulation in the attic dangerous? that's the
and became a member of the Joint
health risk of radon? How can we determine whether Chiefs of Staff. Watkins retired
we have it in our homes? What's the link between the from the navy in 1986,
engines in our cars and the atmosphere? Very few announcing that henceforth he
American adults can answer these questions, yet these would devote pan of his fame to
issues— and others like them— are crucial to our promoting excellence — in
education, health, and
survival, both as individuals and as a nation.
motivation— among the nar
Even- day the American people must make decisions
youth. In 1989, President George
about the behaviors that influence their health and Bush named Watkins to be
well-being. They must also be able to distinguish secretary of energy.
trenches. Furthermore, new crust is added along the 1-14). The magma solidifies to form rock, which attaches
mid-oceanic ridges and consumed or destroyed along to the moving plates, thus increasing their size. The mar-
oceanic trenches, and mountain chains are formed ad- gins of divergent plate boundaries are marked by mid-
jacent to the oceanic trenches. oceanic ridges in oceanic crust and are recognized by
According to this later hypothesis, Europe and North linear rift valleys where newly forming divergent bound-
America should be steadily moving away from each aries occur beneath continental crust. The separation of
other at a rate of up to several centimeters per year. South America from Africa and the formation of the
Precise measurements of continental positions by satel- South Atlantic Ocean occurred along a divergent plate
lites have verified this, thus confirming the validity of the boundary, the Mid- Atlantic Ridge (Fig. 1-13).
plate movement hypothesis. Pl ates moving to ward one another collide at conver-
Furthermore, if plates are moving away from mid- gent plate b oundaries (Fig. 1-14). When a plate consist-
oceanic ridges as predicted by the plate tectonic hypothe- Ingof upper mantle and oceanic crust collides with one
sis, then rocks of the oceanic crust should become progres- composed of upper mantle and continental crusfT_for
sively older with increasing distance from the mid-oceanic example, the denser oceanic plate sinks beneath the con-
ridges (Fig. 13-12). To test this prediction, deep-sea sedi- tinental plate along a subduction zone. As Iheoceanic
ment and oceanic crust were drilled as part of a massive plate descends into the Earth's interior, it becomes in-
scientific study of the ocean basins called the Deep Sea creasingly hot until it melts, or partially melts, thus gen-
Drilling Project. Analysis of the oceanic crust and the layer erating a magma. This magma may erupt at the Earth's
of sediment immediately above it showed that the age of surface, thus forming a volcanic mountain range. The
the oceanic crust does indeed increase with distance from Andes Mountains on the west coast of South America
the mid-oceanic ridges, and that the oldest oceanic crust is are a goocT example of a volcanic mountain range
adjacent to the continental margins. formed as a result of subduction of the Nazca plate
With the confirmation of these and other predictions beneath the South American plate along a convergent
of the plate tectonic hypothesis, most geologists accept plate boundary (Fig. 1-13).
that the hypothesis is correct and therefore call it the Transform plate b oundaries are s^tes where plates
plate tectonic theory. Its acceptance has been so wide- slide sideways_past each otKeFTFigTT-14). The SarTAn-
spread not only because of the overwhelming evidence dreas fault in California, an example of a transform
supporting it but also because it appears to explain the plate boundary, separates the Pacific plate from the
relationships between many seemingly unrelated geo- North American plate (Fig. 1-13). The earthquake ac-
logic features and events. tivity along the San Andreas fault results from the Pacific
plate moving northward relative to the North American
^ PLATE TECTONIC THEORY plate.

A revolutionary theory when it was proposed in the
The acceptance of plate tectonic theory is recognized as 1960s, plate tectonic theory has had significant and far-
a major milestone in the geological sciences. It is com- reaching consequences in all fields of geology because it
parable to the revolution caused by Darwin's theory of provides the basis for relating many seemingly unrelated
evolution in biology. Plate tectonics has provided a geologic phenomena. For example, the Appalachian
framework for interpreting the composition, structure, Mountains North America and the mountain
in eastern
and internal processes of the Earth on a global scale. It ranges of Greenland, Scotland, Norway, and Sweden are
has led to the realization that the continents and ocean not the result of unrelated mountain-building episodes,
basins are part of a lithosphere-atmosphere-hydrosphere but rather are part of a larger mountain-building event
(water portion of the planet) system that evolved together that involved the closing of an ancient "Atlantic Ocean"
with the Earth's interior. (known and the formation of the supercon-
as Iapetus)
According to plate tectonic theory, the lithosphere is tinent Pangaea about 245 million years ago.
divided into seven major plates as well as a number of
smaller ones, all of which move,
dently over the asthenosphere (Fig.
more or
1-13).
less,
Zones of
indepen-
^ THE ROCK CYCLE
earthquake and volcanic activity occur along bound- Geologists recognize three major groups of rocks —
aries between plates. igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic—each of which is
At divergent plate boundaries, plates move apart as characterized by its mode of formation. Each group con-
magma rises tolhe surface from the asthenosphere (tig. tains a variety of individual rock types that differ from one
16 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Physical Geology-

Ridge axis Transform Subductxxi zone Zones of extension within continents Uncertain plate boundary
***'. FIGURE 1-13 The Earth"s lithosphere is divided into rigid plates of various sizes
that move over the asthenosphere.
"^ FIGURE 1-14 An idealized cross section illustrating the relationship between the
lithosphereand the underlying asthenosphere and the three principal types of plate
boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform.
-.-.'
:::;; :
"^ FIGURE 1-15 The rock cycle showing the interrelationships between the Earth's
internal and external processes and how each of the three major rock groups is related
to the others.
another on the basis of composition or texture, that is, Earth's surface produces intrusive igneous rocks, whil e
the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains. magma that cools at the Earth's surface produces ex tru-
The rock cycle is a way of viewing the interrelation- sive igneous rocks .
ships between the Earth's internal and external pro- Rocks exposed at the Earth's surface are broken into
cesses (Fig. 1-15). It relates the three rock groups to each particles and dissolved by various weathering processes.
other; to surficial processes such as weathering, trans- The particles a nd dissolved material may be transported
portation,and deposition; and to internal processes by wind, water, or ice and eventually deposited as sed -
such as magma
generation and metamorphism. Plate iment. This sediment may then be compacted or c e-
moveme nt i< th p mechanism responsible for recyding mented into sedimentary rock.
ro^kmatejials-and therefore drives trie rocTTcvcle. Sedimentary rocks originate by consolidation of rock
Igneous rocks result from the crystallization of fragme nts, precipitation of mineral matter from solu-
magma (Fig. 1 -16). As a magma cools, minerals crystal- ti on, or compaction ot plant or animal rema ins (big.
lize, and the resulting rock is characterized by interlock- 1-17). Because sedimentary rocks form at or near the
ing mineral grains. ,Magma that cools beneath the Earth's surface, geologists can make inferences about

^ FIGURE 1-16 Hand
specimens of two common
igneous rocks, {a) Basalt, a
common igneous rock,
forms by the rapid cooling
of magma at the Earth's
surface, (b) Granite,
another common igneous
rock, forms by the slow
cooling of magma below
the Earth's surface. (Photos
courtesy of Sue Monroe.)
the environment in which they were deposited, the type (see Chapter 7). Accordingly, sedimentary rocks are very
of transporting agent, and perhaps even something useful for interpreti ng Earth history .
about the source from which the sediments were derived Metamorphic rocks result from the transformation of
"•' FIGURE 1-17

Hand specimens of
various sedimentary
rocks, (a) Sandstone
forms by the
consolidation of
sand-sized mineral
grains, (b) Marine
limestone forms by the
extraction of mineral
matter from seawater
by organisms or by
inorganic precipitation
of the mineral calcite
from seawater. (e) Coal
forms by the
accumulation and
compaction of plant
material. (Photos
courtesy of Sue
Monroe.)
The Rock Cycle 19

•^ FIGURE 1-18
Hand specimens of two
common metamorphic
rocks, (a) Schist is a
foliated metamorphic
rock in which the mineral
grains have a preferred
orientation as a result of
pressure applied to the
parent rock. (£>) Marble,
a nonfoliated
metamorphic rock, is
formed by metamorphism
of the sedimentary rock
limestone. (Photos
preexisting rocks under the influence of elp varpH tem- As Figure 1-15 rock groups are
illustrates, the three
peratures or pressure, or as a consequence p f composi- interrelated,and interactions between plates deter-

tional changes brought about by fluid activity (F ig. mine, to a certain extent, which one of the three kinds of
1-18). These changes generally occur beneath the rock will form (Fig. 1-19). For example, weathering pro-
Earth's surface For example, marble, a rock preferred
. duces sediment that is transported by various means
by many sculptors and builders, is a metamorphic roc k from the continents to the oceans, where it is deposited.
produced when the agents of meramnrprikm arp applipH This sediment, along with the oceanic crust, is part of a
to the sedimentary rock limestone or dolostone . moving plate. When plates converge, heat and pressure
^ FIGURE 1-19 Plate tectonics

and the rock cycle. The cross
section shows how the three major
rock groups, igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary, are recycled
through both the continental and Sediment
oceanic regions.
Metamorphism
Asthenosphere
Upper
Magma and mantle
igneous activity
Melting

generated along the plate boundary may lead to igneous Earth formed 4.6 billion years ago corresponds to 12:00
activity and metamorphism within the descending oce- midnight, January 1. On this calendar, we see that the
anic plate. Some of the sediment and sedimentary rock is oldest fossils, simple, microscopic bacteria, which first ap-
subducted and melts, while other sediments and sedi- peared about 3.6 billion years ago, are in mid-March; di-
mentary rocks along the boundary of the nonsubducted nosaurs, which existed between 242 million and 66 mil-
plate are metamorphosed by the heat and pressure gen- lion years ago, are between December 12 and December
erated along the converging plate boundary. Later, the 26; and all of recorded human history occurs during the
mountain range or chain of volcanic islands formed last few seconds of December 31. Furthermore, all of the
along the convergent plate boundary will once again be scientific and technological discoveries that have brought
worn down by weathering and erosion, and the new us to our present level of knowledge take place in the final
sediments will be transported to the ocean to begin yet tick of the clock before it strikes midnight!
another rock cycle. The geologic time scale resulted from the work of
many nineteenth-century geologists who pieced
togeth er
^ GEOLOGIC TIME AND information from numerous rock exposures and con-
structed a sequential chronology based on changes in
UNIFORMITARIANISM the Earth's biota through time. However, with the dis-
An appreciation of the immensity of geologic time is covery of radioactivity in 1895, and the development of
fundamental to an understanding of geology. Indeed, various radiometric dating techniques, geologists have
time is one of the main aspects that sets geology apart since been able to assign absolute age dates in years to
from the other sciences. Most people have difficulty com- the subdivisions of the geologic time scale (Fig. 1-20).
prehending geologic time because they tend to think in jQne of the cornerstones of geology is the principle of
terms of the human perspective— seconds, hours, days, uniformitarianism. based on the premise tha t
It is
and years. Ancient history is what occurred hundreds or present-day processes have operated throughout geo-
even thousands of years ago. When geologists talk of logic time. Therefore, in order to understand and inter-
ancient geologic history, however, they are referring to pret the rock record, we must first understand present-
events that happened hundreds of millions or even bil- day processes and their results.
lions of years ago. To a geologist, recent geologic events Uniformitarianism is a powerful principle that allows
are those that occurred within the last million years or so. us to use present-day processes as the basis for inter-
One popular analogy geologists use to convey the im- preting the past and for predicting potential future
mensity of geologic time is to compare the history of the evenis^_We should keep in mind that uniformitarianism
Earth to a calendar year (Table 1-1). The time when the does not exclude such sudden or catastrophic events as
— TABLE 1-1
constant through time. We know that volcanic activity
Era Period Epoch
was more intense in North America 5 to 10 million
years ago than it is today, and that glaciation has been
Recent
Quaternary 0.01 more prevalent during the last 3 million years than in
the previous 300 million years.
2
What uniformitarianism means is that even though
5 the rates and intensities of geological processes have var-
Miocene ied during the past, the physicaland chemical laws of
24
nature have remained the same and cannot be violated.
Oligocene
37 Although the Earth is in a dynamic state of change and
Eocene has been ever since it was formed, the processes that
58
have shaped it are the same ones in operation today.
Paleocene
66
Cretaceous
144
Jurassic
208
Triassic ^ CHAPTER SUMMARY
245
1. Geology is the study of the Earth. It is divided into
286 two broad areas: physical geology is the study of the
Pennsyl- composition of Earth materials as well as the
vanian
Carbon- processes that operate within the Earth and upon its
iferous surface; historical geology examines the origin and
Missis-
sippian evolution of the Earth, its continents, oceans,
atmosphere, and life.
Devonian
2. Geology is part of the human experience. We can
Silurian
findexamples of it in the arts, music, and literature.
438 A basic understanding of geology is also important
Ordovician for dealing with the many environmental problems
505 and issues facing society.
Cambrian
3. Geologists engage in a variety of occupations, the
570
main one being exploration for mineral and energy
resources. They are also becoming increasingly
involved in environmental issues and making short-
and long-range predictions of the potential dangers
from such natural disasters as volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes.
4. The Earth is differentiated into layers. The
3800 outermost layer, or crust, is divided into co ntinent al
an d oceanic p ortions. Below the crust is the upp er
"^ FIGURE 1-20 The geologic time scale. Numbers to the
mantle. T he crust and upper mantle comprise the
right of the columns are ages in millons of years before the
^lithospherej which is broken into a series of plates.
present.
The lithosphere moves over the asthenosphere, a
zone that behaves plastically. Below the
as thenosphere is the solid lower mantle The Earth's .
core, which is beneath the lower mantle, is divide d

volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, landslides, or flooding
into an outer liquid portion and an inner soli d
that frequently occur. These are processes that shape our
portion. --
modern world, and, in fact, some geologists view the
approach
5. Theftcientific method/is an orderly, lo gical
history of the Earth as a series of such short-term or that involves gatheringand analyzing facts abou t a
punctuated events. Such a view is certainly in keeping pa rticular phenomenon, formulat ing h ypotheses to
with the modern principle of uniformitarianism. explain the phenomenon, testipgjh e_hypothgse,s, and
Furthermore, uniformitarianism does not require finally proposing a theory. A( theory!? an
that the rates and intensities of geological processes be explanation for some natural phenomenon that has

a large body of supporting evidence and can be 2. The eruption of Krakatau:
tested. a. thousands of people; b.
killed created
6. Plate tectonic theory provides a unifying explanation giant sea waves; c. produced spectacular sunsets
for many geological features and events Plates can . around the world: d caused a global cooling of
move away from each other, toward each other, or about 1/2°C; e. _a_ all of these.
slide past each other. The nteraction between plat es
i 3. Which of the following is not a subdivision of
is responsible for volcanic eruptions, earthquake sT geology?
and the forma tion of mountain ranges and ocean a paleontology; b. J<_ astronomy;
basins. c mineralogy; d petrology;
7. Igneous, and metamorphic rocks are
s edimentar y, e. stratigraphy.
the threemajor groups of rocks. Jgneous rocks r esult 4. Into how many concentric layers is the Earth
from the crystallization of magma. ^pHimpntary divided?
rocks are formed by the consolidation of rock a 1; b 2; c.
X_ 3; d 4; e 5.
fragments, precipitation of mineral matter from 5. The Earth's core is inferred to be:
solution, or compaction of plant or animal remains .
a. hollow; composed of rock with a high
b.
Metamorphic rocks are produced when preexisting silica content;completely molten;
c.
frocks are changed in response t o ele vated d. i composed mostly of iron and nickel;
temperature, pressure or fl'iiH ,
activity, gpnpnll y e. completely solid.
heneafh the F arth'c cnrfarp 6. The asthenosphere:
8. The rock cycle illustrates the interrelationships a. lies beneath the lithosphere; b. is
between the internal and external processes of the composed primarily of peridotite; c. behaves
Earth and among the three major rock groups. plastically and flows slowly; d. is the zone over
9. Time sets geology apart from the other sciences, which plates move; e. a all of these.
except astronomy. The geologic time scale is the 7. The layer between the core and the crust is the:
calendar geologists use to date past events. a. X mantle; b lithosphere; c sima;
10. The principle of uniformitarianism is basic to the d. sial; e. innersphere.
interpretation of Earth histor y. This principle hold s 8. What fundamental process is believed to be
that the laws of nature have been constant through responsible for plate motion?
t ime and that the same processes operating tod ay a. hot spot activity; b. ^ subduction;
have operated in the past, albeit at different rates. c. spreading ridges;(dy y&C convection cells;
e. density differences.
9. Which of the following statements about a scientific
IMPORTANT TERMS theory not true?
is
a. an explanation for some natural

it is
asthenosphere metamorphic rock phenomenon; b. it has a large body of
continental drift plate tectonic theory supporting evidence; c. )r it is a conjecture or

convergent plate plate guess; d. it is testable; e. none of these.
boundary principle of 10. The man who proposed the hypothesis of
core uniformitarianism continental drift was:
crust rock cycle a. Hutton; b. ^\ Wegener; c. Hess;
divergent plate scientific method d. Lyell; e. Lovelock.
boundary sea-floor spreading 11. Mid-oceanic ridges are examples of what type of
geologic time scale sedimentary rock boundary?
geology subduction zone ©X divergent; b. 2. convergent;
hypothesis theory c. transform; d. subduction; e. answers
igneous rock transform plate (b)and (d).
lithosphere boundary 12. The San Andreas fault separating the Pacific plate
mantle from the North American plate is an example of
what type of boundary?
a. divergent; b. convergent;
^ REVIEW QUESTIONS c. J>C transform; d. subduction; e. answers
(b) and (d).
1. Krakatau is in: 13. A plate is composed of the:
a Italy; b. the United States; a. core and lower mantle; b. lower mantle
c. Indonesia; d. Japan; e. Australia. and asthenosphere; c. asthenosphere and upper
J(
Review Questions 23
mantle; d. \
upper mantle and crust; 24. Briefly describe the Gaia hypothesis.
e. continental and oceanic crust. 25. Briefly describe the plate tectonic theory, and explain
14. Which of the following isnot a major rock group? why it is a unifying theory of geology.
a. ^V volcanic; b. igneous; c. metamorphic; 26. What are the three types of plate boundaries?
d. sedimentary; e. none of these. 27. What are the three major groups of rocks?
15. Which rock group forms from the cooling of a 28. Describe the rock cycle, and explain how it may be
magma? related to plate tectonics.
"& *>C igneous; b. metamorphic; 29. What is the principle of uniformitarianism? Does it
c. sedimentary; d. all of these; e. none allow for catastrophic events? Explain.

of these. 30. Briefly discuss the importance of having a
16. The premise that present-day processes have scientifically literate populace.
operated throughout geologic time is known as the
principle of:
a.
c.
plate tectonics; b.
continental drift; d.
sea-floor spreading;
Gaia;
^ ADDITIONAL READINGS
e.* ^X uniformitarianism. Albritton, C. C, Jr. 1980. The abyss of time. San Francisco,
17. The rock cycle implies that: Calif.: Freeman, Cooper &c Co.
a. metamorphic rocks are derived from magma; Dietrich, R. V. 1989. Rock music. Earth Science 42, no. 2:
b. ~^ any
rock type can be derived from any other 24-25.
1990. Rocks depicted in painting and sculpture. Rocks
rock type; c. igneous rocks only form beneath
the Earth's surface; d. sedimentary rocks only
& Minerals 65, no. 3: 224-36.
form from the weathering of igneous rocks;

1991. Rocks in literature. Rocks & Minerals 66.
Dietrich, R. V., and B. J. Skinner. 1990. Qems, granites, and
e all of these. gravels. NewYork: Cambridge University Press.
18. Why important for people to have a basic
is it Ernst, W. G. 1990. The dynamic planet. Irvington, N.Y.:
understanding of geology? /-_ îvJor. Columbia University Press.
19. Describe some of the ways in which geology affects Francis, P., and S. Self. 1983. The eruption of Krakatau.
our everyday lives. c <^*- ' Scientific American 249, no. 5: 172-87.
20. Explain both the difference between physical and Hively, W. 1988. How much science does the public
historical geology and how they are related. understand? American Scientist 76, no. 5: 439-44.
Lovelock, J. E. 1988. The ages of Gaia: A biography of our
21. Describe two industries that employ geologists, and
living Earth. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.
briefly discuss what geologists do in each industry.
Mirsky, A. 1989. Geology in our everyday lives. Journal of
22. Name the major layers of the Earth, and describe Geological Education 37, no. 1: 9-12.
their general composition.
Rhodes, F. H. T, and R. O. Stone. 1981. Language of the
23. Describe the scientific method, and explain how it Earth. Elmsford, N.Y.: Pergamon Press.
may lead to a scientific theory. Define scientific Siever, R. 1983. The dynamic Earth. Scientific American 249,
theory. no. 3: 46-55.

CHAPTER 2
A HISTORY OF THE
UNIVERSE, SOLAR
SYSTEM, AND PLANETS
» OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
THE ORIGIN AND EARLY
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOLAR
SYSTEM j.
General Characteristics of the Solar System

Current Theory of the Origin and Early
History of the Solar System
Meteorites
THE PLANETS
The Terrestrial Planets
Mercury
""* Perspective 2-1: The Tunguska Event
Venus
"** Perspective 2-2: The Evolution of Climate
on the Terrestrial Planets
Mars
The Jovian Planets
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune and Pluto
THE ORIGIN AND DIFFERENTIATION
OF THE EARLY EARTH
THE ORIGIN OF THE EARTH-MOON
SYSTEM
CHAPTER SUMMARY
This impressive impact crater Aurelia, named

after Julius Caesar's mother, measures 31.9
km in diameter. It was discovered by the
Magellan space probe that began orbiting
and radar mapping Venus during the summer
of 1990.
"
PROLOGUE
BS^sij^ll On August 20 and September 5, 1977,
Voyagers 1 and 2 were launched on
an ambitious mission to explore the outer planets. They
both flew by Jupiter and Saturn, but Voyager 1 took a
course out of the solar system while Voyager 2 went on
to Uranus and Neptune. Twelve years and 7.13 billion
km after it was launched, Voyager 2 radioed back
spectacular images of the blue planet Neptune (Fig. 2-1)
and its pink and blue mottled moon Triton. Its primary
mission completed, and with all but a few of its
instruments turned off to conserve power, Voyager 2's
last act will be to measure the exotic fields and
subatomic particles it passes through on its voyage to

infinity. By 2018, its generator will be too weak to
"^ FIGURE 2-2 Europa, the second moon out from
Jupiter, covered by a thick surface layer of ice that is
is
power communication with Earth, and the most
crisscrossed by numerous fractures. These fractures appear
successful space probe ever launched will fall silent. to be rifts where water has risen to the surface and frozen.
The discoveries made by these two space probes This system of fractures and the lack of craters are evidence
were truly fantastic and in many cases totally that Europa is a geologically active moon.
""" FIGURE 2-1 A shimmering blue planet set against the

black backdrop of space, Neptune reveals itself to Voyager unexpected by scientists. In addition to discovering
2's instruments during its August 1989 flyby. Shown here is three new moons of Jupiter, the Voyagers found dusty
Neptune's turbulent atmosphere with its Great Dark Spot rings encircling the planet, thus demonstrating that
and various wispy clouds.
rings are a common feature in the outer solar system.
They showed that the Great Red Spot is an enormous,
persistent eddy in Jupiter's atmosphere, and they
detected lightning discharges that are 10,000 times
more powerful than those on Earth. The Voyagers
sent back images of one of Jupiter's moons, Io,
spewing forth hot sulfurous gases 320 km into space
(see Perspective 4-1, Fig. 1). Another Jovian moon,
Europa, is encrusted with a thick shell of ice covering
a liquid ocean several kilometers below its surface

(Fig. 2-2). This ice is crisscrossed with what appear to
be cracks that occasionally open to erupt water and
then refreeze.
As the Voyagers flew past Saturn, they revealed the
spectacular complexity of its 70,000-km-wide ring
system and sent back images of spiral bands of debris

only 35 m thick. The Voyagers also discovered that
the Saturnian moon Titan has an atmosphere rich in
hydrocarbons and nitrogen.
As Voyager 2 passed by Uranus on January 24,
1986, it found nine dark, compact rings encircling the
Prologue 27
planet, discovered 10 new moons, and revealed a
corkscrew-shaped magnetic field that extends for
millions of kilometers from the planet.
Voyager 2 reached its final target, Neptune, in
August 1989 and sent back spectacular images and
data that were, for the most part, completely
unanticipated. Instead of a quiet, placid planet,
Neptune turned out to be a dynamic world cloaked in
a thin atmosphere composed predominantly of
hydrogen and helium mixed with some methane. Sifc'LrffSS
Winds up to 2,000 km/hour blow over the planet
creating tremendous storms, the largest of which, the
Great Dark Spot, is in the southern hemisphere. It is
nearly as big as the Earth and is similar to the Great
Red Spot on Jupiter. Indeed, one of the mysteries
raised by Voyager 2's discovery is where Neptune gets
the energy to drive such a storm system.
"^ FIGURE 2-3 Neptune's moon Triton is described by
Equally intriguing were the discoveries of six new
scientists as"a world unlike any other." In this composite of
Neptunian moons and three rings encircling the numerous high-resolution images taken by Voyager 2 during
planet. However, the most astonishing discoveries its August 1989 flyby, various features can be seen. The
were found on Neptune's largest moon Triton, which large south polar ice cap at the bottom consists mostly of
frozen nitrogen that was deposited during the previous
has a diameter of 2,720 km, 700 km less than our
Tritonian winter and is slowly evaporating. The dark
own moon (Fig. 2-3). Triton, with a mottled surface
plumes in the lower right may be the result of volcanic
of delicate pinks, reds, and blues, is turning out to be activity. Smooth plains and fissures in the upper half are
one of the most colorful objects in the solar system. evidence of geologic activity in which the surface has been
Its surface consists primarily of water ice, with minor cracked and flooded by slushy ice that refroze.
amounts of nitrogen and a methane frost. There is
good evidence that geysers are erupting frozen
nitrogen crystals and organic compounds. If this gravitational field soon after the formation of the solar
activity is confirmed, Triton would be only the second system. However, much still needs to be learned about
place other than Earth undergoing active volcanism Triton and Neptune's other moons before this
(see Perspective 4-1). hypothesis can be accepted.
Some areas of Triton are smooth while others have Voyager's dazzling encounter with Neptune marked
a very irregular appearance indicating numerous the end of the first era of planetary exploration that
episodes of deformation. Heavily cratered areas bear began 1962 with a flyby of Venus. However, an
in
witness to bombardment by meteorites or the collapse ambitious program of unmanned space exploration is
of its most intriguing aspect of

surface. Perhaps the planned for the 1990s, including placing spacecraft in
Triton is that it may have once been a planet— much orbit around Venus (see Perspective 13-2), Mars,
like Pluto, which it resembles in size and possibly Jupiter, and Saturn and a space probe designed to
composition — that was captured by Neptune's rendezvous with the comet Kopff.
^ INTRODUCTION space, the Earth is a brilliant, shimmering, bluish planet,

Of all the known planets and their moons only one, wrapped in a veil of swirling white clouds (Fig. 1-4).
Earth, has life on it. This unique planet, revolving Beneath these clouds is a surface covered by oceans and
around the Sun every 365.25 days, is a dynamic and seven continents and numerous islands.
complex body. When viewed from the blackness of The Earth has not always looked the way it does
28 Chapter 2 A History of the Universe, Solar System, and Planets

today. Based on various lines of evidence, many scien-
tists think that the Earth began as ahomogeneous mass
-— TABLE 2-1 The Four Basic Forces
of the Universe
of rotating dust and gases that contracted, heated, and
differentiated during its early history to form a medium- Four forces appear to be responsible for all
sized planet with a metallic core, a mantle composed of interactions of matter:
iron- and magnesium-rich rocks, and a thin crust. Over-
1. Gravity is the attraction of one body toward
lying this crust is an atmosphere currently composed of
another.
78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen.
2. The electromagnetic force combines electricity and
As the third planet from the Sun, Earth seems to have
magnetism into the same force and binds atoms
formed at just the right distance from the Sun into molecules. It also transmits radiation across
(149,600,000 km) so that it is neither too hot nor too the various spectra at wavelengths ranging from
cold to support life as we know it. Furthermore, its size gamma rays (shortest) to radio waves (longest)
is just right to hold an atmosphere. If the Earth were through massless particles called photons.
smaller, its gravity would be so weak that it could retain 3. The strong nuclear force binds protons and
neutrons together in the nucleus of an atom.
little, if any, atmosphere.
4. The weak nuclear force is responsible for the
breakdown of an atom's nucleus, producing
^ THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE radioactive decay.
Most scientists think that the universe originated be- SOURCE: Adapted by permission from Table 7-2, page 175 of Historical
tween 13 and 20 billion years ago in what is popularly Geology: Evolution of the Earth and Life through Time by Reed Wicander
and James S. Monroe. Copyright © 1989 by West Publishing Company. All
called the "Big Bang." In a region infinitely smaller than rights reserved.
an atom, both time and space were set at zero. As ex-

plained by Einstein's theory of relativity, space and time
are unalterably linked to form a space-time continuum.
In other words, without space there can be no time. imately 100,000 years later, electrons joined with the
Therefore, there is no "before the Big Bang," only what previously formed nuclei to make complete atoms of
occurred after it. hydrogen and helium. At the same time, photons (the
Two fundamental phenomena indicate that the Big energetic particles of light) separated from matter, and
Bang occurred. The first is the expansion of the universe. light burst forth for the first time.
When astronomers look beyond our own solar system, As the universe continued expanding and cooling,
they observe that everywhere in the universe galaxies are stars and galaxies formed, and the chemical makeup of
apparently moving away from each other at tremendous the universe changed. Early in its history, the universe
speeds. By measuring this expansion rate, they can cal- was 100% hydrogen and helium, whereas it is now 98%
culate how long ago the galaxies were all together at a hydrogen and helium by weight.
single point. Secondly, a background radiation of 2.7° Over the course of their history, stars undergo many
above absolute zero (absolute zero equals — 273°C) per- nuclear reactions whereby lighter elements are con-
meates the entire universe. This background radiation is verted into heavier elements by nuclear fusion in which
thought to be the faint afterglow of the Big Bang. atomic nuclei combine to form more massive nuclei.
At the time of the Big Bang, matter as we know it did Such reactions, which convert hydrogen to helium, oc-
not exist, and the universe consisted of pure energy. cur in the cores of all stars. The subsequent conversion
Within the first second after the Big Bang, the four basic of helium to heavier elements, such as carbon, depends
forces— gravity, electromagnetic force, strong nuclear on the mass of the star. When a star dies, often explo-
force, and weak nuclear force (Table 2-1)— had all sep- sively, the heavier elements that were formed in its core
arated, and the universe experienced enormous expan- are returned to interstellar space and are available for
sion. Matter and antimatter collided and annihilated inclusion in new stars. When new stars form, they will
each other. Fortunately, there was a slight excess of mat- have a small amount of these heavier elements, which
ter left over that would become the universe. When the may be converted to still heavier elements. In this way,
universe was three minutes old, temperatures were cool the amount of heavier elements in the chemical compo-
enough for protons and neutrons to fuse together to sition of the galaxies, each of which consists of billions
form the nuclei of hydrogen and helium atoms. Approx- of stars, is gradually enhanced.
The Origin of the Universe 29

<«r- TABLE 2-2
""' FIGURE 2-4 Diagramatic representation
Jupiter Pluto of the solar system showing (a) the relative

sizes of the planets and (b) their orbits around
Terrestr a the Sun.
Venus Neptune
'.a's
EarIh
Mercury
Jovian planets
..a:
dicating that they are composed of rock and metallic that cloud, should have a very rapid rate of rotation,
elements. These are known as the terrestrial planets be- instead of leisurely 25-day rotation.
its
cause they are similar to terra, which is Latin for Earth. Finally,any theory of the origin of the solar system
The next four planets— Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and must accommodate the nature and distribution of the
Neptune — are called the Jovian planets because they all various interplanetary- objects such as the asteroid belt,
resemble Jupiter. The Jovian planets are large and have comets, and interplanetary gases and dust.
low mean densities, indicating that they are composed
mostly of lightweight gases such as hydrogen and he- Current Theory of the Origin and Early
lium, as well as frozen compounds such as ammonia and
History of the Solar System
methane. The outermost planet, Pluto, is small and has
3
a low mean density of slightly more than 2.0 g/cm . Various scientific theories of the origin of the solar system
The slow rotation of the Sun is another feature that have been proposed, modified, and discarded since the
must be accounted for in any comprehensive theory of French scientist and philosopher Rene Descartes first pro-
the origin of the solar system. If the solar system formed posed in 1644 that the solar system formed from a gigan-
from the collapse of a rotating cloud of gas and dust as tic whirlpool within a universal fluid. Most theories have
is currently accepted, the Sun, which was at the center of involved an origin from a primordial rotating cloud of gas
The Origin and Early Development of the Solar System 31

cording to the laws of physics should be rotating rapidly.
Ionized gases
This problem was finally solved with the discovery of solar
wind, which is an outflow of ionized gases from the Sun
that interact with its magnetic field and slow down its
rotation through a magnetic braking process (Fig. 2-5).

According to the currently accepted solar nebula the-
ory (Fig. 2-6), interstellar material in a spiral arm of the
Magnetic force
lines
Milky Way Galaxy condensed and began collapsing. As
this cloud gradually collapsed under the influence of
gravity, it and began rotating counterclock-
flattened
wise, with about 90%
of its mass concentrated in the
~^ FIGURE 2-5 The slow rotation of the Sun is the result central part of the cloud. As the rotation and concen-
of the interaction of its magnetic force lines with ionized
tration of material continued, an embryonic sun formed,
gases of the solar nebula. Thus, the rotation is slowed by a
magnetic braking process. surrounded by a turbulent, rotating cloud of material
called a solar nebula. The inner portions of this nebula
were hot and the outer regions were cold.
and dust. Through the forces of gravity and rotation, this The turbulence in this solar nebula formed localized
cloud then shrank and collapsed into a rotating disk. De- eddies where gas and solid particles condensed. Every
tached rings within the disk condensed into planets, and element and compound has a temperature and pressure
the Sun condensed in the center of the disk. combination at which it condenses from the gaseous
The problem with most of these theories is that they phase, just as frost forms from water vapor on a cold
failed to explain the slow rotation of the Sun, which ac- night. Elements that condense easily at high tempera-
— FIGURE 2-6 The solar nebula

theory for the origin of our solar
system involves (a) a huge nebula
condensing under its own
gravitational attraction, then
(b) contracting, rotating, and
(c) flattening into a disk, with
(d) the Sun forming in the center
and eddies gathering up material to
form planets. As the Sun contracts
and begins to visibly shine,
(e) intense solar radiation blows
away unaccreted gas and dust until

finally, (f) the Sun begins burning
hydrogen and the planets complete
their formation.

tures, such as iron, magnesium, silicon, and aluminum, solar system accounts for the similarities in orbits and
are known as refractory elements, and these elements rotation of the planets and their moons, the differences
formed solid particles in the hot inner region of the solar in composition of the terrestrial and Jovian planets, and
nebula. The volatile elements, such as hydrogen, heliu m, the slow rotation of the Sun, as well as the presence of
ammonia, and methane, conden se at very low temper- the asteroid belt. Based on the available data, the solar
atures; consequently^ they "remained gaseous in the ho t nebula theory best explains the features of the solar sys-
iTlrTer region of the s olar nebula, but formed ices in i ts tem and provides a logical explanation for its evolution-
coIcToTIter-portion. ary history.
As condensation took place, gaseous, liquid, and
solid particles began accreting into ever-larger masses
Meteorites
called planetesimals that eventually became true plane-
tary bodies. The composition and evolutionary history Meteorites are thought to be pieces of material that orig-
of the planets are indicated, in part, by their distance inated during the formation of the solar system 4.6 billion
from the Sun. For example, the terrestrial planets are years ago, and as such they provide important informa-
composed of rock and metallic elements that condensed tion about its origin. A period of heavy meteorite bom-
at the high temperatures of the inner nebula. The Jovian bardment occurred as the solar system was clearing itself
planets, all of which have small central rocky cores com- of the many pieces of material that had not yet accreted
pared to their overall size, are composed mostly of hy- into planetary bodies or moons. Since then, meteorite ac-
drogen, helium, ammonia, and methane, which con- tivity has greatly diminished. Most of the meteorites that
dense at low temperatures. Thus, the farther away from currently reach the Earth's surface are probably frag-
the Sun that condensation occurred, the lower the tem- ments resulting from collisions between asteroids.
perature, and hence the higher the percentage of volatile Meteorites are classified into three broad groups
elements relative to refractory elements. based on their proportions of metals and silicate miner-
While the planets were accreting, material that had als (Fig. 2-7). About 93% of all meteorites are com-
been pulled into the center of the nebula also condensed, posed of iron and magnesium silicate minerals (minerals
collapsed, and was heated to several million degrees by containing the elements iron, magnesium, silicon, and
gravitational compression. The result was the birth of a oxygen) and thus are known as stones (Fig. 2-7b). There
star,our Sun. aremany varieties of stones, and they provide geologists
During the early accretionary phase of the solar sys- with much information about the origin and history of
tem's history, collisions between various bodies were the solar system.
common, as indicated by the craters on many planets Irons, the second group, accounting for about 6% of
and moons. An unusually large collision involving Ve- all meteorites, are composed primarily of a combination
nus could explain why it rotates clockwise rather than of iron and nickel alloys (Fig. 2-7c). Their large crystal
counterclockwise, and a collision could also explain size and chemical composition indicate that they must
why Uranus and Pluto do not rotate nearly perpendic- have cooled very slowly in large objects such as asteroids
ular to the plane of the ecliptic. where the hot iron-nickel interior could be insulated
It is thought that the asteroids probably formed as from the cold of space. Collisions between such slowly
planetesimals in a localized eddy between what eventu- cooling asteroids produced the iron meteorites that we
ally became Mars and Jupiter in much the same way as find today.
other planetesimals formed the terrestrial planets. How- Stony-irons, the third group, are composed of nearly
ever, the tremendous gravitational field of Jupiter pre- equal amounts of iron and nickel and silicate minerals;
vented this material from accreting into a planet. they make up less than 1% of all meteorites (Fig. 2-7d).
The comets, which are interplanetary bodies com- Stony-irons are generally believed to represent frag-
posed of loosely bound rocky and icy material, are ments from the zone between the silicate and metallic
thought to have condensed near the orbits of Uranus portions of a large differentiated asteroid.
and Neptune. Each time the comets pass by Jupiter and Astronomers have identified at least 40 asteroids
Saturn, however, the gravitational slingshot effect of larger than a kilometer in diameter whose orbits cross
those planets increases their speed, forcing them further the Earth's and estimate that there may be as many as
out into the solar system. 1,000 such asteroids. A collision between a large aster-
Thus, the solar nebula theory of the formation of the oid and the Earth formed the famous Meteor Crater in
The Origin and Early Development of the Solar System 33

"^ FIGURE 2-7 {a) Relative proportions of the three
groups of meteorites, (b) Polished slab of a stony meteorite
from the Pinto Mountains, (c) Polished slab of an iron
meteorite from Bogou, Upper Volta, Brazil, (d) Polished slab
of a stony-iron meteorite from Thiel Mountain, Antarctica.
(Photo (b) courtesy of Ken Nichols, Institute of Meteorites,
University of New
Mexico. Photos (c) and (d) courtesy of
Brian Mason, Smithsonian Institution
mmr^mmîmm^%mt^~2~TTr
(d)

'
•• ,'ft<^
Arizona While asteroid-Earth collisions are

(Fig. 2-8).
rare, they do happen and could have devastating results

if they occurred in a populated area (Fig. 2-9) (see Per-
spective 2-1). Many scientists think that a collision with
a meteorite about 10 km in diameter led to the extinc-
tions of dinosaurs and several other groups of animals
66 million years ago. Such a collision would have gen-
erated a tremendous amount of dust that would have
blocked out the Sun, thereby lowering global tempera-
tures and preventing photosynthesis, which, in turn,
would have triggered a collapse of the ecosystem and
massive extinctions. We know that the ash released into
the atmosphere from volcanic eruptions has affected cli-
"^ FIGURE 2-8 Meteor Crater, Arizona, is the result of
mates (see Chapter 4), and studies indicate that a colli-
an Earth-asteroid collision that occurred between 25,000
sion with a large meteorite could produce enough dust
and 50,000 years ago. It produced a crater 1.2 km in
to similarly affect global climate. diameter and 180 m deep.
» THE PLANETS
Mercury
A tremendous amount of information about each planet
Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun, apparently has
in the solar system has been derived from Earth-based
changed very little since it was heavily cratered during
observations and measurements as well as from the nu-
its early history (Fig. 2-10). Most of what we know
merous space probes launched during the past 30 years.
about this small (4,880 km diameter) planet comes from
Such information as a planet's size, mass, density, com-
position, presence of a magnetic field, and atmospheric
composition has allowed scientists to formulate hypoth-
"^ FIGURE 2-9 Artistic rendition of what the moment of
eses concerning the origin and history of the planets and
impact would look like if the nucleus of a comet, 48 km in
their moons.
diameter, hit northern New Jersey. Everything visible in this
As with any scientific endeavor, hypotheses have been picture, including the buildings of lower Manhattan in the
modified or abandoned as new information has become foreground, would be vaporized, and a plume of fine
available. This is especially true in the area of planetary material would be ejected into the atmosphere and
geology. Images and data radioed back by the various circulated around the Earth.
space probes have forced scientists to reexamine and

modify earlierEarth-based hypotheses about many of
the planets and the forces that formed and shaped them.
The Terrestrial Planets
It appears that all of the terrestrial planets had a similar

early history during which volcanism and cratering from
meteorite impacts were common. After accretion, each
planet appears to have undergone differentiation as a
result of heating by radioactive decay. The mass, density,
and composition of the planets indicate that each
formed a metallic core and a silicate mantle-crust during
this phase. Images sent back by the various space probes
also clearly show that volcanism and cratering by me-
teorites continued during the differentiation phase. Vol-
canic eruptions produced lava flows, and an atmosphere
developed on each planet by a process called outgassing
(see Perspective 2-2).
The Planets 35
Perspective 2-1
THE TUNGUSKA EVENT

On June 30, 1908, a bright object crossed the sky explosion traveled around the world twice, and
moving from southeast to northwest over central seismographs around the world registered an
Siberia, and a few seconds later a huge explosion earthquake. Eyewitnesses reported that the concussion
occurred in the Tunguska River basin (Fig. 1). The wave threw people to the ground as much as 60 km
noise from the explosion was heard up to 1,000 km away from the blast site.
away, a column of incandescent matter rose to a What the object was that caused this massive
height of about 20 km, the shock wave from the explosion remains uncertain. Part of the uncertainty is
Arctic Ocean
p- ^JORWAYj
SWEDEN, >a
TINI-Ar*
&^ fe
«f
ESTONIA
¥
LATVIA
LITHUANIA
• Moscow
SOVIET UNION
Black
\Sea
Karaganda
TURKEY/ /"Âral
0>Sea MONGOLIA
'
Caspian
Sea
IRAQ,
IRAN CHINA
"^FIGURE 1 The Tunguska explosion occurred in central Siberia in the Soviet Union.

-»- FIGURE 2 Evidence of the
Tunguska event is still apparent in
this photograph taken 20 years
later. The destruction was caused
by some type of explosion in
central Siberia in 1908.
because the event occurred in an extremely remote from a meteorite impact. In fact, part of the incentive
area, and it was not 1921 that an expedition was
until for investigation may have been economic; the Soviets
launched to investigate. Unfortunately, illness and believed that a meteor was present and could be
exhaustion prevented this expedition from reaching mined for its iron content. However, when
the explosion site. Finally, in 1927, 19 years after the investigators finally reached the site, no evidence of a
explosion, an expedition led by Leonid Kulik meteor crater was ever identified.
successfully reached the Tunguska basin. A vast peat During the 1930s, two Americans proposed that
bog called the Southern Swamp was identified as the the devastation in the Tunguska River basin was
site above which the explosion occurred; subsequent caused by a small, icy comet that exploded in the
investigations and studies indicate that the explosion atmosphere. According to this hypothesis, a comet,
occurred about 8 km
above the surface, and it is perhaps 50 m in diameter, entered the atmosphere and
estimated to have been about 12.5 megatons began heating up; as this heating occurred, frozen
(equivalent to 12.5 million tons of TNT). More than gases were instantaneously converted to the gaseous
1,000 km 2 of forest were leveled by the explosion, state, releasing a tremendous amount of energy and
and, according to earlier accounts, tens of thousands causing a large explosion. The comet hypothesis was
of animals perished (Fig. 2). Fortunately, there were subsequently endorsed by E. L. Krinov of the Soviet
no human casualties. Academy of Sciences, and currently is the most widely
Even before the explosion site was reached, accepted explanation for the Tunguska event.
scientists had hypothesized that the explosion resulted
The Planets 37
""" FIGURE 2-10 (a) Mercury has a heavily cratered
surface that has changed very little since its early history.
(b) Seven scarps (indicated by arrows) can clearly be seen in
this image. It is thought that these scarps formed when
Mercury cooled and contracted early in its history.
(c) Internal structure of Mercury, showing its large solid
(b) core relative to its overall size.
measurements and observations made during the flybys bly escaped into space very quickly. Nevertheless, very
of Mariner 10 in 1974 and 1975 (Table 2-2). Its high small quantities of hydrogen and helium, thought to
3
overall density of 5.4 g/cm indicates that it has a large have originated from the solar winds that stream by
metallic core measuring 3,600 km in diameter; the core Mercury, were detected by Mariner 10.
accounts for 80% of Mercury's mass (Fig. 2- 10). Fur-
thermore, Mercury has a weak magnetic field (about
1% as strong as the Earth's), indicating that the core is
Venus
probably partially molten. Of all the planets, Venus is the most similar in size and
Images sent back by Mariner 10 show a heavily cra- mass to the Earth (Table 2-2, Figure 2-11). It differs,
tered surface with the largest impact basins filled with however, in most other respects. Venus is searingly hot
what appear to be lava flows similar to the lava plains on with a surface temperature of 475°C and an oppres-
the Moon. However, the lava plains are not deformed, sively thick atmosphere composed of 96% carbon diox-
indicating that there has been little or no tectonic activ- ide and 3.5% nitrogen with traces of sulfur dioxide and
ity. Another feature of Mercury's surface is a large num- sulfuric and hydrochloric acid. From information ob-
ber of long cliffs, called scarps (Fig. 2- 10b). It is sug- tained by the various space probes that have passed by,
gested that these scarps formed when Mercury cooled orbited Venus, and descended to its surface, we know
and contracted. that three distinct cloud layers composed of droplets of
Because Mercury is so small, its gravitational attrac- sulfuric acid envelop the planet. Furthermore, winds up
tion is insufficient to retain atmospheric gases; any at- to 360 km/ hour occur at the top of the clouds, whereas
mosphere that it may have held when it formed proba- the planet's surface is calm.

'*' FIGURE 2-11 (a) Venus has a searingly hot surface and is surrounded by an
oppressively thick atmosphere composed largely of carbon dioxide, (b) This relief map
of Venus shows the three major highland areas: Ishtar Terra at the top, Beta Regio at
left center, and Aphrodite Terra at right center, (c) The internal structure of Venus.
The Planets 39
Perspective 2-2
THE EVOLUTION OF CLIMATE

ON THE TERRESTRIAL PLANETS
The origins and early evolution of the terrestrial history, although proponents of the Gaia hypothesis
planets appear to have been similar, yet each of these hold a somewhat different view (see Perspective 1—2).
planets has acquired a dramatically different climate. For example, when the Earth's surface cools, less
Why? All four planets were initially alike, with water vapor is present in the atmosphere and there is
atmospheres high in carbon dioxide and water vapor less rain.The amount of carbon dioxide leaving the
derived by outgassing, a process whereby light gases atmosphere thus decreases and less decomposition of
from the interior rise to the surface during volcanic rocks occurs. However, there is no overall long term
eruptions. Mercury, because of its small size and change in the amount of carbon dioxidefeturned to
proximity to the Sun, lost its atmosphere by the atmosphere because it is continually replenished
evaporation early in its history. Venus, Earth, and by plate subduction and volcanism. This leads to a
Mars, however, were temperate enough during
all temporary increase in carbon dioxide in the
their early histories tohave had fluid water on their atmosphere, greater greenhouse warming, and, thus,
surfaces, yet only Earth still has surface water and a higher surface temperatures.
climate capable of supporting life. Just the opposite would happen if the surface
The reason that these three planets evolved such temperature should increase. Oceanic evaporation
different climates is related to the recycling of carbon would then increase, leading to greater rainfall and
dioxide between the atmosphere and the crust more rapid decomposition of rock; as a result, carbon
(carbon-silicate geochemical cycle) as well as their dioxide would be removed from the atmosphere.
distance from the Sun. Carbon dioxide recycling is an Greenhouse warming would then decrease and surface
important regulator of climates because carbon dioxide, temperatures would fall.
other gases, and water vapor allow sunlight to pass Venus today is almost completely waterless.
"through" them but trap the heat reflected back from However, many scientists think that during its early
the planet's surface. Heat is thus retained, and the history, when the Sun was dimmer, Venus perhaps had
temperature of the atmosphere and surface increases in vast oceans. During this time, water vapor as well as
what is known as the greenhouse effect. carbon dioxide was being released into the
Carbon dioxide combines with water in the atmosphere by volcanism. The water vapor condensed
atmosphere to form carbonic acid. When this slightly and formed oceans, while carbon dioxide cycled (by
acidic rain falls, it decomposes rocks, releasing plate tectonics) just as it does on Earth. As the Sun's
calcium and bicarbonate ions into streams and rivers energy output increased, however, these oceans
and, ultimately, the oceans. In the oceans, marine eventually evaporated. Once the oceans disappeared,
organisms use some of these ions to construct shells of there was no water to return carbon to the crust, and
calcium carbonate. When the organisms die, their carbon dioxide began accumulating in the atmosphere,
shells become part of the total carbonate sediments, creating a greenhouse effect and raising temperatures.
some of which are eventually subducted at convergent Mars, like Venus and Earth, probably once had a
plate boundaries. During subduction these carbonate moderate climate and surface water, as indicated by
sediments are heated under pressure and release the crisscrossing network of valleys on its oldest
carbon dioxide gas that reenters the atmosphere terrain. Because Mars is it had
smaller than the Earth,
primarily through volcanic eruptions (Fig. 1). less internal heat whenformed and hence cooled
it
The recyling of carbon dioxide has allowed the rapidly. Eventually, the interior of Mars became so
Earth to maintain a moderate climate throughout its cold that it no longer released carbon dioxide. As a

Weathering
of continental Carbon dioxide released
rocks Calcium and back into atmosphere
.bicarbonate ions by volcanism
s carried to ocean
Trench
Marine organisms
construct calcium
carbonate shells
Carbonate
sediment I
Upper
mantle
Continental
crust
Carbon dioxide
t- in magma
~^~ FIGURE 1 The carbon-silicate geochemical cycle illustrates how carbon dioxide is
recycled. Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by combining with water and
forming slightly acidic rain that falls on the Earth's surface and decomposes rocks. This
decomposition releases calcium and bicarbonate ions that ultimately reach the oceans.
Marine organisms use these ions to construct shells of calcium carbonate. When they die,
the shells become part of the carbonate sediments that are eventually subducted. As the
sediments are subjected to heat and pressure, they release carbon dioxide gas back into
the atmosphere primarily through volcanic eruptions.
result, the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide de- continue recycling carbon dioxide, thus offsetting the
creased to its current low level. The greenhouse effect low sunlight levels caused by its distance
effects of
was thus weakened, and the Martian atmosphere be- from the Sun. In other words, Mars would still have
came thin and cooled to its present low temperature. enough carbon dioxide in its atmosphere so that it
If Mars had been the size of Earth or Venus, it very could maintain a "temperate climate."
likely would have had enough internal heat to
The Planets 41
Radar images from orbiting spacecraft as well as Even though no active volcanism has been observed
from the Venusian surface indicate three general types of on Venus, the presence of volcanoes, numerous lava
terrain (Fig. 2-1 lb). Rolling plains, characterized by nu- flows, folded mountain ranges, and a network of frac-
merous craters and circular basins, cover about 65% of tures indicate internal and surface activity during the
the planet; lowlands cover another 27%; and highlands, past (see Perspective 12-2). There is, however, no evi-
similar to continents, occupy the remaining 8%. dence for active plate tectonics such as on Earth.

"^ FIGURE 2-12 (a) (left) Dawn rises over Mars as the
Viking 2 orbiter passes by. One of the largest volcanoes on
Mars, Ascreaus Mons, can be seen near the top of this
photograph, while near the bottom is the Argyre basin,
formed from the impact of a large meteorite early in the
history of Mars. The largest canyon known in the solar
system, Valles Marineris, can be seen on the right side of
Mars. To gain some perspective on the size of Valles
Marineris, consider that it would nearly stretch across the
United States and its width and depth would dwarf the
Grand Canyon (see insert), (b) Olympus Mons, the largest
known volcano in the solar system, can be seen rising above
white clouds of frozen carbon dioxide, (c) To illustrate the
size of the Martian volcanoes, a map of the western United
States is shown superimposed over Olympus Mons and
three companion volcanoes, (d) The internal structure of
Mars.
Mars
Mars, the red planet, has a diameter of 6,787 km and a
mass one-tenth that of the Earth (Table 2-2; Fig. 2-12).
It is differentiated, as are all the terrestrial planets, into
a metallic core and a silicate mantle and crust. The thin
Martian atmosphere consists of 95% carbon dioxide,
2.7% nitrogen, 1.7% argon, and traces of other gases.
Rotating once every 24.6 hours, a Martian day is only
slightly longer than an Earth day. Mars also has distinct
seasons during which its polar ice caps of frozen carbon
dioxide expand and recede.
Perhaps the most striking aspect of Mars is its sur-
face, many features of which have not yet been satisfac-
torily explained. Like the surfaces of Mercury and the
The Planets 43
Moon, the southern hemisphere is heavily cratered, at- Jupiter
testing to a period of meteorite bombardment. Hellas, a
Jupiter is the largest of the Jovian planets (Table 2-2;
crater with a diameter of 2,000 km, is the largest known
Fig. 2-13). With its moons, rings, and radiation belts, it
impact structure in the solar system and is found in the
is the most complex and varied planet in the solar sys-
Martian southern hemisphere.
tem. Jupiter's density is only one-fourth that of Earth,
The northern hemisphere is much different, having
but because it is it has 318 times the mass
so large,
large smooth plains, fewer craters, and evidence of exten-
(Table 2-2). It is an unusual planet in that it emits almost
sive volcanism. The largest known volcano in the solar
2.5 times more energy than it receives from the Sun. One
system, Olympus Mons (Fig. 2-12b), has a basal diameter
explanation is that most of the excess energy is left over
of 600 km, 27 km above the surrounding plains, and
rises
from the time of its formation. When Jupiter formed, it
is topped by a huge circular crater 80 km in diameter.
heated up because of gravitational contraction (as did all
The northern hemisphere is also marked by huge can-
the planets) and is still cooling. Jupiter's massive size
yons that are essentially parallel to the Martian equator.
insulates its interior, and hence it has cooled very slowly.
One of these canyons, Valles Marineris, is at least 4,000
Jupiter has a relatively small central core of solid
km long, 250 km wide, and 7 km deep and is the largest
rocky material formed by differentiation. Above this
yet discovered in the solar system. were present on
If it
core is a thick zone of liquid metallic hydrogen followed
Earth, it would stretch from San Francisco to New York
by a thicker layer of liquid hydrogen; above that is a
(Fig. 2-12a)! It is not yet known how these vast canyons
thin layer of clouds (Fig. 2-13b). Surrounding Jupiter
formed, although geologists postulate that they may
are a strong magnetic field and an intense radiation belt.
have started as large rift zones that were subsequently
Jupiter has a dense atmosphere of hydrogen, helium,
modified by running water and wind erosion. Such hy-
methane, and ammonia, which some believe are the
potheses are based on comparison to rift structures
same gases that composed the Earth's first atmosphere.
found on Earth and topographic features formed by
Jupiter's cloudy atmosphere is divided into a series of
geologic agents of erosion such as water and wind (see
different colored bands as well as a variety of spots (the
Chapters 16 and 19).
Great Red Spot) and other features, all interacting in
Tremendous wind storms have strongly influenced
incredibly complex motions.
the surface of Mars and led to dramatic dune formations
Revolving around Jupiter are 16 moons varying
(see Perspective 19-1, Fig. 3). Even more stunning than
greatly in tectonic and geologic activity (see Perspective
the dunes, however, are the braided channels that ap-
4-1). Also surrounding Jupiter is a thin, faint ring, a
pear to be the result of running water (Fig. 16-1). It is
feature shared by all the Jovian planets.
currently too cold for surface water to exist, yet the
channels strongly indicate that there was running water
on Mars during the past.
The fresh-looking surfaces of its many volcanoes Saturn
strongly suggest that Mars was a tectonically active Saturn is slightly smaller than Jupiter, about one-third as
planet during the past and may still
There is, how-
be. massive, and about one-half as dense, but has a similar
ever, no evidence that plate movement, such as occurs internal structure and atmosphere (Table 2-2; Fig. 2-14).
on Earth, has ever occurred. Saturn, like Jupiter, gives off more energy (2.2 times as
much) than it gets from the Sun. Saturn's most conspic-
uous feature is its ring system, consisting of thousands
of rippling, spiraling bands of countless particles.
The Jovian Planets
The composition of Saturn is similar to Jupiter's, but
The Jovian planets are completely unlike any of the ter- consists of slightlymore hydrogen and less helium. Sat-
restrial planets in size or chemical composition (Table urn's core is not as dense as Jupiter's, and as in the case
2-2) and followed completely different evolutionary his- of Jupiter, a layer of liquid metallic hydrogen overlies
tories. While they all apparently contain a small core in the core, followed by a zone of liquid hydrogen and
relation to their overall size, the bulk of a Jovian planet helium, and, lastly, a layer of clouds (Fig. 2-14b). Be-
iscomposed of volatile elements and compounds that cause liquid metallic hydrogen can exist only at very
condense at low temperatures such as hydrogen, helium, high pressures, and since Saturn is smaller than Jupiter,
methane, and ammonia. such high pressures are found at greater depths in Sat-

"^ FIGURE 2-14 Saturn and three of its moons, (a) This
image of Saturn was taken by Voyager 2 from several
million kilometers away and shows the ring system of the
planet as well as its banded atmosphere. Saturn has an
atmosphere similar to that of Jupiter, but has a thicker
cloud cover and contains little ammonia, (b) The internal
structure of Saturn, (c) Mimas (392 km in diameter) exhibits
a large impact crater, (d) Some areas of Enceladus (500 km
in diameter) have fewer craters, suggesting recent volcanic
activity, (e) LittleHyperion (350 x 200 km) has an irregular
shape and several impact craters; it tumbles as it orbits
Saturn.

"^ FIGURE 2-15 (a) Images of Uranus taken by Voyager
2 under ordinary' light show a featureless planet, (b) When
color is enhanced by computer processing techniques,
Uranus is seen to have zonal flow patterns in its atmosphere.
(c) The internal structure of Uranus.
With a diameter of only 2,300 km, Pluto is the small-

est planet and, strictly speaking, it is not one of the
Jovian planets (Table 2-2). Little is known about Pluto,
but recent studies indicate it has a rocky core overlain by
a mixture of methane gas and ice (Fig. 2-17). It also has
a thin, two-layer atmosphere with a clear upper layer
overlying a more opaque lower layer.
Pluto differs from all the other planets in that it has a
highly eccentric orbit that is tilted with respect to the
plane of the ecliptic. It has one known moon, Charon,
that is nearly half its size with a surface that appears to
differ markedly from Pluto's.
^ THE ORIGIN AND

to those of Jupiter. The internal structure of Neptune is
DIFFERENTIATION OF
similar to that ofUranus (Table 2-2); it has a rocky core
approximately 17,000 km in diameter surrounded by a
THE EARLY EARTH
semifrozen slush of water and liquid methane (Fig. As matter was accreting in the various turbulent eddies
2-16). Its atmosphere is composed of hydrogen and he- that swirled around the early Sun, enough material
lium with some methane. Encircling Neptune are three eventually gathered together in one eddy to form the
faint rings and eight moons. planet Earth. Recall from Chapter 1 that the Earth is a
The Origin and Differentiation of the Early Earth 47

24,500 km
The differentiation into a layered planet is probably
the most significant event in the history of the Earth.
Not only did it lead to the formation of a crust and
eventually to continents (see Chapter 14), but it was
probably responsible for the outgassing of light volatile
elements from the interior that eventually led to the for-
mation of the oceans and atmosphere.
» THE ORIGIN OF THE

EARTH-MOON SYSTEM
We probably know more about our Moon than any
other celestial object except the Earth (Fig. 2-19). Nev-
ertheless, even though the Moon has been studied for
centuries through telescopes and has been sampled di-
rectly, many questions remain unanswered.

The Moon is one-fourth the diameter of the Earth, has
a low density (3.3 g/cm 3 relative to the terrestrial planets,
)
and exhibits an unusual chemistry in that it is bone-dry,

having been largely depleted of most volatile elements (Ta-
ble 2-2). The Moon orbits the Earth and rotates on its own "'•'FIGURE 2-19 The side of the Moon as seen from
axis at the same rate, so we always see the same side. Fur- Earth. The light-colored areas are the lunar highlands which
were heavily cratered by meteorite impacts. The
thermore, the Earth-Moon system is unique among the ter-
dark-colored areas are maria, which formed when lava
restrial planets. Neither Mercury nor Venus has a moon,
flowed out onto the surface.
and the two small moons of Mars— Phobos and Deimos —
are probably captured asteroids.
The surface of the Moon can be divided into two
major parts: the low-lying dark-colored plains, called heavily cratered, providing striking evidence of the mas-
maria, and the light-colored highlands (Fig. 2-19). The sive meteorite bombardment that occurred in the solar
highlands are the oldest parts of the Moon and are system more than four billion years ago.
""' FIGURE 2-18 (a) The early Earth was probably of uniform composition and
density throughout, (b) Heating of the early Earth reached the melting point of iron
and which, being denser than silicate minerals, settled to the Earth's center. At
nickel,
the same time, the lighter silicates flowed upward to form the mantle and the crust.
(c) In this way, a differentiated Earth formed, consisting of a dense iron-nickel core, an
iron-rich silicate mantle, and a silicate crust with continents and ocean basins.
Study of the several hundred kilograms of rocks re- A thin covering (1 to 2 km thick) of basaltic lava fills
turned by the Apollo missions indicates that three kinds the maria; lava covers about 17% of the lunar surface,
of materials dominate the lunar surface: igneous rocks, mostly on the side facing the Earth. These maria lavas
breccias, and dust. Basalt, a common dark-colored ig- came from partial melting of a thick underlying mantle
neous rock on Earth, is one of the several different types of silicate composition. Moonquakes occur at a depth of
of igneous rocks on the Moon and makes up the greater about 1,000 km, but below that depth seismic shear
part of the maria.The presence of igneous rocks that are waves apparently are not transmitted. Because shear
essentially the same as those on Earth shows that mag- waves do not travel through liquid, their lack of trans-
mas similar to those on Earth were generated on the mission implies that the innermost mantle may be par-
Moon long ago. tially molten. There is increasing evidence that the
The lunar surface is covered with a regolith (or Moon has a small (600 km to 1,000 km diameter) me-
"soil") that is estimated to be 3 to 4 m
thick. This gray tallic core comprising 2 to 5% of its volume.
covering, which composed of compacted aggregates

is The origin and earliest history of the Moon are still
of rock fragments called breccia, glass spherules, and unclear, but the basic stages in its subsequent develop-
small particles of dust, is thought to be the result of ment are well understood. It formed some 4.6 billion
debris formed by meteorite impacts. years ago and shortly thereafter was partially or
The interior structure of the Moon is quite different wholly melted, yielding a silicate melt that cooled and
from that of the Earth, indicating a different evolution- crystallized to form the mineral anorthite. Because of
ary history (Fig. 2-20). The highland crust is thick (65 to the low density of the anorthite crystals and the lack
100 km) and comprises about 12% Moon's vol-
of the of water in the silicate melt, the thick anorthosite
ume. It was formed about 4.4 billion years ago, imme- highland crust formed. The remaining silicate melt
diately following the Moon's accretion. The highlands cooled and crystallized to produce the zoned mantle,
are composed principally of the igneous rock an- while the heavier metallic elements formed the small
orthosite, which is made up of light-colored feldspar metallic core.
minerals that are responsible for their white appearance. The formation of the lunar mantle was completed by
about 4.4 to 4.3 billion years ago. The maria basalts,
derived from partial melting of the upper mantle, were
^" FIGURE 2-20 The internal structure of the Moon is extruded during great lava floods between 3.8 and 3.2
different from that of the Earth. The upper mantle is the billion years ago.
source for the maria lavas. Moonquakes occur at a depth of
Numerous models have been proposed for the origin
1,000 km. Because seismic shear waves are not transmitted
below this depth, it is believed that the innermost mantle is of theMoon, including capture from an independent
liquid. Below this layer is a small metallic core. orbit,formation with the Earth as part of an integrated
Mare basalt
two-planet system, breaking off from the Earth during
accretion, and formation resulting from a collision be-
tween the Earth and a large planetesimal. These various
models are not mutually exclusive, and elements of
some occur in others. At this time, scientists cannot
agree on a single model, as each has some inherent prob-
lems. However, the model that seems to account best for
the Moon's particular composition and structure in-
volves an impact by a large planetesimal with a young
Earth (Fig. 2-21).
In this model, a giant planetesimal, the size of Mars

or larger, crashed into the Earth about 4.6 to 4.4 billion
years ago, causing the ejection of a large quantity of hot
material that formed the Moon. The material that was
ejected was mostly in the liquid and vapor phase and
came primarily from the mantle of the colliding plane-
tesimal. As it cooled, the various lunar layers crystal-
lized out in the order we have discussed.

"'' FIGURE 2-21 According to one hypothesis for the origin of the Moon, a large
planetesimal the size of Mars crashed into the Earth 4.6 to 4.4 billion years ago,
causing the ejection of a mass of hot material that formed the Moon. This computer
simulation shows the formation of the Moon as a result of an Earth-planetesimal
collision.
CHAPTER SUMMARY 2. The universe has a background radiation of 2.7°

above absolute zero, representing the cooling
The universe began with a Big Bang approximately remnant of the Big Bang.
13 to 20 billion years ago. Astronomers have 3. About 4.6 billion years ago, the solar system formed
deduced this age from the fact that celestial objects from a rotating cloud of interstellar matter. As this
are moving away from each other in what appears cloud condensed, it eventually collapsed under the
to be an ever-expanding universe. influence of gravity and flattened into a
Chapter Summary 51
counterclockwise rotating disk. Within this rotating The age of the universe is generally accepted by
disk, the Sun, planets, and moons formed from the scientists as:
turbulent eddies of nebular gases and solids. a. 570 million years; b. 4.6 billion years;
4. Meteorites provide vital information about the age c. 15 billion years; d.
8 to 13 to 20 billion
and composition of the solar system. The three years; e. greater than 50 billion years.
major groups are stones, irons, and stony-irons. Which of the following is not one of the four basic
5. Temperature as a function of distance from the Sun forces ?
played a major role in the type of planets that a. gravity; b.electromagnet^; c. strong
evolved. The terrestrial planets are composed of rock nuclear; d. weak
e. photon.
nuclear;
and metallic elements that condense at high The composition of the universe has been changing
temperatures.The Jovian planets plus Pluto are since the Big Bang. Yet 98% of it by weight still
composed mostly of hydrogen, helium, ammonia, consists of the elements:
and methane, all of which condense at lower a. hydrogen and carbon; b. helium and
temperatures. carbon; c. hydrogen and helium; d. carbon
6. The seem to have had a similar
terrestrial planets and nitrogen; e. hydrogen and nitrogen.
early history duringwhich volcanism and cratering Which of the following is not a terrestrial planet?
from meteorite impacts were common. a. Mercury; b. Jupiter; c. Earth;
7. All the terrestrial planets are differentiated into a d. Venus; e Mars.
core, mantle, and crust, and all had an early The age of the solar system is generally accepted by
atmosphere of carbon dioxide and water vapor. scientists as:
8. The Jovian planets differ from the terrestrial planets a. 4.6 billion years; b. 10 billion years;
in size and chemical composition and followed c. 20 billion years;
15.5 billion years; d.
completely different evolutionary histories. All of the e. 50 billion years.
Jovian planets have a small core compared to their The major problem that plagued most early theories
overall size, but they are mainly composed of of the origin of the solar system involved the:
volatile elements and compounds that condense at a. distribution of elements throughout the solar
low temperatures, such as hydrogen, helium, system; b. rotation of the planets around their
methane, and ammonia. axes; c. slow rotation of the Sun;
9. The Earth formed from one of the swirling eddies of d. revolution of the planets around the Sun;
nebular material 4.6 billion years ago and, by at e. source of meteorites and asteroids.
least 3.8 billion years ago, was differentiated into its The surface of the Moon is divided into
present-day structure. It accreted as a solid body and light-colored highlands and low-lying, dark-colored
then underwent differentiation during a period of plains called:
internal heating. a anorthosites; b regolith; c cratons;
10. The Moon probably formed as a result of a d. nebulas; e. maria.
Mars-sized planetesimal crashing into Earth 4.6 to The most widely accepted theory regarding the
4.4 billion years ago and ejecting a large quantity of origin of the Moon involves:
hot material. As it cooled, the various lunar layers a. capture from an independent orbit; b. an
crystallized, forming a zoned body. independent origin from the Earth; c. breaking
off from the Earth during the Earth's accretion;
^ IMPORTANT TERMS d. formation resulting from a collision between

the Earth and a large planetesimal; e. none of
these.
Big Bang refractory element
10. Images radioed back by Voyagers 1 and 2 revealed
greenhouse effect solar nebula theory
that:
irons stones
a. all of the Jovian planets have rings;
Jovian planets stony-irons
b. Neptune is a placid planet; c. Uranus has
meteorites terrestrial planets
a large spot like those of Jupiter and Neptune;
outgassing volatile element
d. Pluto has an atmosphere similar to that of
planetesimal
Mars; e. all of these.
11 The planets can be separated into terrestrial and
^ REVIEW QUESTIONS Jovian primarily on the basis of which property?
a. size; b. atmosphere; c. density;
1. The most abundant meteorites are: d. color; e. none of these.
a. stones; b. irons; c. stony-irons; 12. It is currently believed that the Tunguska explosion
d. acondrites; e. peridotites. was caused by a(n):

a. meteor; b. asteroid; c. nuclear 21. What two fundamental phenomena indicate that the
explosion; d. volcanic eruption; e. comet. Big Bang occurred?
13. Which of the following events did all of the 22. How does the solar nebula theory account for the
terrestrial planets experience early in their history? general characteristics of the solar system?
a. accretion; b. differentiation; 23. What are the three major groups of meteorites?
c volcanism; d. meteorite impacting; 24. How do the terrestrial planets differ from the Jovian
e. all of these. planets?
14. Which of the following is not characteristic of 25. What are the similarities and differences in the
Mercury? origin and history of the four terrestrial planets?
a. a strong magnetic field; b. heavy cratering 26. Discuss why Venus, Earth, and Mars currently have
of its surface; c. scarps; d. numerous lava quite different atmospheres.
flows; e. small amounts of atmospheric 27. What are the similarities and differences in the
hydrogen and helium. origin and history of the four Jovian planets?
15. The atmosphere of Venus is: 28. Discuss the origin and differentiation of the Earth
a. thick and composed of carbon dioxide; into three concentric layers.
b. similar to Earth's; c. nonexistent; 29. Discuss the origin of the Earth-Moon system.
d. thin, like that of Mars; e. none of these. 30. Discuss how the Voyager space probes have changed
16. The surface of Mars possesses: our ideas about the planets they have flown by.
a. huge valleys; b. massive volcanoes;
c. large craters; d. smooth plains; e. all
of these. ^ ADDITIONAL READINGS

17. Which planets give off more energy than they
receive? Benzel, R. 1990. Pluto. Scientific American 262, no. 6: 50-59.
Grieve, R. A. F. 1990. Impact cratering on the Earth. Scientific
a. Jupiter; b. Saturn; c. Uranus;
American 262, no. 4: 66-73.
d. answers (a) and (b); e. answers (a) and
Horgan, J. 1990. Universal truths. Scientific American 263,
(c).
no. 4: 108-17.
18. Both Jupiter and Saturn have a relatively small rocky Ingersoll, A. P. 1987. Uranus. Scientific American 256, no. 1:
core overlain by a zone of: 38-45.
a. helium; b. liquid metallic hydrogen; Kasting, J. F., O. B. Toon, and J. B. Pollack. 1988. How climate
c. frozen ammonia; d. hydrogen; evolved on the terrestrial planets. Scientific American 258,
e. carbon dioxide. no. 2: 90-97.
19. The only planet whose axis of rotation nearly Kinoshita, J. 1989. Neptune. Scientific American 261, no. 5:
parallels the plane of the ecliptic is:

82-91.
Kuhn, K. F. 1991. In quest of the universe. St. Paul, Minn.:
a. Venus; b. Uranus;
Saturn; c.
West Publishing Co.
d. Neptune; e. Pluto.
McSween, H. Y., Jr. 1989. Chondritic meteorites and the
20. What was the main source of heat for the Earth
formation of planets. American Scientist 77, no. 2: 146-53.
early in its history?
Saunders, R. S. 1990. The surface of Venus. Scientific American
a. meteor impact; b. radioactivity; 263, no. 6: 60-65.
c. gravitational compression; d. an initial Taylor, S. R. 1987. The origin of the Moon. American Scientist
molten condition; e. spontaneous combustion. 75, no. 5: 468-77.
CHAPTER 3
MINERALS
*= OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
MATTER AND ITS COMPOSITION
Elements and Atoms
Bonding and Compounds
MINERALS
Naturally Occurring, Inorganic Substances
"^ Guest Essay: Mineralogy: A Career with
Diverse Pursuits
The Nature of Crystals
Chemical Composition
Physical Properties
MINERAL DIVERSITY
MINERAL GROUPS
Silicate Minerals
Carbonate Minerals
r" Perspective 3-1: Quartz— A
'"
Common
Useful Mineral
Other Mineral Groups
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
Color and Luster
Crystal Form
Cleavage and Fracture
Hardness
Specific Gravity
y* Perspective 3-2: Diamonds and Pencil
Leads
Other Properties
IMPORTANT ROCK-FORMING
MINERALS
MINERAL RESOURCES AND RESERVES
CHAPTER SUMMARY
"Steamboat"— red and green tourmaline and

From the Tourmaline
colorless quartz crystals.
King mine, near Pala, San Diego County,
California. The specimen is about 28 cm high.
National Museum of Natural History
specimen #R51. (Photo by D. Penland,
courtesy of Smithsonian Institution.)
;" *^«^6 ^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^m>^^^^»jk^ «r-*r
PROLOGUE fact, the Europeans' lust for gold was responsible

the ruthless conquest of the natives in those areas. In
for
the United States, gold was first profitably mined in

Among the hundreds of minerals used North Carolina in 1801 and
Georgia in 1829, but
in
by humans none is so highly prized the truly spectacular finds occurred in California in
and eagerly sought as gold (Fig. 3-1). This deep 1848. This latter discovery culminated in the great
yellow mineral has been the cause of feuds and wars gold rush of 1849 when tens of thousands of people
and was one of the incentives for the exploration of flocked to California to find riches. Unfortunately,
the Americas. Gold has been mined for at least 6,000 only a few found what they sought. Nevertheless,
years, and archaeological evidence indicates that during the five years from 1848 to 1853, which
people in Spain possessed small quantities of gold constituted the gold rush proper, more than $200
40,000 years ago. Probably no other substance has million in gold was recovered.
caused so much misery, but at the same time provided Another gold rush occurred in 1876 following the
so many benefits for those who possessed it. report by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong
Why is gold so highly prized? Certainly not for use Custer that "gold in satisfactory quantities can be
in tools or weapons, for it is too soft and pliable to obtained in the Black Hills [South Dakota]." The
hold a cutting edge. Furthermore, it is too heavy to be flood of miners into the Black Hills, the Holy
practical for most utilitarian purposes (it weighs about Wilderness of the Sioux Indians, resulted in the Indian
twice as much During most of historic time,
as lead). War during which Custer and some 260 of his men
gold has been used for jewelry, ornaments, and ritual were annihilated at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in
objects and has served as a symbol of wealth and as a Montana June 1876. Despite this stunning victory,
in
monetary standard. Gold is so desired for several the Sioux could not sustain a war against the U.S.
reasons: (1) its pleasing appearance, (2) the ease with Army, and in September 1876, they were forced to
which it can be worked, (3) its durability, and (4) its relinquish the Black Hills.
scarcity (it is much rarer than silver). For 50 years following the California gold rush, the
Central and South American natives used gold United States led the world in gold production, and it
extensively long before the arrival of Europeans. In still produces a considerable amount, mostly from
"^ FIGURE 3-1 Specimen of gold from Grass Valley, "^ FIGURE 3-2 The headworks (upper right) of the
California— National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) Homestake Mine at Lead, South Dakota, in 1900. The
specimen #R121297. (Photo by D. Penland, courtesy of headworks is the cluster of buildings near the opening to a
Smithsonian Institution.) mine.
Prologue 55
mines in Nevada and South Dakota (Fig. 3-2). as well, including the chemical industry, gold plating,
Currently, however, the leading producer is South electrical circuitry, and glass making. Consequently,
Union a distant second,
Africa with the Soviet the quest for gold has not ceased or even abated. In
followed by Canada and the United States. Much gold many industrialized nations, including the United
still is used for jewelry, but in contrast to its earlier domestic production cannot meet the demand,
States,
uses, gold now has some more practical applications and much of the gold used must be imported.
=*= INTRODUCTION
The term "mineral" commonly brings to mind dietary mineral quartz, and ore deposits are natural concentra-
substances that are essential for good nutrition such as tions of economically valuable minerals. Indeed, our in-
calcium, iron, potassium, and magnesium. These sub- dustrialized society depends directly upon finding and
stances are actually chemical elements, not minerals in using mineral resources such as iron, copper, gold, and
the geologic sense. Mineral is also sometimes used to many others.
refer to any substance that is neither animal nor vege-

table. Such usage implies that minerals are inorganic
substances, which is correct, but not all inorganic sub-
^ MATTER AND ITS COMPOSITION
stances are minerals. Water, for example, is not a min- Anything that has mass and occupies space is matter.
eral even though it is inorganic and is composed of the The atmosphere, water, plants and animals, and miner-
same chemical elements as ice, which is a mineral. Ice is, als and rocks are all composed of matter. Matter occurs
of course, a solid whereas water is a liquid; minerals are in one of three states or phases, all of which are impor-
solids rather than liquids or gases. In fact, geologists tant in geology: solids, liquids, and gases (Table 3-1).
have a very specific definition of the teririmjneral: a Atmospheric gases and liquids such as surface water and
naturally occurring,jnorganic crystalline solid. Crystal- groundwater will be discussed later in this book, but
lme~-means~it has a regular internal structure. Further- here we are concerned chiefly with solids because all
more, a mineral has a narrowly deTmgd~ch eniIcal co m- minerals are solids.
position and characteristic physicaj^ropejrtieûchas
density, color, and hardness. Most rocks are solid ag-
Elements and Atoms
"gregates oTone orjnor e minerals, and thus mjneraJsâre
the building blocks of rocks. All matter is made up of chemical elements, each of
~~ObviouiIy7 minerals are important to geologists as which composed of incredibly small particles called
is
the constituents of rocks, but they are important for atoms. Atoms are the smallest units of matter that retain
other reasons as well. Many gemstones such as diamond the characteristics of an element. Ninety-one naturally
and topaz are actually minerals, and rubies are simply occurring elements have been discovered, some of which
red-colored varieties of the mineral corundum. The sand are listed in Table 3-2, and more than a dozen additional
used in the manufacture of glass is composed of the elements have been made in laboratories. Each naturally
""»" TABLE 3-1 Phases or States of Matter
Phase Characteristics Examples
Solid Rigid substance that retains its shape unless distorted by a force Minerals, rocks, iron, wood
Liquid Flows easily and conforms to the shape of the containing vessel; has Water, lava, wine, blood, gasoline
a well-defined upper surface and greater density than a gas
Gas Flows easily and expands to fill all parts of a containing vessel; lacks Helium, nitrogen, air, water vapor
a well-defined upper surface; is compressible
56 Chapter 3 Minerals
— TABLE 3-2
^ FIGURE 3-4 Schematic
representation of isotopes of
carbon. A carbon atom has an
atomic number of 6 and an atomic
mass number of 12, 13, or 14
depending on the number of
neutrons in its nucleus. 2
C(Carbon-12) ^C(Carbon-13) *C(Carbon-14)
atoms of the same element may have different atomic but the outermost shell never contains more than eight
mass numbers. For example, different carbon (C) atoms (Table 3-2). The electrons in the outermost shell are
have atomic mass numbers of 12, 13, and 14. All of those that are usually involved in chemical bonding.
these atoms possess 6 protons, otherwise they would not Two types of chemical bonds are particularly impor-
be carbon, but the number of neutrons varies. Forms of tant in minerals, ionic and covalent, and many minerals
the same element with different atomic mass numbers contain both types of bonds. Two other types of chem-
are isotopes (Fig. 3-4). ical bonds, metallic and van der Waals, are much less
A number of elements have a single isotope but many, common, but are extremely important in determining
such as uranium and carbon, have several (Fig. 3-4). the properties of some very useful minerals.
Some isotopes are unstable and spontaneously change to
a stable form. This-proress. c3]icdjâdio active dec ay.
occurs because the forces t hat bind the _nucleus_together
are_not_strong enough. Such decay occurs at known eight electrons in t heir ou tgr most electronjsheU. Some
ratesand is the basis for several techniques for deter- elements, however, including neon and argon, have
mining age that Chapter 9. Never-
will be discussed in complete outer s hells contain ing_£Jght electrons; they
an element behave the same chem-
theless, all isotopes of are known as the noble gases . The noblegases do not
ically. For example, both carbon 12 and carbon 14 are react reacfiTy^with other elements to form compounds
present in carbon dioxide (C0 2 ). because of this electron configuration. Interactions
among atoms tend to produce electron configurations
similar to those of the noble gases. That is, atoms inter-
Bonding and Compounds
act such that their outermost electron shell is filled with
The process whereby atoms are joined to other atoms is eight electrons, unless the first shell (with two electrons)
called bonding. When atoms of two or more different is also the outermost electron shell as in helium.
elements arebonded, the resulting substance is a com- One way in which the noble gas configuration can be
pound. Thus, a chemical substance such as gaseous ox- attained by the transfer of one or more electrons from
is
ygen, which consists entirely of oxygen atoms, is an one atom to another. Common salt, for example, is
element, whereas ice, which consists of hydrogen and composed of sodium (Na) and chlorine
the elements
oxygen, is a compound. Most minerals are compounds (CI), each of which is when combined
poisonous, but
although there are several important exceptions, such as chemically, they form the compound sodium chloride
gold and silver. (NaCl), the mineral halite or common salt. Notice in
To understand bonding, it is necessary to delve Figure 3-5a that sodium has 11 protons and 11 elec-
deeper into the structure of atoms. Recall that negatively trons; thus, the positive electrical charges of the protons
charged electrons in electron shells orbit the nuclei of are exactly balanced by the negative charges of the elec-
atoms. With the exception of hydrogen, which has only trons, and the atom is electrically neutral. Likewise,
one proton and one electron, the innermost electron chlorine with 17 protons and 17 electrons is electrically
shell of an atom contains no more than two electrons. neutral (Fig. 3-5a). However, neither sodium nor chlo-
The other shells contain various numbers of electrons, rine has eight electrons in its outermost electron shell;
sodium has only one whereas chlorine has seven. In or- dimensional framework that results in overall electrical
der to attain a stable configuration, sodium loses the sodium ions are bonded to chlorine
neutrality. In halite,
electron in its outermost electron shell, leaving its next ionson all sides, and chlorine ions are surrounded by
shell with eight electrons as the outermost one (Fig. sodium ions (Fig. 3-5b).
3-5a). However, sodium now has one fewer electron
(negative charge) than it has protons (positive charge) so Covalent Bonding
it is an electrically charged particle. Such a particle is an Covalent bonds form between atom£ when th eir elec-
+
ion and, in the case of sodium, is symbolized Na . mnr-slTeTIs"overlap ancTelectrons are~shared. FoTexarn -
The electron lost by sodium is transferred to the out- ple, atoms of the same element, such as oxygen in oxy-
ermost electron shell of chlorine, which had seven elec- gen gas, cannot bomTBytransferring electrons from o ne
trons to begin with. Thus, the addition of one more atom to another. Carbon (C), which forms the minerals
electron gives chlorine an outermost electron shell of graphite and diamond, has four electrons in its outer-
eight electrons, the configuration of a noble gas. Its total most electrqrTshell (Fig. 3-6a). If these four electrons
number of electrons, however, is now 18, which exceeds were transferred to another carbon atom, the atom re-
by one the number of protons. Accordingly, chlorine ceiving the electrons would have the noble gas configu-
1
also becomes an ion, but it is negatively charged (Cl~ ). ration of eight electrons in its outermost electron shell,
An ionic bond forms between sodium and chlo rine be- but the atom contributing the electrons would not.
cause of th e attrac tive force between the positively In such situations, adjacent atoms share electrons by
charged sodium ion and the negatively charged chlorine overlapping their electron shells. For example, a carbon
ion (Fig. 3-5ay atom in diamond shares all four of its outermost elec-
fiT ionic compounds, such as sodium chloride (the trons with a neighbor to produce a stable noble gas
mineral halite), the ions are arranged in a three- configuration (Fig. 3-6a).
-^ FIGURE 3-5 {a) I onic

bonding The electron in the
.
outermost shell of sodium is

transferred to the outermost
Transfer of electron
electron shell of chlorine. Once the
/
transfer has occurred, sodium and
< I*
chlorine are positively and
negatively charged ions, respectively.
(b) The sodium
crystal structure of
chloride, the mineral halite.The
diagram on the showi the
left
relative sizes of sodium and chlorine
Chlorine (CM) Sodium (Na +1 ) ions, and the diagram on the right
shows the locations of the ions in
the crystal structure.
Matter and its Composition 59

(a) (b) (c)
"^" FIGURE 3-6 Covalent bon ds forme d byâdjacenLatompharing.eleetrons

(a)
in diamond, (b) The three-dimensional framework of carbon atoms in diamond.

(c) "Covalent bonding also occurs in graphite, but here the carbon atoms are bonded
together to form sheets that are held to one another by van der Waals bonds. The
sheets themselves are strong, but the bonds between sheets are weak.
Covalent bonds are not restricted to substances com- ^ MINERALS

posed of atoms of a single kind. Among the most com-
Most minerals compounds of two or more elements.
are
mon minerals, the silicates (discussed later in this chap-
Mineral composition is generally shown by a chemical
ter), the element silicon forms partly covalent and partly
formula, which is a shorthand way of indicating the
ionic bonds with oxygen.
numbers of atoms of different elements composing a
Metallic and van der Waals Bonds mineral.JQie mineral quartz, for example, consists of
nnp sjiJjmiWSi) atom for every two oxygen (O) atoms,
Metallic bondin&jes«4ts-fxQm_an extrejnejype of j^lec-
and thus has the formula Si0 2 ; the subscript number
Jxon_sharing. The electrons of the outermost electron
indicates the number of atoms. Orthoclase iscomposed
shell of such metals as gold, silver, and copper are
of one potassium, one aluminum, three silicon, and
readily lost and move about from one atom to another.
eight oxygen atoms so its formula is KAlSi 3 O g Some
.
This electron mobility accounts for the fact that metals

minerals are composed of a single element. Known as
have a metallic luster (their appearance in reflected
native_ejements, they include such minerals as joldJAu),
light), provide good electrical and thermal conductivity,
and can be easily reshaped. Only a few minerals possess p latinum (Pt), and graphite_a nd diamo nd,
Silver (Ag),
both of which are composed of carbon (C).
metallic bonds, but those that do are very useful; cop-
Before we discuss minerals in more detail, let us recall
per, for example, is used for electrical wiring because of
our formal definition: a mineral is a naturally occurring,
its high electrical conductivity.
\ inorganic, crystalline solid, with a narrowly denned chem-
Someelectrically neutral atoms and molecules* have
ical composition and characteristic physical properties.
no electrons available for ionic, covalent, or metallic
(The next sections will examine each part of this definition.
bonding. They nevertheless have a weak attractive force
between them when in proximity. This weak attrac tive
force is a van der Waals or resid uadbond^Jhsôarôn
Naturally Occurring, Inorganic Substance s,
atoms in the mineral graphite are covalently bonded to
form sheets, but the^shegts _are w eakly held together by "Naturally occurring" excludes from minerals all sub-
van der Waals bonds (Fig. 3-6c). stances that are manufactured by humans. Accordingly,
synthetic diamonds and rubies and a number of other ar-
tificially synthesized substances are not regarded as min-

*A molecule is the smallest unit of a substance having the properties
A water molecule (H 2 0),
of that substance. for example, possesses erals by most geologists. This criterion is particularly im-
two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. portant to those who buy and sell gemstones, all of which
1
Guest Essay MALCOLM ROSS
MINERALOGY: A CAREER
WITH DIVERSE PURSUITS
My path becoming a professional geoscientist was
to asbestos minerals have been used in international
somewhat As an undergraduate, I majored in
circuitous. commerce, but by most widely utilized is
far the
forestry and then zoology, intending to become a marine chrysotile asbestos, which accounts for 95% of world
biologist. After graduation, I obtained a temporary production. Until recently, few investigators had paid
position with the U.S. Geological Survey where I learned any attention to the relationship between the type of
to operate the electron microscope and then applied my asbestos disease (lung cancer, mesothelioma, and
newfound skills to the study of clay minerals. A whole asbestosis) and the type of asbestos to which the
new world opened up to me as I photographed mineral individual was exposed. By comparing medical studies
particles magnified as much as half a million times. This of miners and millers who were exposed to only one
experience convinced me to redirect my interests, and I form of asbestos, I found that the common form of
went on to graduate school to study mineralogy. asbestos, chrysotile, is not a hazard at low to moderate
My first serious scientific studies concerned the exposures and offers no danger to children attending
elucidation of the crystal symmetries of fine-grained school in buildings that contain this mineral. Since most
vanadium-bearing minerals. This work was followed by buildings contain only chrysotile, removal of asbestos
studies of the crystal structures of several uranium- from such buildings is unnecessary and even
bearing minerals as part of the U.S. Atomic Energy counterproductive.
program; next I undertook an extended study of the Recently, I completed a study of the effects of "acid
crystal structures and physical chemistry of several rain" on limestone and marble building materials. I found
silicate minerals that make up a major portion of the that air pollutants generated within large cities are
Earth's crust— the micas, pyroxenes, and amphiboles. primarily responsible for stone deterioration rather than
In 1968 I submitted a proposal to the National sulfur dioxide originating from midwestem power plants.
Aeronautics and Space Administration to study the This observation has particular importance as we look for
important silicate minerals composing the surface of the the most effective and economical ways of mitigating acid
Moon. At that time, many (but not all) geoscientists rain. Although I am still involved with asbestos studies, I
thought that the lunar surface was composed of rocks am now also engaged in investigating mineral resources in
and minerals similar to those found on Earth. The first the Hot Springs area of Arkansas. Important deposits of
lunar samples were returned to Earth by the Apollo 1 titanium- and vanadium-bearing minerals are located here,
crew on July 24, 1969. Within a few weeks, samples of and understanding their mode of formation will help us
lunar rocks and soils were sent to earth scientists all locate new deposits of these valuable metals.
over the world, and after four months of intensive study, Perhaps this essay can give the reader some idea of how
over 500 of these scientists converged on Houston, interesting and diversified geoscience can be; it combines
Texas, to report on their investigations. Indeed, the rocks laboratory work with field studies in fascinating localities
and minerals of the Moon and Earth turned out to be and encompasses both basic research and research directly
similar in many respects. Some striking differences were related to humans' benefit.
noted, however, between lunar and terrestrial rocks. The
lunar rocks are very old (3.7 to 4.3 billion years); the
absence of younger rocks implies that geochemical JVlalcolm Ross earned his
processes stopped very early in the Moon's history in Ph.D. degree in geology from
contrast to Earth processes that still go on today. New Harvard University in 1962.
minerals were found on the Moon that had not been He has been employed by the
U.S. Geological Survey since
observed on the Earth, and a complete absence of
that time, specializing in
water-bearing lunar minerals was also noted.
studies related to the occurrence,
In the late 1970s, I became involved in the "asbestos
chemistry, structure, and
and health" issue due to the increasing concern over the health effects of a wide variety
effects of exposure to asbestos dust. Four types of of minerals.
kAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAi**AAAA*A**Ati*4i*itAAAAAiAAAAAAAAAAAAAAiA<ÛAAAAAAAAA*ti.AAAA
Minerals 61
(b) (c) (d)
'*' FIGURE Mineral crystals occur in a variety of shapes, several of which are
3-7
shown here, (a) Cubic crystals typically develop in the minerals halite, galena, and
pyrite. (b) Dodecahedron crystals such as those of garnet have 12 sides, (c) Diamond
has octahedral or 8-sided crystals, (d) A prism terminated by pyramids is found in
quartz.
are minerals, because some humanmade substances are well-formed mineral crystals are rare, all minerals of a
very difficult to distinguish from natural gem minerals. given species have the same internal atomic structure.
Some geologists think the term "inorganic" in the As early as 1669, a well-known Danish scientist,
mineral definition is superfluous. It does, however, re- Nicholas Steno, determined that the angles of intersec-
mind us that animal matter and vegetable matter are not tion of equivalent crystal faces on different specimens of
minerals. Nevertheless, some organisms produce com- quartz_ are identica l.Si nce then th cconstancv of inter-
pounds that are minerals. For example, corals, clams, facial angles has been demonstrated formany other min-
and a number of other animals construct their shells of erals,~regardless of their size, shape, or geographic oc-
the compound calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ), which is ei- currence (Fig. 3-8). Steno postulated that mineral crystals
ther aragonite or calcite, both of which are minerals. are composed of very small, identical building blocks and
that the arrangement of these blocks determines the ex-
ternal form of the crystals (Fig. 3-8). Such regularity of
Jhe Nature of Crysta ls the external form of minerals must surely mean that ex-
By definition minerals are cryjtalline_solids.|Recall that ternal crystal form is controlled by internal structure.
a solid is a rigid substance that retains its shape unless The crystalline structure can be demonstrated even in
deformed by an applied force (Table 3-1). A crystalline minerals lacking obvious crystals. For example, many
solid is a soli d in wh ich the constituent atoms are ar- minerals possess a property called cleavage, meaning
ranged in aj-egular, three-dimensional framework, as in that they break or split along closeh/-SBac£d,.j;rnooth
the mineral halite (Fig 3-5b). Under ideal conditions, planes.I he tact that these min erals can be sp litjdong
such as in a cavity, mineral crystals can grow and form ^ch smooth planar surfaces indicates that the mineral's
perfect crystals that possess planar surfaces (crystal internal structure controls such breakager The~Behavior
faces), sharp corners, and straight edges (Fig. 3-7). In ortight and X^fay beamsTtransmitted through minerals
other words, the regular geometric shape of a well- also provides compelling evidence for an orderly ar-
formed mineral crystal is the exterior manifestation of rangement of atoms within minerals.
an ordered internal atomic arrangement. Not all rigid
substances are crystalline solids, however; natural and
manufactured glass, for example, lack the ordered ar-
Chemical Com position
rangement of atoms and are said to be amorphous, The definition of a mineral contains the phrase "a nar-
meaning without form. rowly defined chemical composition," because some min-
In many numerous minerals grow in proximity,
cases erals actually have a range of compositions. When the
as in a cooling lava flow, and thus do not have an op- compositions of these minerals vary, they do so within a
portunity to develop well-formed crystals. Even though specific range. For many minerals the chemical compo-
^20^
(a) lb) (c)
""" FIGURE Side views and cross sections of three quartz crystals showing the
3-8
constancy of interfacial angles: (a) a well-shaped crystal; (b) a larger crystal; and (c) a
poorly shaped crystal. The angles formed between equivalent crystal faces on different
specimens of the same mineral are the same regardless of the size or shape of the
specimens.
sitionis constant: quartz is always composed of silicon if atoms of two or more elements are nearly the same
the
and oxygen (Si0 2 ), and halite contains only sodium and sizeand the same charge. Notice in Figure 3-9 that iron
chlorine (NaCl). Other minerals have a range of com- and magnesium atoms are about the same size, and there-
positions because one element may substitute for another fore they can substitute for one another. The chemical
2+ 3- 1
— FIGURE 3-9
Electrical charges and
relative sizes of ions
0.39 common in minerals.
(
0.99 ) (uoj O O The numbers within
the ions are the radii
shown in Angstrom
units.
Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicon
0.15
(O-K'l O
2+ 3 "
1
Potassium lron Iron "

Carbon
0.72 ( 0.62
J
Magnesium Chromium
Minerals 63
% Magnesium (Mg)
50
Q)
— TABLE 3-4
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
erals arecommonly dark colored and more dense than istic feldspar cleavage and typically are white or cream
nonferromagnesian silicates. Some o f the co mmon fer- to medium gray. Color, however, is not a good properly
romagnesian silicate minerals" are oli vine, thejjy rQXfnes, jo use in identifying feldspars . Plagioclase cleavage sur-
rhe amphiboles, and biotite (Fig. 3-13). Olivine, an olive faces commonly show numerous, distinctive, closely
green mineral, is common in some ijmec>uj_xooks, but spaced, parallel lines called striations.
uncommon in most otKeTrocIc types. The pyroxenes and Qua_r tz (Si0 2 ), another common nonferromagnesian
amphiboles are a'cjually^ mineral groups, but the variet- silicate (see Perspective 3-1), is common in the three
ies iygite and hornblen de are the most common. Biotite major rock groups, especially in such rocks as granite,
mica is a common, dark-colored ferromagnesian silicate and sandstone. It is a framework silicate that can
Jgneiss,
with a distinctive sheet structure.
structure far
^rvusuairy
V' usually be recognized
recog by its glassy appearance and hard-
f^t
P"
C
^V ct
Nonferrbmagnesian Silicates
•
til,
hc\dSpM£>
r^
<T
/,
>ess(Fig.3-14a
, Another fairly
fair!- common nonferromagnesian silicate is
The nonferromagnesian silicates, as their name implies, muscovite, which is a mica. Like biotite it is a sheet
lack iron and magnesium, are generally light colored, silicate, but muscovite is typically nearly colorless
and are less dense than ferromagnesian silicates (Fig^ whereas biotite is dark colored (Fig. 3-14d).
si
3-14). The most common minerals in the Earth'sfcru st
are nonferromagnesian silicates known asffeldspars^
- Carbonate Minerals
Feldspar is name, however, and two distinct
a general
groups are recognized, each of which includes several Carbonate minerals are those that contain the negatively
2
species. The potassium feldspars, represented by micro- charged carbonate ion (C0 3 )~ An example is calcium .
cline and orthoclase (KAlSi 3 O g ), are common in igne- carbonate (CaC0 3 ), the mineral calcite (Table 3-4). Iâkitex
ous, metamorphic, and some sedimentary rocks. Like all is main constituent of the sedimentary rock limestone.
the
feldspars, microcline and orthoclase have two internal A number of other carbonate minerals ^rejcnown, but
planes of weakness along which they break or cleave. only one of these need concern us-.^dolomitsJ'lCaMg
The second group of feldspars, the plagioclase feld- (C0 3 2 is formed by the chemical alteration of calcite by
) ]
spars, range from calcium-rich (CaAl 2 Si 2 8 to sodium- ) the addition of magnesium. Sedimentary rock composed
rich (NaAlSi 3 8 varieties. They possess the character-
) of the mineral dolomite is dolostone (see Chapter 6).
""''
FIGURE 3-13 Common ferr omagnesian silicates :
"^ FIGURE 3-14 Common nonferromagnesian silicates :
(a) olivine ; (b) augite, a p yroxene gro up mineral ; (a) quart z; t he potassium fplrk par nrrhnrlacp;
(b)
(c) hornbIende,~an amjjhibole^group mineral; and (c) pjagi oclas e_ieldspar; and (d) muscov te mi ca. (Photo i
(tj) biotite mica. (Photo courtesy of Sue Monroe.) courtesy of Sue Monroe.)
Mineral Groups 67
Perspective 3-1
QUARTZ-A COMMON
USEFUL MINERAL
During the Middle Ages, quartz crystals' were pink to deep rose) (Fig. 1). Agate is a very finely
thought to be ice frozen so solidly that they would crystalline variety of quartz commonly used as a
not melt (Fig. 1). In fact, the term "crystal" is decorative stone (Fig. Id).
derived from a Greek word meaning ice. Even Colorless quartz in particular has been used as a
today, crystal refers not only to transparent quartz, semiprecious stone for jewelry. For example, the term
but also to clear, colorless glass of high quality, "rhinestone" originally referred to transparent quartz
such as crystal ware, crystal chandeliers, or the crystals used for jewelrymade in Germany. Herkimer
transparent glass or plastic cover of a watch or "diamonds" are simply colorless quartz crystals from
clock dial. Herkimer County, New York. During the past, large,
Quartz is a common mineral in the Earth's crust. transparent quartz crystals were shaped into spheres
Most of the sand on beaches, in sand dunes, and in for the fortune teller's crystal ball.
stream channels Sand deposits composed
is quartz. The property of piezoelectricity (which literally
mostly of quartz are called silica sands and are used means "pressure" electricity) is what enables quartz to
in the manufacture of glass. Quartz is also used in be such an accurate time-keeper. When pressure is
optical equipment, for abrasives such as sandpaper, applied to a quartz crystal, an electric current is
and in the manufacture of steel alloys. generated. If an electric current is applied to a quartz
Quartz occurs in several color varieties. Milky crystal, the crystal expands and compresses extremely
white quartz is a common variety and frequently rapidly and regularly (about 100,000 times per
occurs as well-formed crystals. A milky white second). In a quartz movement watch, a thin wafer of
quartz crystal weighing 11.8 metric tons and a quartz crystal vibrates because of the electrical
measuring 3.5 m long and 1.7 m in diameter was current supplied by the watch's battery.
discovered in Siberia. Color varieties of quartz include The first clock driven by a quartz crystal was
amethyst (purple), smoky (smoky brown to black), developed in 1928. Today quartz clocks and watches
citrine (yellow to yellowish brown), and rose (pale are commonplace, and even inexpensive quartz
"^ FIGURE 3-15 View of an iron mine near Palmer, Other Mineral Groups
Michigan.
In addition to silicates and carbonates, several other
mineral groups are recognized (Table 3-4). The oxides
consist of an element combined with oxygen as in he-
matite (Fe 2 Hematite and another iron oxide called
3 ).
magnetite are both commonly present in small quanti-

ties in a variety of rocks. Rocks containing high concen-
trations of hematite and magnetite, such as those in the

Lake Superior region, are important sources of iron ores
for the manufacture of steel (Fig. 3-15).
The sulfides have a positively charged ion combined
2
with sulfur (S~ ), such as in the mineral galena (PbS),
which contains lead (Pb) and sulfur (Fig. 3- 16a). Sulfates
contain an element combined with the complex sulfate ion
2
(S0 4 )~ gypsum (CaS0 4 -2H 2 0) is a good example (Fig.
;
"^ FIGURE 1 Varieties of quartz.
(a) Colorless crystals from the Jeffrey
Stone Quarry, Arkansas— National
Museum of Natural History specimen
#R12804. (Photo by Chip Clark,
courtesy of Smithsonian Institution.)
(b) Smoky quartz. (Photo courtesy of
Sue Monroe.) (c) Amethyst— NMNH
specimen #C6647. (Photo by V. E.
Krantz, courtesy of Smithsonian
Institution.) (d) Agate, a variety of very
finely crystalline quartz. (Photo courtesy
of B. J. Skinner.) {e) Rose quartz.
(Photo courtesy of Sue Monroe.)
timepieces are extremely accurate. Precision- difficulty obtaining quartz crystalsfrom Brazil needed
manufactured quartz clocks used in astronomical for making prompted the
radios. This shortage
observatories do not gain or lose more than one development of artificially synthesized quartz, and
second every 10 years. now most of the quartz used in watches and clocks
An interesting historical note regarding quartz is is synthetic.
that during World War II the United States had
3- 16b). The halides contain halogen elements such as chlo- Color and Luster
-1 _1
rine (CI ) and fluorine (F ); examples include the min-
For some minerals, especially those that have the ap-
erals halite (NaCl) and fluorite (CaF2 )
(Fig. 3-16c).
pearance of metals, color is rather consistent, but for
many others it varies because of minute amounts of im-
^ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES purities.
of colors
The fact that some minerals occur in a variety
distressing to beginning students because the
OF MINERALS is
most obvious mineral property is not particularly useful

All minerals possess characteristic physical properties for identification. Some generalizations about color can
that are determined by their internal structure and be made, however Ferromagnesian
. silicates are typicall y
chemical composition. Many physical properties are re- black,brown, or dark green, although olivine is oliv e
markably constant for a given mineral species, but green Fig. 3-13). Nonferromagnesian silicates, on the
(
some, especially color, may vary. Though a professional other hand, can vary considerably in color, but are only
geologist may use sophisticated techniques in studying rarely dark (Fig. 3-14).
and identifying minerals, most common minerals can be busier fyiot to he confused with rnlnr) is fhp appear-
identified by using the following physical properties. ance of a mineral in reflected ligh t. Two major types of
Physical Properties of Minerals 69

"^" FIGURE3-17 Luster is the appearance of a mineral in
Galena (left), the ore of lead, has the
reflected light.
appearance of a metal and is said to have a metallic luster,
whereas orthoclase has a nonmetallic luster.
luster are recognized: ^ metallic and nonmetallic (Fig.
3-17). They are distinguished by observing the quality of

light reflected from a mineral and determining if it has
the appearance of a metal or a nonmetal. Several types
of nonmetallic luster are also recognized. Quartz pos-
sesses a glassy or vitreous type of nonmetallic luster, and
other minerals have lusters characterized as greasy,
waxy, brilliant (as in diamond), and dull or earthy.
Crystal Form
As previously noted, mineral crystals are rare. Thus,
many mineral specimens you encounter will not show the
perfect crystal form typical of that mineral species. Keep
in mind, however, that even though crystals may not be
apparent, minerals nevertheless possess the atomic struc-
ture that would have yielded well-formed crystals if they
had developed within an unconfined space.
Some minerals do typically occur as crystals. For ex-
ample, 12-sided crystals of garnet are common, as are 6-
and 12-sided crystals of pyrite (Fig. 3-18). Minerals that
grow in cavities or are precipitated from circulating hot
water (hydrothermal solutions) in cracks and crevices in
rocks also commonly occur as crystals.
Crystal form can be a very useful characteristic for min-

but a number of minerals have the same
eral identification,
crystal form. Forexample, pyrite (FeS 2 ), galena (PbS), and
""^ FIGURE 3-16 Representative examples of minerals from halite (NaCl) all occur as cubic crystals. However, such
(a) the sulfides (galena — PbS); (b) the sulfates (gypsum — minerals can usually be easily identified by other proper-
CaSGy2H 2 0); and (c) the halides (halite -NaCl).
hardness, and density.
ties such as color, luster,
(a) Cleavage in Micas— biotite
one direction and muscovite
(b) Cleavage in
two directions
at right angles
(c) Cleavage in
three directions Halite, galena

at right angles
(d) Cleavage in
three directions,
not at right
angles
(e) Cleavage in
four directions
(b) (f) Cleavage in

Sphalerite
six directions
'**' FIGURE3-18 (a) Crystals of pyrite from Spain —
NMNH specimen #R18657. (Photo by D. Penland, courtesy
of Smithsonian Institution.) (b) Garnet crystals from Alaska.
"^" FIGURE 3-19 Several types of mineral cleavage:
(a) one direction; (b) two directions at right angles; (c) three
directions at right angles; (d) three directions, not at right
angles; (c) four directions; and six directions.
Cleavage and Fracture (f)
Qeay age is a property oMndiyidual mineral crystals.

Not all minerals possesscleavageTbut those that do tend
to break, or split, along a smooth plane or planes of with the sheets of silica tetrahedra weakly bonded to
weakness determined by the strength of the bonds one another by iron and magnesium ions (Fig. 3-12c).
within the mineral structure. Cleavage can be character- Feldspars possess two directions of cleavagejthat in-
ized in terms of quality (perfect, good, poor), direction, tersect at right angles, and the mineral halite has three
and angles of intersection of cleavage planes. Biatkca directions of cleavage, all of which intersect at right an-
commo n ferromagnesian silicate, has p erfect cleavage in gles (Fig. 3-19c). Calcite also possesses three directions
one direction (Fig. 3-19a). The fact that biotite prefer- of cleavage, but none of the intersection angles is a right
entially cleaves along a number of closely spaced, par- angle, so cleavage fragments of calcite are rhombohe-
allel planes is related to its structure; it is a sheet silicate drons (Fig. 3-19d). Minerals with four directions of

cleavage include fluorite and diamond. Ironically, dia- Hardness
mond, the hardest mineral, can be easily cleaved (see An
Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to abrasion.
Perspective 3-2). A few minerals such as sphalerite, an
Austrian geologist, Friedrich Mohs, devised a relative
ore of zinc, have six directions of cleavage (Fig. 3-19f).
hardness scale for 10 minerals. He arbitrarily assigned a
Cleavage is a very important diagnostic property of
hardness value of 10 to diamond, the hardest mineral
minerals, and its recognition is essential in distinguish-
known, and lesser values to the other minerals. Relative
ing between some minerals. For example, the pyroxene
hardness can be determined easily by the use of Mohs
mineral augite and the amphibole mineral hornblende
hardness scale (Table 3-5). For example, quartz will
look much alike: both are generally dark green to black,
scratch fluorite but cannot be scratched by fluorite, gyp-
have the same hardness, and possess two directions of
sum can be scratched by a fingernail, and so on. Hard-
cleavage. However, the cleavage planes of augite inter-
ness is controlled mostly by internal structure. For ex-
sect at about 90°, whereas the cleavage planes of horn-
ample, both graphite and diamond are composed of
blende intersect at angles of 56° and 124° (Fig. 3-20).
carbon, but the former has a hardness of 1 to 2 whereas
In contrast to cleavage, fracture is mineral breakage
the latter has a hardness of 10.
along irregular surfaces. Any mineral can be fractured if
enough force is applied. The fracture surfaces will not be

smooth, however, which implies that the internal bonds Specific Gravity
are equally strong in all directions. Fracture surfaces are
The specific gravity of a mineral is the ratio of its weight
commonly uneven or conchoidal (smoothly curved).
to the weight of an equal volume of water. A mineral
with a specific gravity of 3.0 is three times as heavy as
water. Like all ratios, specific gravity is not expressed in
units such as grams per cubic centimeter — it is a dimen-
sionless number.
Specific gravity varies in minerals depending upon
their composition and structure (Fig. 3-21). Among the
common example, the ferromagnesian sili-
silicates, for
cates have specific gravities ranging from 2.7 to 4.3,

whereas the nonferromagnesian silicates vary from 2.6 to
2.9. Obviously, the ranges of values overlap somewhat,
but for the most part ferromagnesian silicates have greater
specific gravities than nonferromagnesian silicates. In gen-
eral, the metallic minerals, such as galena (7.58) and he-
"" TABLE 3-5
(b)
"^ FIGURE 3-20 in augite and hornblende.

Cleavage
(a) Augite crystal and cross section of crystal showing
cleavage, {b) Hornblende crystal and cross section of crystal
showing cleavage.
Perspective 3-2
DIAMONDS AND PENCIL LEADS

You may be surprised to learn that diamonds and pencil 3-6c). Graphite can be used for pencil leads because it
"lead" (graphite) are composed of the same substance, has good cleavage in one direction. When a pencil
carbon. Both diamonds and graphite are crystalline lead is moved across a piece of paper, small pieces of
solids and are therefore minerals; because they each graphite flake off along the planes held together by
contain only a single element, they are also native van der Waals bonds and adhere to the paper.
elements. Other than composition, however, diamond Most of the diamonds mined are not of gem
and graphite have little in common: diamond is the quality and are used in such industrial applications as
hardest mineral, whereas graphite is so soft that it can diamond drill bits, diamond-tipped cutting blades, or
be scratched by a fingernail; diamond may be colorless, abrasives. Most gem-quality diamonds are mined in
red, yellow, blue, gray, or black, while graphite is South Africa, although in terms of total diamond
invariably steel gray (Fig. 1). Obviously, the same production South Africa is in fifth place, with
chemical substance occurs in vastly different forms, so Australia being the largest producer.
what could possibly control such differences? How does one "cut" a diamond, the hardest
Diamond and graphite differ mostly because of substance known? Diamond cutting is actually done
their internal structure— both are crystalline but the by several processes, one of which is cleaving.
atoms within crystals of diamond and graphite are Diamond possesses four directions of cleavage, and if
arranged quite differently. Such minerals sharing the a diamond is cleaved such that all four cleavage planes
same composition but differing in structure are called are perfectly developed, the resulting "stone" will be
polymorphs (poly = many; morph = shape or form). shaped like two pyramids placed base to base.
Notice in Figure 3-6 that in a diamond crystal the Diamonds are cleaved by placing a knife parallel with
carbon atoms are arranged such that all of them are a cleavage plane and then tapping the knife with a
bonded to one another. In graphite the carbon atoms mallet. Large diamonds are commonly preshaped by
are bonded together to form sheets, but the sheets are cleaving them into smaller pieces that are then further
weakly held together by van der Waals bonds (Fig. shaped by sawing and grinding with diamond dust.
"^" FIGURE 1 Two minerals composed of carbon.

(a) Graphite. (Photo courtesy of Sue Monroe.) (b) The
Oppenheimer diamond— NMNH
specimen #117538. (Photo
by D. Penland, courtesy of Smithsonian Institution.) (b)

graphite writes on paper, halite tastes salty, and magnetite
is magnetic (Fig. 3-22). Calcite
possesses the property of
double refraction, meaning that an object when viewed
through a transparent piece of calcite will have a double
image (Fig. 3-22c). Some minerals are plastic and, when
bent into a new shape, will retain that shape, whereas
others are flexible and, if bent, will return to their original
position when the forces that bent them are removed.
A simple chemical test to identify the minerals calcite
and dolomite involves applying a drop of dilute hydro-
chloric acid to the mineral specimen. If the mineral is
calcite, it will react vigorously with the acid and release

carbon dioxide, which causes the acid to bubble or ef-
fervesce. Dolomite, on the other hand, will not react
with hydrochloric acid unless it is powdered.
Mg 2 SiO
Specific gravity
^ IMPORTANT ROCK-FORMING
"^r FIGURE 3-21 The specific gravity of olivine group MINERALS
minerals increases as a function of increasing iron content.
Rocks are generally defined as solid aggregates of grains
of one or more minerals. Two important exceptions to
this definition are~natural glass such as obsidian (see
matite (5.26), are heavier than nonmetals. Structure as a Chapters 4 and 5) and the sedimentary rock coal (see
control of specific gravity is illustrated by the native ele- Chapter 7). Although it is true that many minerals occur
ment carbon (C): the specific gravity of graphite varies in various kinds of rocks, only a few varieties are com-
from 2.09 to 2.33; that of diamond is 3.5. mon enough to be designated as rock-forming minerals.
Most of the others occur in such small amounts that
they can be disregarded in the identification and classi-
Other Properties
fication of rocks; these are generally called accessory
A number of other physical properties characterize some minerals. Granite, an igneous rock consisting largely of
minerals. For example, talc has a distinctive soapy feel, potassium feldspar and quartz, commonly contains such
"^ FIGURE 3-22 Various properties of minerals, (a) Graphite, the mineral from
which pencil leads are made, writes on paper, (b) Magnetite is magnetic, (c) Calcite
shows double refraction.
"•' FIGURE 3-23 The
igneous rock granite is
composed largely of
potassium feldspar and
quartz, lesser amounts of
plagioclase feldspar, and
accessory minerals such as
biotite mica, (a) Hand
specimen of granite.
(b) Photomicrograph
showing the various
minerals.
accessory minerals as sodium plagioclase, biotite, horn- silicates, common rock-forming minerals. These
are also
blende, muscovite, and, rarely, pyroxene (Fig. 3-23). clay minerals form mostly by the chemical alteration of
We have already emphasized that the Earth's crust is other silicate minerals, such as feldspars, and are par-
compos ed largely~o t silicate minerals. This being the ticularly common in some sedimentary and metamor-
case, one would suspect that most rocks are also com- phic rocks, as well as in soils (see Chapter 6).
posed of silicate minerals, and this is correct. Only a few The most common nonsilicate rock-forming joi nerals
of the hundreds of known silicates are common in rocks, are"ftTe~two~carbonates, EalcifeJtCaC0 3 ) and \dolom ite;
however, although many occur as accessories. The com- [CaMg((J0 3 2 J, the primary constituents o f the sedime n-
)
mon rock-forming summarized in Table 3-6.

silicates are tary roc ksîmest^ne^ncTHol oston eTrespectively. Among
Several varieties of clay minerals, all of which are sheet the sulfates and halides, gypsum (CaS0 4 -2H 2 0) and ha-
"*»" TABLE 3-6 Rock-Forming Minerals

Nonmetallics
Clays Salt Phosphate

195 kg 170 kg 145 kg
•^ FIGURE 3-24 The approximate cn czy

amounts of mineral resources used by Iron and
every resident of North America during
1988.
Mineral Resources Major Producing Countries
Brazil, Canada
Manganese USSR, South Africa, Brazil
Tantalum Brazil, Canada
Bauxite* Jamaica, Australia, Guinea
Chromium South Africa, USSR
Cobalt Zaire, Zambia
Platinum group
Tin Malaysia, USSR, Brazil, Thailand
USSR, Canada, New Caledonia, Australia
USA, Canada, Australia
Mercury USSR, Spain. Algeria
Zinc Canada, Australia, Mexico
Tungsten China, USSR, South Korea
Gold South Africa, USSR, Canada, USA
Titanium (ilmenite) Australia, Norway, USSR
Silver Mexico, Peru, USSR, USA, Canada
Antimony China. USSR, South Africa
USSR, Brazil, Australia, China
South Africa, USSR, China -»- FIGURE 3-25 The

percentages of some mineral
Copper Chile, USA, USSR, Canada, Zaire
resources imported by the United
Australia, USSR, USA States. The lengths of the blue bars
correspond to the amounts of
*Ore of aluminum. resources imported.
What constitutes a resource as opposed to a reserve or Canada may be mined in a third-world country
depends on several factors. For example, iron-bearing where labor costs are low. The market price of a com-
minerals occur in many rocks, but in quantities or ways modity is, of course, important in evaluating a potential
that make their recovery uneconomical. As a matter of resource. From 1935 to 1968, the United States govern-
fact, most minerals that are concentrated in economic ment maintained the price of gold at $35 per troy ounce
quantities are mined in only a few areas; 75% of all the (= 31.1 g). When this restriction was removed and the
metals mined in the world come from about 150 loca- price of gold became subject to supply and demand, the
tions. Geographic location is also an important consid- price rose (it reached an all-time high of $843 per troy
eration. A mineral resource in a remote region may not ounce during January 1980). As a consequence, many
be mined because transportation costs are too high, and marginal deposits became reserves and many aban-
what may be considered a resource in the United States doned mines were reopened.
Mineral Resources and Reserves 77

Technological developments can also change the sta- depleted. In order to ensure continued supplies of essen-
example, the rich iron ores of the
tus of a resource. For tial minerals, geologists are using increasingly sophisti-
Great Lakes region of the United States and Canada had cated geophysical and geochemical mineral exploration
been depleted by World War II. However, the develop- techniques. The U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Bu-
ment of a method of separating the iron from previously reau of Mines continually assess the status of resources
unusable rocks and shaping it into pellets that are ideal in view of changing economic and political conditions
for use in blast furnaces made it feasible to mine poorer and developments in science and technology. In the fol-
grade ores. lowing chapters, we will discuss the origin and distribu-
Most of the largest and richest mineral deposits have tion of various mineral resources and reserves.
probably already been discovered and, in some cases,
t.^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ «^C ^. ^ ^^ « «.-« ^'« '« TL « «^g , ' , ,

.
,
. . .
,
.
,
1
^ CHAPTER SUMMARY IMPORTANT TERMS

1. All matter is composed of chemical elements, each of atom
which consists of atoms. Individual atoms consist of
a nucleus, containing protons and neutrons, and
electrons that circle the nucleus in electron shells.
2. Atoms are characterized by their atomic number (the
number of protons in the nucleus) and their atomic
mass number (the number of protons plus the
number of neutrons in the nucleus).
3. Bonding is whereby atoms are joined to
the process
other atoms. atoms of different elements are
If
bonded, they form a compound. Ionic and covalent

bonds are most common in minerals, but metallic
and van der Waals bonds also occur in a few.
4. Most minerals are compounds, but a few, including
gold and silver, are composed of a single element
and are called native elements.
5. All minerals are crystalline solids, meaning that they
possess an orderly internal arrangement of atoms.
6. Some minerals vary in chemical composition because
atoms of different elements can substitute for one
another provided that the electrical charge is
balanced and the atoms are of about the same size.
7. Of the more than 3,500 known minerals, most are

silicates. Ferromagnesian silicates contain iron (Fe)
and magnesium (Mg), and nonferromagnesian

silicates lack these elements.
8. In addition to silicates, several other mineral groups
are recognized, including carbonates, oxides,
sulfides, sulfates, and halides.
9. The physical properties of minerals such as color,
hardness, cleavage, and crystal form are controlled
by composition and structure.
10. A few minerals are common enough constituents of
rocks to be designated rock-forming minerals.
11. Many resources are concentrations of minerals of
economic importance.
12. Reserves are that part of the resource base that can
be extracted economically.
4<The two most abundant elements in the Earth's crust distinctive sheet structure;
c. J^\ common
are: rock-forming carbonate minerals; d. minerals
a. and magnesium; b.
iron carbon and potas- used in the manufacture of pencil leads;
sium; c sodium and nitrogen; d^JC^silicon and e. important energy resources.
oxy gen; e sand and clay. 16. How does a crystalline solid differ from a liquid and «
v^Br- The sharing of electrons by adjacent atoms is a type C^VyW-A CXTr^r, ojui, CuXtyyy^ I /W«c< 'bdiAUMvjj
a gas?
of bonding called: 17. An atom of the element magnesium is shown^below. r
a. van der Waals; b. /^ covalent; c. silicate;
f/CWAUAJr'(-
d. tetrahedral; e. ionic.
J^. A chemical element is a substance made up of

atoms, all of which have the same:
a. atomic mass number; b. number of
neutrons; cyt number of protons; d. size;
e. weight.
7. Many minerals break along closely spaced planes
and are said to possess:
a. specific gravity; b. >8L cleavage;
c. covalent bonds; d. fracture; e. double
refraction.
If the two electrons in its outer electron shell are lost,
\%, The chemical formula for olivine is (Mg,Fe) 2 Si0 4 ,
what is magnesium ion?
the electrical charge of the
which means that in addition to silica:
18. What is the atomic mass number of the magnesium
a. 2is_ magnesium and iron can substitute for one
atom shown above?
another; b. magnesium is more common than
19. Compare and contrast ionic and covalent bonding.
iron; c. magnesium is heavier than iron;
20. Define compound and native element.
d. all olivine contains both magnesium and iron;
21. What accounts for the fact that some minerals have
e. more magnesium than iron occurs in the
a range of chemical compositions?
Earth's crust.
22. Why are the angles between the same crystal faces on
<$. The basic building block of all silicate minerals is the:
all specimens of a mineral species always the same?
a silicon sheet; b oxygen-silicon cube;
23. What is a silicate mineral? How do the two
c.^fi^z silica tetrahedron; d. silicate double chain;
subgroups of silicate minerals differ from one
e silica framework.
another?
^JOr An example of a common npnferro magnesian
24. In sheet silicates, individual sheets composed of silica
silicate mineral is:
tetrahedra possess a negative electrical charge. How
a. calcite; b.j£_ quartz; c. biotite;
is charge satisfied?
this negative
d. hematite; e. halite.
25. What do carbonate minerals have in common?
all
11. The ratio of a mineral's weight to the weight of an
26. Describe the mineral property of cleavage, and
equal volume of water is its:
explain what controls cleavage.
a. ^^T specific gravity; b. luster; c hardness;
27. What are rock-forming minerals?
d. atomic mass number; e. cleavage.
12. Those chemical elements having eight e lectrons in
their outermost electron shell are the:
a. tk' noble gases; b. native elements;
c. carbonates; d. halides; e. isotopes. Berry, L. G., B. Mason, and R. V. Dietrich. 1983. Mineralogy.
2d ed.San Francisco, Calif.: W. H. Freeman and Co.
Ji. Minerals are solids possessing an orderly internal
Blackburn, W. H., and W. H. Dennen. 1988. Principles of
arrangement of atoms, meaning that they are:
f mineralogy. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Publishing
a. amorphous substances; b. ^f crystalline;
Co.
c composed of at least three different elements;
Dietrich, R. V, and B. J. Skinner. 1979. Rocks and rock
d. composed of a single element; e. ionic minerals. New York: John Wiley Sons. &
compounds. 1990. Gems, granites, and gravels: Knowing and using
14. The silicon atom has a positive charge of 4, and rocks and minerals. New York: Cambridge University Press.
oxygen has a negative charge of 2. Accordingly, the Klein, C, and Hurlbut Jr. 1985. Manual of mineralogy
C. S.
ion group (Si0 4 has a: ) (after James D. Dana). 20th ed. New York: John Wiley &
a positive charge of 2; b. negative charge of Sons.
2; c. negative charge of 1; d. positive charge Pough, F. H. 1987. A field guide to rocks and minerals. 4th ed.
Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin.
of 4; e. /{ negative charge of 4.
15. Calcite and dolomite are:
Vanders, I., and P. F. Kerr. 1967. Mineral recognition. New
a. oxide minerals of great value;
York: John Wiley & Sons.
b. ferromagnesian silicates possessing a

< . H A V '
4
V () L C AXIS M
* O UT L 1
'
JNTKODtrCFION
MAG&4A AM> LAVA
-.
;\r .:
'
. \ -.
. x -.':': -.- :
"-
--..: ;
.- : ''.x-f.i :.
~*r Pmpeeinre 4-1: Vokasasna am tine Sdbr

System
"•" : -•_;--.- --: - 1 -.-.- : '..-=;.r. ;.-.:
.
-. -,;- -.e;
Shield Volcanoes
*~ '': ;*:- -'. -: '•(_--.--; .": _i.- .r.
;.- : ':.-.'.-- - -.
z.r.z- '-.
Cinder Cones
Composite Volcanoes
Lam Domes
Fissure Eruption*
"" Guest Essay: Monitoring Volcanic
Activity
Pyroclastic Sheet Deposits
DISTRIBUTION OF VOLC\NOES
PLATE TECTONICS AND VOLCANTSM
Volcanism at Spreading Ridges
Volcanism at Subduction Zones
Intraplate Volcanism
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines is one of
many volcanoes in a belt nearly encirding
the PacificOcean basin. It is shown here
erupting on June 12, 1991. A huge, thick
cloud of ash and steam rises above Clark Air
Force Base, from which about 15,000 people
had already been evacuated to Subic Bay-
Naval Base. Following this eruption, the
remaining 900 people at the base were also
evacuated.
PROLOGUE
"•— r- :-:.;-
- - — : -' -
- -
:-3:-:'
viojn
-
eruptions during the last 4,500 years ."* Although
. . .
no one could predict precisely when Mount St. Helens

would erupt, the USGS report included maps showing
areas in which damage from an eruption could be
expected. Forewarned with such data, local officials
were better prepared to formulate policies when the
eruption did occur.
On March 27, 1980, Mount St. Helens began
erupting steam and ash and continued to do so during
the rest of March and mostof April. By late March, a
visible bulgehad developed on its north face as
molten rock was injected into the mountain, and the
bulge continued to expand at about 1.5 m per day.
On May 18, an earthquake shook the area, the
unstable bulge collapsed, and the pent-up volcanic
gases below expanded rapidly, creating a tremendous
northward-directed lateral blast that blew out the
north side of the mountain (Figs. 4-4, 4-5). The lateral
"^ FIGURE 4-3 View of Mount St. Helens from the
blast accelerated from 350 to 1,080 km/hr,
southwest in 1978.
obliterating virtually everything in its path. Some 600
km 2 of forest were completely destroyed; trees were
snapped off at their bases and strewn about the
countryside, and trees as far as 30 km from the bulge
it erupted violently, causing the worst volcanic disaster were seared by the intense heat. Tens of thousands of
in U.S. history. animals were killed; roads, bridges, and buildings
The awakening of Mount St. Helens came as no were destroyed; and 63 people perished.
surprise to geologists of the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) who warned in 1978 that Mount St. Helens is * D. R. Crandell and D. R. Mullineaux, "Potential Hazards from
". an especially dangerous volcano because [of] its
. .
from Future Eruptions of Mt. St. Helens Volcano, Washington,"
past behavior and [its] relatively high frequency of United States Geological Survey Bulletin 13S3-C, (1978):C1.
-^ FIGURE The eruption of Mount St. Helens on May 18, 1980. (a) The lateral
4-4
blast that occurredwhen the bulge on the north face of the mountain collapsed and
reduced the pressure on the molten rock within the mountain, {b) Part of the lateral
blast zone. Many of the trees in this view were more than 30 m tall.
82 Chapter 4 Volcanism
"^ FIGURE 4-5 Mount St. Helens on September 10,
1980. The large crater formed as a result of the avalanche
and lateral blast.
Shortly after the lateral blast, volcanic ash and

steam erupted and formed a cloud above the volcano
19 km high (Fig. 4-6). The ash cloud drifted
east-northeast, and the resulting ash fall at Yakima,
Washington, 130 km to the east, caused almost total
darkness at midday. Detectable amounts of ash were
— FIGURE 4-6 Shortly after the lateral blast of May 18,
1980, Mount St. Helens erupted a steam and ash cloud that
deposited over a huge area. Flows of hot gases and rose about 19 km high.
volcanic ash raceddown the north flank of the
mountain, causing steam explosions when they
encountered bodies of water or moist ground. Steam
explosions continued for weeks, and at least one
"^ FIGURE 4-7 A house surrounded by the mudflow that
occurred a year later.
surged down the valley of the North Fork of the Toutle '
River.
Snow andglacial ice on the upper slopes of Mount
St.Helens melted and mixed with ash and other
surface debris to form thick, pasty volcanic mudflows.
The and most destructive mudflow surged
largest
down North Fork of the Toutle River
the valley of the
(Fig. 4-7). Ash and mudflows displaced water in lakes
and streams and flooded downstream areas. Ash and
other particles carried by the flood waters were
deposited in stream channels; many kilometers from
Mount St. Helens, the navigation channel of the
Columbia River was reduced from 12 m to less than
4 m as a result of such deposition.
Although the damage resulting from the eruption of
Mount St. Helens was significant and the deaths were
tragic, it was not a particularly large or deadly
Prologue 83
-~- TABLE 4-1
=»= MAGMA AND LAVA
Magma is molten rock material below the Earth's sur-
face, and lava is magma at the Earth's surface. Magma

is less dense than the solid rock from which it was de-
rived, thus it tends to move upward toward the surface.

Some magma is erupted onto the surface as lava flows,
and some is forcefully ejected into the atmosphere as
particles called pyroclastic materials (from the Greek
pyro, "fire", and klastos, "broken") (Fig. 4-8).
Igneous rocks (from the Latin ignis meaning fire)
form when magma cools and crystallizes, or when py-
roclastic materials such as volcanic ash become consol-
idated. Magma extruded onto the Earth's surface as lava
and pyroclastic materials forms volcanic (or extrusive
igneous) rocks, whereas magma that crystallizes within
the Earth's crust forms plutonic {intrusive igneous)
rocks (Fig. 4-9).
Composition
Recall from Chapter 3 that the most abundant minerals
comprising the Earth's crust are silicates, composed of
silica and the other elements listed in Table 3-3. Accord-

ingly, when and form magma, the
crustal rocks melt
magma is typically silica rich and also contains consid-
erable aluminum, calcium, sodium, iron, magnesium
and potassium as well as many other elements in lesser
quantities. Notall magmas originate by melting of
crustal rocks, however; some are derived from upper

mantle rocks that are composed largely of ferromagne-
sian silicates. A magma from this source contains com- "^ FIGURE 4-8 Lava fountains such as this one in
paratively less silica and more iron and magnesium. Hawaii are particularly impressive at night.
Although silica is the primary constituent of nearly all
magmas, silica content varies and serves to distinguish
Jejsjcûitennediate, and mafic magmas (Table 4-2). A
felsicjTiagma, for example, contains morertian 65% sil-
but little calcium, iron, and magnesium. Coolingofjelsic
ica_ansLcansiderable sodium, potassium, and aluminum,
magma yieldsTgneous rocks, such as rhyolite and granite,
which are composed largely of the nonferromagnesian
silicates potassium feldspar, sodium-rich plagioclase, and
'•'TABLE 4-2 The Most Common Type of quartz (Table 4-2).
Magmas and Their Characteristics
In contrast to felsic magmas, mafic magmas are silica
Crystallizes to Form poor, and contain proportionately more calcium, iron,

Silica and magnesium. When mafic magma cools and crystal-
Type of Content Volcanic Plutonic igneous rocks suchasjjasalt and g ahhro,
lizes, it yields
Magma (%) Rock Rock which contain high percentages of ferromagnesian sili-
Mafic 45-52% caTeTarTcTcalcium plagioclase (Table 4-2). Asône^would
Intermediate 53-65 expect, igneous rocks that crystallize from intermediate
Felsic > 65 magmas have mineral compositions that are intermedi-
ate between those of mafic and felsic rocks (Table 4-2).
Magma and Lava 85

FIGURE 4-9 The rock cycie, with emphasis on extrusive igneous rocks.
masses of felsic magma, have been measured at a dis-

Temperature
tance by using an instrument called an optical pyrome-
No direct measurements of temperatures of magma be- ter.The surfaces of these domes have temperatures up to
low the Earth's surface have been made. Erupting lavas 900°C, but the exterior of a dome is probably much
generally have temperatures in the range of 1,000° to cooler than its interior.
1,200°C, although temperatures of 1,350°C have been When Mount St. Helens erupted in 1980, it ejected
recorded above Hawaiian lava lakes where volcanic felsic magma as particulate matter in pyroclastic flows.
gases reacted with the atmosphere. Two weeks later, these flows still had temperatures be-
Most direct temperature measurements have been tween 300° and 420°C.
taken at volcanoes characterized by little or no explosive
activity where geologists can safely approach the lava.

Viscosity
Therefore, little is known of the temperatures of felsic
lavas, because eruptions of such lavas are rare, and when Magma is also characterized by its viscosity, or resis-
they do occur, they tend to be explosive. The tempera- tance to flow. The viscosity of some liquids, such as
tures of some lava domes, most of which are bulbous water, is very low; thus, they are highly fluid and flow
readily. The viscosity of some other liquids is so high, vapor. Lesser amounts of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, sul-
however, that they flow much more slowly. Motor oil and hydrogen sulfide,
fur gases, especially sulfur dioxide
and syrup flow readily when they are hot, but become and very small amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrogen,
stiff and flow very slowly when they are cold. Thus, one and chlorine are also commonly emitted. In areas of
might expect that temperature controls the viscosity of recent volcanism, such as Lassen Volcanic National
magma, and such an inference is partly correct. We can Park in California, gases continue to be emitted. One
generalize and say that hot lava flows more readily than cannot help but notice the rotten-egg odor of hydrogen
cooler lava. However, temperature is not the only con- sulfide gas in such areas.
trol of v iscosity; other controls include the presence of When magma rises toward the surface, the pressure is
mineraTcrystals and gas bubbles, the amount of dis- reduced and the contained gases begin to expand. How-
solved water, and, most importantly, composition. magmas, which are highly viscous, expan-
ever, in felsic
Magma viscosity is strongly controlled by silica con- sion is and gas pressure increases. Eventually,
inhibited
tent. In a felsic lava, numerous networks of silica tetra- the pressure may become great enough to cause an ex-
hedra retard flow, because the strong bonds of the net- plosion and produce pyroclastic materials such as ash.
works must be ruptured for flow to occur. Mafic lavas, In contrast, low-viscosity mafic magmas allow gases to
on the other hand, contain fewer silica tetrahedra net- expand and escape easily. Accordingly, mafic magmas
works and consequently flow more readily. Felsic lavas generally erupt rather quietly.
form thick, slow-moving flows, whereas mafic lavas Although the amount of gases contained in magmas
tend to form thinner flows that move rather rapidly over varies,it is rarely more than a few percent by weight.
great distances. One such flow in Iceland in 1783 flowed Obviously, the gases can be sampled only when they are
about 80 km, and some ancient flows in the state of expelled at the surface. It is difficult, however, to deter-
Washington can be traced for more than 500 km. mine how much of these gases is of magmatic origin and
how much is a contaminant; that is, gas that originated
from reactions between the magma and surrounding
**. VOLCANISM rocks or groundwater. Even though volcanic gases con-
Volcanis m refers to the proces ses whereby magma and stitute a small proportion of a magma, they can be dan-
its associated gases rise through the Earth's crust and are gerous, and, in some cases, have had far-reaching cli-
extruded onto the surface or into the atmosphere (Fig. matic effects (see Perspective 4-2).
4 :FJ7Currentfy, more than 500 volcanoes are active—
that is, they have erupted during historic time. Well-
Lava Flows and Pyroclastic Materials
known examples of active volcanoes include Mauna
Loa and Kilauea on the island of Hawaii, Mount Etna Lava flows are frequently portrayed in movies and on
on Sicily, Fujiyama in Japan, and Mount St. Helens in television as fiery streams of incandescent rock material
Washington (Fig. 4-4). Only two other bodies in the posing a great danger to humans. Actually, lava flows
solar system are known to possess active volcanoes (see are the least dangerous manifestation of volcanism, al-
Perspective 4-1). though they may destroy buildings and cover agricul-
In addition to active volcanoes, numerous dormant tural land. Most lava flows do not move particularly
volcanoes exist that have not erupted recently but may fast,and because they are fluid, they follow existing low
do so again. For example, Mount Vesuvius in Italy had areas. Thus, once a flow erupts from a volcano, deter-
not erupted in human memory until a.d. 79 when it mining the path it will take is fairly easy, and anyone
erupted and destroyed the cities of Herculaneum and in areas likely to be affected can be evacuated.
Pompeii. Some volcanoes have not erupted during re- The geometry of lava flows differs considerably, de-
corded history and show no evidence of doing so again; pending on their viscosity and the preexisting topogra-
thousands of these extinct or inactive volcanoes are phy. Unless they are confined to a valley, comparatively
known. fluid flows are thin and widespread, whereas more vis-
cous flows tend to be lobate and to have distinct margins
(Fig. 4-10). The surfaces of lava flows may be marked by
Volcanic Gases
such features as pressure ridges and spatter cones. Pres-
Samples of gases taken from present-day volcanoes in- sure ridges are buckled areas on the surface of a lava
dicate that 50 to 80% of all volcanic gases are water flow (Fig. 4-1 la) that form because of pressure on the
Volcanism 87
Perspective 4-1
VOLCANISM IN THE
SOLAR SYSTEM
From data obtained during the first phase of planetary
exploration that ended with Voyager 2's encounter
with Neptune, it appears that only three bodies in the
solar system show any signs of present-day volcanism;
the Earth, the Jovian moon Io, and perhaps the
Neptunian moon Triton. However, volcanism was a
common occurrence during the formation and early
history of the terrestrial planets and of many moons.
Recall that Olympus Mons on Mars is the largest
known volcanic mountain in the solar system (Fig.
2-12b). Images from the Magellan spacecraft orbiting
Venus reveal numerous volcanic features, including
dome-shaped volcanoes, but it is not certain whether
any of these are active.
Io, the innermost of the four large moons of
Jupiter, is probably the most volcanically active body
yet observed in the solar system (Fig. 1). Prior to the
~^~ FIGURE One of Io's volcanoes shown erupting
fly by of Voyager 1979, scientists expected that Io
1 in 1 is in
the upper part of this image.

had a heavily cratered ancient surface similar to those
of Mercury and the Moon. It turns out, however, that
Io is not cratered. Instead, it is brilliantly colored in
reds, oranges, and yellows and has a variegated around Jupiter, it moves in and out of Europa's
surface with many fractures and steep escarpments gravitational field and is therefore repeatedly squeezed
and numerous circular objects resembling volcanic by gravitational tidal forces. This repeated squeezing
craters. The colors result from the various sulfur generates an enormous amount of internal frictional
compounds spewed forth by volcanoes and geysers. heat that apparently keeps Io's interior molten and its
Io is so volcanically active that its surface is volcanoes erupting. Heating and continual eruptions
constantly changing, and any impact craters that may have depleted Io of any water or other volatile (easily
form are very quickly obliterated by volcanic vaporized) compounds that may have been present
eruptions. To date, at least 10 active volcanoes have initially; thus, only sulfurous compounds are left. Io is
been discovered on Io. It appears that individual denser than any of the other moons of the outer solar
volcanoes remain active from a few months to a few system because it is devoid of the lighter elements.
years and erupt continually during this time, spewing The Neptunian moon Triton also appears to be
forth plumes of material 70 to 320 km into space. volcanically active (Fig. 2-3). Evidence from images
The source of heat for the volcanic activity on Io returned by Voyager 2 indicate that Triton has geysers
comes from the continual gravitational pull exerted by that are erupting frozen nitrogen crystals and organic
Jupiter and Io's sister moon, Europa. As Io revolves compounds 35 km into space.
"" FIGURE 4-10 (a) A
fluid lava flow erupted during
the 1969-1971 Mauna Ulu
eruption of Kilauea volcano,
Hawaii, (b) A viscous lava at
Mount Shasta in California
showing distinct margins.
partly solid crust of a moving flow. Spatt er cones form flow will not change to pahoehoe in a downflow direc-
when gases escaping from a flow hurl globs of molten tion, however. Pahoehoe flows are less viscous than aa
lava into the air. 1 hese globs fall back to the surface and flows; indeed, the latter are viscous enough to break up
adhere to one another, forming these small, steep-sided into blocks and move forward as a wall of rubble.
cones (Fig. 4-1 lb). Columnar joints are common in many lava flows,
Two types of lava flows, both of which were named especially mafic flows, but they also occur in other kinds
for Hawaiian flows, are generally recognized.. A paho e- of flows and in some intrusive igneous rocks (Fig. 4-13).
hoe (pronounced pah-hoy-hoy) flow has a ropy surface A" lava How contracts as it cools ancT thus produces
almost Tike tally (Fig. 4""-12a]7The surface of an aa (pro- forces that cause fractures called 7b zwrs to"open up. On
ndTTncecTalT-ah) flow is characterized by roughTjagged the surface of a How," these joints commonlyTorfn po-
angular blocks and fragments Some flows
(Fig. 4-12b). lygonal (often six-sided) cracksT These cracks also ex-
solidify as pahoehoe or aaUifoughout, but some pahoe- tenddownward into the flow, thus forming parallel col-
hoe flows change to aa in the downflow direction; an aa umns with their long axes perpendicular to the principal
•^ FIGURE 4-11 {a) Pressure ridge on a 1982 lava flow in Hawaii, [b) A row of
spatter cones formed on February 25, 1983, on a flow at Kilauea volcano, Hawaii.
Volcanism 89
Perspective 4-2
VOLCANIC GASES AND CLIMATE

Most volcanic gases quickly dissipate in the Volcanic ash erupted into the upper atmosphere
atmosphere and pose danger to humans, but on
little has some effect on climate, but all particles except the
several occasions such gases have caused numerous smallest settle quickly and produce no long-lasting
fatalities. In 1783, toxic gases, probably sulfur effect. Sulfur gases emitted during large eruptions have
dioxide, erupted from Laki fissure in Iceland had more important effects; small gas molecules remain in
devastating effects. About 75% of the nation's the upper atmosphere for years, absorbing incoming
livestock died, and the hare resulting from the gas solar radiation and reflecting it back into space. In
caused lower temperatures and crop failures; about 1816, a persistent "dry fog" caused unusually cold
24% of Iceland's population died as a result of the spring and summer weather in Europe, the eastern
ensuing Blue Haze Famine. United States, and eastern Canada. In North America,
Obviously, large volcanic eruptions can devastate 1816 was called "The Year without a Summer" or
local areas, but they can also affect climate over much "Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death." Killing frosts
larger regions— in some cases worldwide. The 1783 Laki occurred through the summer in New England,
fissure eruption produced what Benjamin Franklin called resulting in crop failuresand food shortages.
a "dry fog" that was responsible for dimming the The particularly cold spring and summer of 1816
intensity of sunlight in Europe. The severe winter of are attributed to the 1815 eruption of Tambora in
1783-1784 in Europe and eastern North America is Indonesia, the largest and most deadly eruption during
attributed to the presence of this "dry fog" in the upper historic time. The eruption of Mayon volcano in the
atmosphere. In Iceland, the winter temperature was Philippines during the previous year may have
4.8°C below the long-term average; the country suffered contributed to the cool spring and summer of 1816 as
its coldest winter in 225 years. well. Another large historic eruption that had
More recently, in 1986, in the African nation of widespread climatic effects was the eruption of
Cameroon 1,746 people died when a cloud of carbon Krakatau in 1883 (see the Prologue to Chapter 1).
dioxide engulfed them. The gas accumulated in the In comparison with Tambora and Krakatau, the
waters of Lake Nyos, which occupies a volcanic crater. 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption was small.
No agreement exists on what caused the gas to suddenly Furthermore, it did not emit much sulfur gas, and its
burst forth from the lake, but once it did, it flowed explosion was directed laterally so that most of the
downhill along the surface because it was denser than particulate matter did not enter the upper atmosphere.
air. In fact, the density and velocity of the gas cloud In fact, the much smaller 1982 eruption of El Chichon
were great enough to flatten vegetation, including trees, in Mexico had a greater effect on the climate, because
a few kilometers from the lake. Unfortunately, it erupted so much sulfur gas and its gases and ash
thousands of animals and many people, some as far as were ejected vertically so that much of them entered
23 km from the lake, were asphyxiated. the upper atmosphere.
c ooling s urface. Excellent examples of columnar joints whenjava is rapidly chilled beneath water, butitsJorma-
can_bj^seen at Devil's Postpile National Monument in tion was notoBserved until 1971. Divers near Hawaii saw
Cal ifornia (Fig. 4-13a), Devil's Tower National Monu- pillows form when a blob of lava broke through the crust
ment in Wyoming (see Chapter 5 Prologue), the Giant's of an underwater lava flow and cooled almost instantly,
Causeway in Irelaijdr-aail many other areas. forming a glassy exterior. Remaining fluid inside then
Much of the igneous rock jn the upper part of the o ce- broke through the crust of the pillow, resulting in an ac-
anic crust is of a distinctive type; it consists of bulbous cumulation of interconnected pillows (Fig. 4-14).
masses of basalt resembling pillows, hence the name pil- M "fh py r "HaS tic material is erupt rH as ath -a_A'<:ig- |
low lava. It was long recognized that pillow lava forms nation for pyroclastic particles measurin g less t han 2.0
(b)
"^ FIGURE 4-12 (a) Pahoehoe flow in the east rift zone "*" FIGURE 4-13 (a) Columnar joints in a lava flow at
of Kilauea volcano in 1972. (b) An aa flow in the east rift Devil's Postpile National Monument, California, (b) Surface
zone of Kilauea volcano, Hawaii in 1983. The flow front is view of the same columnar joints showing their polygonal
about 2.5 m high. pattern. The straight lines and polish resulted from glacial
ice moving over this surface.
mm (Fig. 4- 15a). Ash may be erupted in two ways: an ash Pyroclastic materials larger than ash are also erupted
fall or an ash flow. During an ash fall, ash is ejected into by explosive volcanoes. Particles measuring from 2 to 64
the atmosphere and settles to the surface over a wide area. mm are known as lapilli, and any particle larger than 64
In 1947, ash that erupted from Mount Hekla in Iceland mm is called a bomb or block depending on its shape.
fell 3,800 km away on Helsinki, Finland. About 10 million Bombs have twisted, streamlined shapes that indicate
years ago, in what is now northeastern Nebraska, numer- they were erupted as globs of fluid that cooled and so-
ous rhinoceroses, horses, camels, and other mammals were lidified during their flight through the air (Fig. 4-15b).
buried by volcanic ash that was apparently erupted in New Blocks are angular pieces of rock ripped from a volcanic
Mexico, more than 1,000 km away. Ash is also erupted in conduit or pieces of a solidified crust of a magma. Be-
ash flows, which are coherent clouds of ash and gas that cause of their large size, volcanic bomb and block ac-
commonly flow along or close to the land surface. Such cumulations are not nearly as widespread as ash depos-
flows can move at more than 100 km per hour, and some its; instead, they are confined to the immediate area of
of them cover vast areas. eruption.
Volcanism 91
-»' FIGURE 4-14 These bulbous masses of pillow lava
form when magma iserupted under water.
Volcanoes
Conical mountains formed around a vent where lava
and pyroclastic materials are erupted are volcanoes.
Volcanoes, which are named for Vulcan, the Roman
deity of fire, come in many shapes and sizes, but geol-
ogists recognize several major categories, each of which
has a distinctive eruptive style. One must realize, how-
ever, that each volcano is unique in terms of its overall
history of eruptions and development. The frequency of
eruptions, for example, varies considerably; the Hawai-
ian volcanoes have erupted repeatedly during historic
time, whereas others, such as Mount St. Helens, have
erupted periodically with long periods of inactivity. One
of the duties of the U.S. Geological Survey is monitoring
active volcanoes and developing methods of forecasting
eruptions (see Perspective 4-3).
Most volcanoes have a circular depression or crater
at theirsummit. Craters form as a result of the extrusion
of gases and lava from a volcano and are connected via
a conduit to a magma chamber below the surface. It is
not unusual, however, for magma to erupt from vents
on the flanks of large volcanoes where smaller, parasitic (b)
cones develop. For example, Shastina is a major para- -^- FIGURE 4-15 Pyroclastic materials, (a) Volcanic ash
sitic cone on the flank of Mount Shasta in California being erupted from Mount Ngaurauhoe, New Zealand
(Fig. 4-16), and Mount Etna on Sicily has some 200 during January 1974. (b) Volcanic bombs collected in
Hawaii.
smaller vents on its flanks.
d
"^ FIGURE 4-16 Mount Shasta in northern California is

one of the large volcanoes of the Cascade Range. The cone
in the right foreground is Shastina, a parasitic cone that
developed from flank eruptions on Mount Shasta. (Photo
courtesy of Wayne E. Moore.)
Some volcanoes are characterized by a caldera rather

than a crater. Craters are generally less than 1 km in
diameter, whereas calderas exceed this dimension and

have steep sides. One of the best-known calderas in this
country is the misnamed Crater Lake in Oregon —
Crater Lake is actually a caldera (Fig. 4-17). It formed
about 6,600 years ago aftervoluminous eruptions par-

tially drained the magma chamber. This drainage left the
summit of the mountain, Mount Mazama, unsupported,
and it collapsed into the magma chamber, forming a
caldera more than 1,200 m deep and measuring 9.7 by
6.5 km. Many calderas have probably formed when a
summit has collapsed during particularly large, explo-
sive eruptions as in the case of Crater Lake, but a few
have apparently formed when the top of the original
volcano was blasted away.
Shield Volcanoes
Shield volcanoes resemble the outer surface of a shiel d
ly ingon the ground w ith the co nvex side uo_(Fig.
4-18a). They have low, rounded profiles with gentle
slopes ranging from about 2 to 10 degrees. Their low
slopes reflect the fact that they are composed mostly of
m afic flows-thatJiadjQW-jascosi ty, so the jlogs ^prea
"^ FIGURE 4-17 The sequence of events leading to the
out a nd fo rmed thin layers. Eruptions from shield vol-
origin of Crater Lake, Oregon, (a-b) Ash clouds and ash
canoes, sometimes called Ha waiian-type volcano es, are flows partly drain the magma chamber beneath Mount
quietcompared to those of volcanoes such as Mount St. Mazama. (c) The collapse of the summit and formation of
Helens; lavas most commonly rise to the surface with the caldera. (d) Post-caldera eruptions partly cover the
little explosive activity, so they usually pose little danger caldera floor, and the small volcano known as Wizard Island
forms, [e) View from the rim of Crater Lake showing
to humans. Lava fountains, some up to 400 m high,
Wizard Island.
contribute some pyroclastic materials to shield vojca-
Volcanism 93
.
Perspective 4-3
MONITORING VOLCANOES
AND FORECASTING ERUPTIONS
Two facilities in this country staffed by geologists of Of critical importance in volcano monitoring and
the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) are devoted to eruption forecasting are a sudden increase in
volcano monitoring; Hawaiian Volcano Observatory earthquake activity and the detection of harmonic
on the rim of the crater of Kilauea volcano and the tremor. Harmonic tremor is continuous ground
David A. Johnston Cascades Volcano Observatory in motion as opposed to the sudden jolts produced by
Vancouver, Washington. The latter was established in earthquakes. It precedes all eruptions of Hawaiian
1981 and named in memory of the USGS geologist volcanoes and also preceded the eruption of Mount
killed during the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption. St. Helens. Such activity indicates that magma is
This facility is responsible for monitoring the various moving below the surface.
Cascade Range volcanoes (Fig. 4-2). The analysis of data gathered during monitoring is
Numerous volcanoes on the margins of the Earth's not by itself sufficient to forecast eruptions; the past
tectonic plates have erupted explosively during historic history of a particular volcano must also be known.
time and have the potential to do so again. As a To determine the eruptive history of a volcano, the
matter of fact, volcanic eruptions are not as unusual record of previous eruptions as preserved in rocks
as one might think; 376 separate outbursts occurred must be studied and analyzed. Indeed, prior to 1980,
between 1975 and 1985. Fortunately, none of these Mount St. Helens was considered one of the most
compared to the 1815 eruption of Tambora; likely Cascade volcanoes to erupt because detailed
nevertheless, fatalities occurred in several instances, studies indicated that it has had a record of explosive
the worst being in 1985 in Colombia where about activity for the past 4,500 years.
23,000 perished in mudflows generated by an eruption For the better monitored volcanoes, such as those
(see the Prologue to Chapter 13). Only a small in Hawaii, it is now possible to make accurate
minority of these potentially dangerous volcanoes are short-term forecasts of eruptions. For example, in
monitored, including some in Italy, Japan, New 1960 the warning signs of an eruption of Kilauea
Zealand, the Soviet Union, and the Cascade Range. were recognized soon enough to evacuate the residents
Many of the methods for monitoring active volcanoes of a small village that was subsequently buried by lava
were developed at the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. flows. Unfortunately, forecasting for more than a few
These methods involve recording and analyzing various months cannot be done at present.
changes in both the physical and chemical attributes of
volcanoes. Tiltmeters are used to detect changes in the
slopes of a volcano when it inflates as magma is injected
into it, while a geodimeter uses a laser beam to measure
~^ FIGURE 1 (right) Volcano monitoring. These diagrams
horizontal distances, which also change when a volcano
show three stages in a typical eruption of a Hawaiian
inflates (Fig. 1). Geologists also monitor gas emissions
volcano: (a) The volcano begins to inflate; (b) inflation
and changes in the local magnetic and electrical fields of reaches its peak; (c) the volcano erupts and then deflates,
volcanoes. returning to its normal shape.
Horizontal and vertical distances
increase from Stage 1
Distance measurement points
Ti\vnete< A B
Magma
Stressed rocks- \ reservoir
zone of earthquakes
(b) Stage 2
Eruption
t .
A' B' A
(a) Shield volcano
Pyroclastic
Central vent layers
filled with
rock fragments
(b) Cinder cone

(c) Composite volcano
-*»' FIGURE Examples of the shapes and internal structures of the three basic
4-18
types of volcanoes, {a) A shield volcano. Each layer shown consists of numerous, thin
basalt lava flows. (£>) Cinder cones are composed of layers of angular pyroclastic
materials, (c) Composite volcanoes are the typical, large volcanic mountains on
continents. They are composed of lava flows, pyroclastic layers, and volcanic mudflows.
noes (Fig. 4-8), but-Otherwise these volcan oesare com- some on the continents — for example,
are also present
p osed largely of fasalt J ava flows; flows comprise more in east Africa. The Hawaii consists of five huge
island of
than 99% of the Hawaiian volcanoes above sea level. shield volcanoes, two of which, Kilauea and Mauna
Although eruptions of shield volcanoes tend to be Loa, are active much of the time (Fig. 4-19). These Ha-
rather quiet, some of the Hawaiian volcanoes have, on waiian volcanoes are the largest volcanoes in the world.
occasion, produced sizable explosions. Such explosions Mauna Loa is nearly 100 km across at the base and
occur when magma comes in contact with groundwater, stands more than 9.5 km above the surrounding sea
3
causing it to instantly vaporize. One such explosion oc- floor. Its volume is estimated at about 50,000 km By .
curred in 1790 while Chief Keoua was leading about contrast, the largest volcano in the continental United
250 warriors across the summit of Kilauea volcano to States, Mount Shasta in northern California (Fig. 4-16),
engage a rival chief in battle. About 80 of Keoua's war- has a volume of only about 205 km .
. riors were by a cloud of hot volcanic gases.

killed Shield volcanoes have a summit crater or caldera and
T\ Shield volcanoes are most common in oceanic areas, a number of smaller cones on their flanks through which
such as those of the Hawaiian Islands and Iceland, but lava is erupted (Fig. 4- 18a). For example, a vent opened
^ FIGURE 4-19 The Hawaiian volcanoes are active
much of the time.
on the flank of Kilauea and grew to more than 250 m

high between June 1983 and September 1936.
Cinder Cones
Volcanic peaks composed of pyroclastic materials that
resemble cinders are known as cinder cones (Fig. 4- 18b).
They form when pyroclastic materials are ejected into

the atmosphere and fall back to the surface to accumu-
late around the vent, thus forming small, steep-sided
cones. The slope angle may be as much as 33 degrees,
depending on the angle that can be maintained by the
shaped pyroclastic materials. Cinder cones
irregularly
are rarely m high, and many have a large,
more than 400 '"•' FIGURE 4-20 Paricutin, Mexico, shown soon after it
bowl-shaped crater. Many cinder cones are very nearly
formed in1943. Mostly ash and cinders were erupted, but
symmetric in shape; that is, the pyroclastic materials some lava flows broke through the flanks and the base of
accumulate uniformly around the vent, forming a sym- the volcano.
metric cone. The symmetry may be less than perfect,
however, when prevailing winds cause the pyroclastic
materials to build up higher in the downwind direction. slopes built up to a height of more than 300 m. Shortly
Many cinder cones form on the flanks or within the after the initial explosive stage of eruption, lava flows
calderas of larger volcanic mountains and appear to rep- broke through the base and flanks, spread outward, and
resent the final stages of activity, particularly in areas eventually covered two nearby towns (Fig. 4-20). Pari-
formerly characterized by basalt lava flows. Wizard Is- cutin's activity continued until 1952 and then ceased.
land in Crater Lake, Oregon, is a small cinder cone that In 1973, on the Icelandic island of Heimaey, the town
formed after the summit of Mount Mazama collapsed to of Vestmannaeyjar was threatened by a new cinder cone.
form the caldera (Fig. 4-17). Cinder cones are common The initial eruption began on January 23, and within
in the southern Rocky Mountain states, particularly two days a cinder cone, later named Eldfell, rose to
New Mexico and Arizona, and many others occur in about 100 m above the surrounding area (Fig. 4-21).
northern California, Oregon, and Washington. Pyroclastic materials from the volcano buried parts of
One cinder cone of particular interest is Paricutin in the town, and by February a massive aa lava flow was
Mexico (Fig. 4-20). On February 20, 1943, a farmer ob- advancing toward the town. The flow's leading edge
served fumes emanating from a crack in his cornfield, and ranged from 10 to 20 m thick, and its central part was
within a few minutes pyroclastic materials were erupted. as much as 100 m thick. By spraying the leading edge of
Within a month a symmetrical cone with 30-degree the flow with sea water, which caused it to cool and
Volcanism 97
~^r
"^ FIGURE 4-21 The town
of Vestmannaeyjar in Iceland FIGURE 4-22 Mayon volcano in the Philippines is one
'
was threatened by from Eldfell, a cinder cone,

lava flows of the most nearly symmetrical composite volcanoes in the
that formed in 1973. Within two days of the initial eruption world.
on January 23, the new volcano had grown to about 100 m
high. Another cinder cone called Helgafell is also visible.
flows). Some lahars form when rain falls on layers of

loose pyroclastic materials and creates a muddy slurry
solidify, the residents of Vestmannaeyjar successfully di-
that moves downslope. On November 13, 1985, mud-
verted the flow before it did much damage to the town.
flows resulting from a rather minor eruption of Nevado
del Ruiz in Colombia killed about 23,000 people (see
Composite Volcanoes
the Prologue to Chapter 13).
Composite volcanoes, also called stratovolcanoes, are Composite volcanoes are steep sided near their sum-
composed of both pyroclastic layers and lava flows (Fig. mits, perhaps as much as 30 degrees, but the slope de-
4-18c). Typically, both materials have an intermediate
creases toward the base where it is generally less than 5
composition, and the flows cool to form andesite (Table
degrees. Mayon volcano in the Philippines is one of the
4-2). Recall that lava of intermediate composition is
most perfectly symmetrical composite volcano on Earth.
more viscous than mafic lava. In addition to lava flows
Its concave slopes rise ever steeper to the summit with its
and pyroclastic layers, a significant proportion of a com-
central vent through which lava and pyroclastic materi-
posite volcanoe is made up of lahars (volcanic mud-
als are periodically erupted (Fig. 4-22).
Composite volcanoes are the typical large volcanoes

of the continents and island arcs. Familiar examples in-
"*''FIGURE 4-23 A cross section showing the internal clude Fujiyama in Japan and Mount Vesuvius in Italy as
dome. Lava domes form when a viscous
structure of a lava well as many of the volcanic peaks in the Cascade Range
mass of magma, generally of felsic composition, is forced up of the northwestern United States.
through a volcanic conduit.
Lava Domes
If the upward pressure in a volcanic conduit is great
enough, the most viscous magmas move upward and
form bulbous, steep-sided lava domes (Fig. 4-23). Lava
domes are generally composed of felsic lavas although
some are of intermediate composition. Because such
magma is so viscous, it moves upward very slowly; the
lava dome that formed in Santa Maria volcano in Gua-
temala in 1922 took two years to grow to 500 m high
and 1,200 m across. Lava domes contribute significantly
to many composite volcanoes. Beginning in 1980, a
number of lava domes were emplaced in the crater of
'*"'
FIGURE 4-24 St. Pierre, Martinique after it was destroyed by a nuee ardente
erupted from Mount Pelee in 1902. Only 2 of the city's 28,000 inhabitants survived.
Mount St. Helens; most of these were destroyed during Pierre, only 2 survived, a prisoner in a cell below the
subsequent eruptions. Since 1983, Mount St. Helens has ground surface and a man on the surface who was ter-
been characterized by sporadic dome growth. ribly burned by the nuee ardente.
Lava domes are often responsible for extremely ex- Following the disastrous 1902 eruption of Mount
magma accumulated
plosive eruptions. In 1902, viscous Pelee, a spine of almost completely solidified viscous
beneath the summit of Mount Pelee on the island of magma was forced up through the conduit. It rose as
Martinique. Eventually, the pressure within the moun- much as 20 m per day, but chunks continually fell off its
tain increased to the point that it could no longer be surface forming a pile of rubble. When the spine at-
contained, and the side of the mountain blew out in a tained a height of more than 300 m, it collapsed under
tremendous explosion. When this occurred, a mobile, its own weight.
dense cloud of pyroclastic materials and gases called a
nuee ardente (French for "glowing cloud") was ejected
Fissure Eruptions
and raced downhill at about 100 km/hr, engulfing the
city of St. Pierre (Fig. 4-24). This nuee ardente had in- During the Miocene and Pliocene epochs (between
ternal temperatures of 700°C and incinerated everything about 17 million and 5 million yeari ago), some
2
in its path (Fig. 4-24). Of the 28,000 residents of St. 164,000 km of eastern Washington and parts of Ore-
Volcanism 99
Guest Essay DAVID P. HILL
MONITORING VOLCANIC
ACTIVITY
My interest in geology stems from a long-standing the interaction of science and society. The resort town
fascination with the outdoors and nature. This of Mammoth Lakes lies at the southwestern margin of
fascination was strongly influenced by my early Long Valley caldera, and the initial news in 1982 that
childhood in Yellowstone National Park and later visits the activity might be related to volcanic activity was
with my father (who worked for the National Park met with disbeliefand anger by the residents of
Service) to Yosemite and other western parks. I began Mammoth Lakes and Mono County. Responding to
college studying biology with the vague idea of the continuing activity in the caldera over subsequent
becoming a naturalist with the National Park Service. In years has proved to be an educational process for
response to a growing interest in the more analytical both local residents and scientists studying and
aspects of the physical sciences, however, I switched to monitoring the activity. The local residents have come
geology at the end of my sophomore year and went on to better appreciate the geologic processes that have
to study geophysics and seismology in graduate school. sculpted the spectacular setting in which they live, and
I began my research with the U.S. Geological the scientists have come to appreciate the challenge
Survey using seismic waves and small variations in the involved in effectively communicating the results of
Earth's gravity field to study the structure of the their research to the public in a useful way. The latter
Earth's crust beneath the western United States. is a challenge that faces scientists in general as
Scientifically, the thickness and physical properties of taxpayers and politicians increasingly demand to
the crust and upper mantle are key elements for know what they are getting for their money; it is a
understanding the geologic processes that form the particularly acute challenge for those of us pursuing
outer layers of the Earth. They are also keys to research on geologic hazards (earthquakes, volcanoes,
understanding seismic wave propagation in the Earth. landslides,and the like) because the results of our
Support for this work derived from a national interest research and the manner in which we present them
in using seismology to discriminate underground can have an immediate impact on the economy and
nuclear explosions from earthquakes and, ultimately, social well-being of the communities involved as well
to provide a technical means for verifying a as on public safety.
comprehensive test ban treaty. The Earth sciences are central to our understanding
More recently, my research has turned toward the of the risks posed by geologic hazards and a growing
study of earthquakes and the clues they provide on number of environmental issues that modern society
deformation of the Earth's crust (seismotectonics) and faces. They will continue to offer a wide range of
volcanic processes. Since 1983, 1 have been in charge of scientifically exciting and socially significant
the U.S. Geological Survey's efforts to monitor and opportunities in the future. A
better understand the recurring episodes of earthquake
swarms and ground uplift in Long Valley caldera in
eastern California. Long Valley caldera is a large oval
David P. Hill graduated from San Jose State University and
earned an M.S. in geophysics from the Colorado School of

depression (15 by 30 km) at the base of the eastern
Mines and a Ph.D. from the
escarpment of the Sierra Nevada that was formed by a California Institute of
massive volcanic eruption 730,000 years ago. Volcanic Technology. He has been a
activity has continued in the area with the most recent geophysicist with the U.S.
eruptions occurring just500 years ago. The current Geological Survey since 1961.
earthquake activity and ground deformation are His work in the Mammoth Lakes
area has been widely cited in
symptomatic of the movement of magma in the upper
newspapers and magazines,
5—10 km of the crust and are typical of the sort of
including ScienceNews, as a
geological unrest that often precedes volcanic eruptions. good example of how scientific
This activity raises a host of fascinating scientific research can have an impact on
questions, but it also raises important issues regarding the general public.

Fissures
gon and Idaho were covered by overlapping basalt lava "^ FIGURE 4-26 A block diagram showing fissure
eruptions and the origin of a basalt plateau.
flows. These Columbia River basalts, as they are called,
are now well exposed in the walls of the canyons eroded
by the Snake and Columbia rivers (Fig. 4-25). These
lavas, which were erupted from long fissures, were so
fluid that volcanic cones failed to develop. Such fissure other in 1783, account for about half of the magma
eruptions yield flows that spread out over large areas erupted in Iceland during historic time. The 1783 erup-
and form basalt plateaus (Fig. 4-26). The Columbia tion occurred along the Laki fissure, which is 25 km
River basalt flows have an aggregate thickness of about long; lava flowed several tens of kilometers from the
1,000 m, and some individual flows cover huge areas — fissure and in one place filled a valley to a depth of about
for example, the Roza flow, which is 30 m thick, ad- 200 m.
vanced along a front about 100 km wide and covered
2
40,000 km .
Pyroclastic Sheet Deposits

Fissure eruptions and basalt plateaus are not com-
mon, although several large areas of such features are More than 100 years ago, geologists were aware of vast
known (Table 4-3). The only area where such activity is areas covered by felsic volcanic rocks a few meters to
currently occurring is in Iceland. A number of volcanic hundreds of meters thick. It seemed improbable that
mountains are present in Iceland, but the bulk of the these could have formed as vast lava flows, but ir also
island is composed of basalt flows erupted from fissures. seemed equally unlikely that they were ash fall deposits.
Two major fissure eruptions, one in a.d. 930 and the Based on observations of historic pyroclastic flows, such
"^ TABLE 4-3 Basalt Plateaus

and the Alaskan volcanoes in the Aleutian Island arc.
The belt continues on the western side of the Pacific
Ocean basin where it extends through Japan, the Phil-
ippines, Indonesia, and New Zealand. The circum-
Pacific belt also includes the southernmost active vol-
cano, Mount Erebus in Antarctica, and a large caldera
at Deception Island that erupted during 1970 (Fig. 4-28).
About 20% of all active volcanoes are in the Medi-
terranean belt (Fig. 4-28). Included in this belt are the
famous Italian volcanoes such as Mount Etna, Strom-

boli, and Mount Vesuvius.
Most of the large volcanoes in the circum-Pacific and
Mediterranean belts are composite volcanoes, but a
number of them have had lava domes emplaced in their
"^ FIGURE 4-27 The Yellowstone Tuff in the walls of the craters or calderas. The fact that most of the volcanoes
Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, Yellowstone National in these two belts are composite volcanoes is significant.
Park, Wyoming. Tuff is a volcanic rock composed of Recall that such volcanoes are composed of lava flows
consolidated ash.
and pyroclastic layers of intermediate and felsic compo-
sition whereas those within the ocean basins are com-
posed primarily of mafic lavas.
Most of the rest of the active volcanoes are at or near
as the nuee ardente erupted by Mount Pelee in 1902, it
the mid-oceanic ridges (Fig. 4-28). The longest of these
now seems probable that these ancient rocks originated
ridges is which is near the mid-
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge,
as pyroclastic flows. They cover far greater areas than
dle of the Atlantic Ocean basin and curves around the
any observed during historic time, however, and appar-
southern tip of Africa where it continues as the Indian
ently erupted from long fissures rather than from a cen-
many Ridge. Branches of the Indian Ridge extend into the Red
tral vent. The pyroclastic materials of of these
Sea and East Africa. Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa is on
flows were so hot that that they fused together to form
this latter branch (Fig. 4-28). Most of the volcanism
welded tuff (tuff is a volcanic rock composed of consol-
along the mid-oceanic ridges is submarine, and much of
idated ash).
it goes undetected; but in a few places, such as Iceland,
It now appears that major pyroclastic flows issue
it occurs above sea level.
from fissuresformed during the origin of calderas. For
Volcanism is occurring in a few other areas at
example, the Yellowstone Tuff was erupted during the
present, most notably on and near the island of Hawaii
formation of a large caldera in the area of present-day
(Fig. 4-28). Only two volcanoes are currently active on
Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming (Fig. 4-27).
the island, Mauna Loa and Kilauea, although a subma-
Similarly, theBishop Tuff of eastern California appears
rine volcano named Loihi exists about 32 km to the
to have been erupted shortly before the formation of the
south; Loihi rises more than 3,000 m above the sea
Long Valley caldera. Interestingly, earthquake activity in
floor, but its summit is still about 940 m below sea level.
the Long Valley caldera and nearby areas beginning in
1978 may indicate that magma is moving upward be-
neath part of the caldera. Thus, the possibility of future ^ PLATE TECTONICS
eruptions in that area cannot be discounted.
AND VOLCANISM
^ DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES At this point,
volcanoes: (1)
two questions might be
What
raised regarding
accounts for the alignment of vol-
Rather than being distributed randomly around the canoes in belts? (2) Why do magmas erupted within
Earth, volcanoes occur in well-defined zones or belts. ocean basins and magmas erupted at or near continental
More than 60% of all active volcanoes are in the margins have different compositions? Recall from Chap-
circum-Pacific belt that nearly encircles the margins of ter 1 that the outer part of the Earth is divided into large
the Pacific Ocean basin (Fig. 4-28). This belt includes the plates, which are sections of the lithosphere. Litho-
volcanoes along the west coast of South America, those sphere can consist of upper mantle and oceanic crust or
in Central America, Mexico, and the Cascade Range, upper mantle and continental crust, called oceanic and

Spreading ridges Convergent plate margins
"^ FIGURE 4-28 Most volcanoes are at or near plate boundaries. Two major volcano
belts are recognized: the circum-Pacific belt contains about 60% of all active volcanoes,
about 20% are in the Mediterranean belt, and most of the rest are located along
mid-oceanic ridges.
continental lithosphere, respectively. Most volcanism spreading is also currently occurring_at_diyergent -mar-
occurs at spreading ridges where plates diverge or along gins in the Red
Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and east Africa
subduction zones where plates converge. and along the Indian Ridge and the East PacificTCIse.
Some of the volcanism at spreading ridges is apparent
because it occurs above sea level, but, as previously
Volcanism at Spreading Ridges
noted, much of it is submarine and goes undetected.
Spreading ridges are areas where new oceanic litho- However, research submarines have descended into the
sphere is produced by volcanism as plates diverge and rifts at the crests of spreading ridges where scientists
move away from one another (Fig. 1-14). Most spread- have observed pillow lavas that formed during subma-
ing ridges are in the ocean basins, but some extend into rine eruptions (Fig. 4-14).
'continents as in east Africa (Fig. 4-28). According to The fact that volcanism occ urs at spreading ridges is
plate tectonic theory, the Atlantic Ocean basin began undisputed, but how magma originates beneath the
developing when rifting of a large plate and subsequent ridges is not fully understood. One e xplanation is re-
plate divergence resulted in the breakup of the super- lat ed to the jnanne r "
whirh rhe Farrh's temperature
continent Pangaea about 250 million years ago. The increases with depth. We know from deep mines and
Mid-Atlantic Ridge is the spreading ridge along which deep~driilhojeirTHat~a temperature increase, called the
plate divergence began and continues at present. Similar geothertnal gradient, do es occur and that, on average,
Plate Tectonics and Volcanism 103

"^ FIGURE 4-29 Calculated geothermal gradients under
the continents and ocean basins (somewhat speculative). The
- Subcontinental '
j
melting of dry basalt has been experimentally investigated
geothermal gradient / ,' only in the pressure-temperature region indicated by the
- Suboceanic solid line. Melting of dry peridotite occurs between 100 and
ji
,
geothermal gradient /
125 km beneath the ocean basins. However, should the
pressure be reduced, as occurs at spreading ridges, melting
might occur at even shallower depths.
Rising hot rock beneath spreading ridges maintains a

/ /
geothermal gradient well above average, and locally the
Dry peridotite / // temperature exceeds the melting temperature, at least in
/ / /
part, because pressure effects are overcome (Fig. 4-29).
That is, rifting at spreading ridges probably causes a

Dry basaltic
decrease in pressure on the hot rocks at depth, thus
melt + peridotite
initiating melting. Rifting is unlikely to be the sole cause
500 1 .000 1 ,500 of melting, however, because melting also occurs in
Temperature in °C some areas where there appears to be no rifting, such as
beneath the Hawaiian Islands.
Another explanation for spreading ridge volcanism is
the gradient about 25°C/km. Accordingly, rocks at

is that localized, cylindrical plumes of hot mantle material,
depth are hot, but remain solid because their melting called mantle plumes rise beneath spreading ridges and
temperature rises with increasing pressure. spread outward in all directions (Fig. 4-30). Perhaps
"^ FIGURE 4-30 Some of the "hot spots" in the Earth's crust that are thought to
overlie rising mantle plumes.
"^^

N
\. Cocos /
Middle^P 1
^^
gence and spreading ridge volcanism occur at the East
Pacific Rise. As a consequence of spreading, the Nazca
plate moves east and collides with the South American
plate (which is moving west as a result of plate diver-
gence at the Mid- Atlantic Ridge). Thus, a collision oc-
curs between oceanic and continental lithosphere, and
because the Nazca plate is denser, it plunges beneath the
South American plate (Fig. 4-3 lb).
Th^belFoTIarge composite volcanoes near the west-
ern margin of South America formed from the magma
created by partial melting of the subducted plate. As the
Nazca plate de scends toward the asthenosphe re, it is
heated by the Earth's geothermal gradient. When the

descendingjlate reaches a depth where the temperature
is high enough, partial melting occurs and magma is
generated~(Fig- 4-3 lb). Additionally, the _wel_oceanic

crust descends to a depth at which dewatering occurs.
AsThFwater rises Into the overlying mantle, it enhances
melting, ancTa m agma may be generated (Fig. 4-3 lb).
one phenomenon_accountingôr_the
Partial melting is
factlhajTmagm as generated ajjmbduction zones are in-

Kauai
termediate and felsic in composition. Recall that partial 3.8-5.6
100
melting of ultramafic rock of the upper mantle yields $ million years
Molokai km
maKc_rnagrna. Likewise, partial melting of oceanic crust, 1.3-1.8
which has a mafic composition, may yield magma richer

0ahuW5 million years
2.3-3.3
in silica than the source rock. Additionally, some of the ^^-?(\ Maui
years
silica-rich sediments and sedimentary rocks of continen-
million
^^0-1.3
ea' — million years
tal margins are probably carried downward with the
subducted plate and contribute their silica to the magma
(Fig. 4-3 lb). In addition, mafic magma rising through
the lower continental crust may be contaminated with

Direction of
plate motion
\
Hawaii
felsic materials, which change its composition.
0.7 million years ^_
Intermediate and felsic magmas are typically pro- to present ^^ ^f
ducecPat"convergent plate margins where subduction Recent
volcanism
^ Indicates
active volcano
Undersea
occurs. The intermediate magma that is erupted is more volcano
viscous than mafic magma and tends to form composite

(b)
volcanoes. Much felsic magma is intruded into the con-
tinental crust where it forms various intrusive igneous "^ FIGURE 4-32 (a) Generalized diagram showing the
bodies (see Chapter 5), but some is erupted as pyroclas- origin of the Hawaiian Islands. As the lithospheric plate
tic materials or emplaced as lava domes, thus accounting

moves over a hot spot, a succession of volcanoes forms. The
only present-day volcanism occurs on Hawaii and beneath
for the explosive eruptions that characterize convergent
the sea just to the south. (£>) Map showing the age of the
plate margins. islands in the Hawaiian chain.
Intraplate Volcanism
Mauna Loa and Kilauea on the island of Hawaii and Even though these Hawaiian volcanoes are unrelated
Loihi just to the south are within the interior of a rigid to spreading ridges or subduction zones, the evolution
plat e far from any spreading ridge or subduction zone of the Hawaiian Islands is related to plate tectonics.
(Fig. 4-28)nFl?postulated that aTnantle plume creates Notice in Figure 4-32b that the ages of the rocks com-
a local "h ot spot" ben eath' Hawaii? Themagma is mafic posing the islands in the Hawaiian chain increase to-
and thus relatively fluid, so it buildsup shield volcanoes s
ward the northwest; Kauai formed 3.0 to 5.6 million
(FIg74^32a7^ years ago, whereas Hawaii began forming less than one

million years ago, and Loihi began forming even more tle plume may be beneath Yellowstone National Park in
recently.Continuous motion of the Pacific plate over the Wyoming. Some source of heat at depth is responsible
"hot spot," now beneath Hawaii, has created the vari- for the present-day hot springs and geysers such as Old
ous islands in succession. Faithful, but many geologists think that the source of
Mantle plumes and "hot spots" have also been pro- heat is a body of intruded magma that has not yet com-
posed to explain volcanism in a few other areas. A man- pletely cooled rather than a mantle plume.
^ CHAPTER SUMMARY 11. Pyroclastic flo ws erupted from fissures

during the origin of calderas cover vast areas! Such
formed
1. Magma is molten rock material below the Earth's eruptions of pyroclastic materials form sheetlike
surface, whereas lava is magma that reaches the deposits.
surface. The silica content of magmas varies and 12. Most active volcanoes are distributed in linear belts.
serves to differentiate felsic, intermediate, and mafic The circum-Pacific belt and Mediterranean belt
magmas. c ontain more than 80% of all active volcanoes.
2. Volcanism is the process whereby magma and its 13. Volcanism in the circum-Pacific and Mediterranean
associated gases erupt at the surface. Some magma belts convergent plate
is at argins where m
erupts as lava flows, and some is ejected explosively subduction occurs. Partial melting of the subducted
as pyroclastic materials. plate generates intermediate and felsic magmas.
3. Only a few percent by weight of a magma consists 14. Migma^deriyed by upper
partial melting of the
of gases, most of which water vapor. Sulfur gases
is \g mantle beneath spreading ridges accounts for the
emitted during large eruptions can have far-reaching ^\ mafic lavaTof ocean basins. Melting in these areas
climatic effects. may T5e caused by reduction in pressure and/or hot
4. The viscosity of lava flows depends mostly on their mantle plumes.
temperature and composition. Sili ca-rich (felsic) lava 15. The two active volcanoes on the island of Hawaii
is more viscous th an silica-poor (mafic) lava. and one just to the south are thought to lie above a
5. Many lava flows are characterized by pressure ridges hot mantle plu me. The Hawaiian Islands developed
and spatter cones. Columnar joints form in some as a series of volcanoes that formed on the Pacific
lava flows when they cool. Pillow lavas are erupted plate as it moved over the mantle plume.
under water and consist of interconnected bulbous
masses.
6. Volcanoes are conical mountains built up around a IMPORTANT TERMS
vent where lava flows and/or pyroclastic materials
are 'erupted. aa lava flow
7. Shield volcanoes have low, rounded profiles and are ash magma
mafic
composed mostly of matirftows that have cooled basalt plateau magma
and formed basaltc Cinder jxmes form where caldera mantle plume
pyroclastic materials that resemble cinders are cinder cone Mediterranean belt
erupted and accumulate as small, steep-sided cones. circum-Pacific belt nuee ardent
(fCompositt volcanoes are composed of lava flows of columnar joint pahoehoe
intermediate composition, layers of pyroclastic composite volcano pillow lava
materials, and volcanic mudflows. (stratovolcano) pressure ridge
8. Viscous masses of lava, generally of felsic crater pyroclastic materials
composition, are forced up through the conduits of felsic magma shield volcano
some volcanoes and form bulbous, steep-sided lava fissure eruption spatter cone
domes. Volcanoes with lava domes are dangerous intermediate magma viscosity
because they erupt explosively and frequently eject lahar volcanism
nuee'ardenTes. lava volcano
9. The summits of volcanoes are characterized by a lava dome
circular or oval crater or a much larger caldera.
Many calderas form by summit collapse when an
underlying magma chamber is partly drained. ^ REVIEW QUESTIONS
10. Fluid mafic lava erupted from long fissures (fissure
eruptions) spreads over large areas to form basalt 1. Which of the following is most dangerous to
plateaus. humans?

a.
* nuee ardente; b. lava flows; 13. Crater Lake in Oregon is an excellent example of a:
c. volcanic bombs; d. pahoehoe; a. jf caldera; b. cinder cone; c. shield

e. pillow lava. volcano; d. basalt plateau; e. lava dome.
2. A lava flow with a surface of jagged blocks is 14. The volcanic conduit of a lava dome is most
termed: commonly plugged by:
""'
a lapilli; b vesicular; c. aa; a mafic magma; b columnar joints;
)f
d. obsidian; e. pyroclastic sheet deposit. c. <
y
viscous, felsic magma; d. volcanic
3. Most calderas form by: mudflows; e. spatter cones.
a. JC summit collapse; b. explosions; 15. Most active volcanoes are in:
c. fissure eruptions; d. forceful injection; a. the Mediterranean belt; b. the Hawaiian
e. erosion of lava domes. Islands; c. Iceland; d.-ii!_ ihe circum-Pacific belt;
4. Basalt plateaus form as a result of: e. the oceanic ridge belt.
a. repeated eruptions of cinder cones; 16. The magma generated beneath spreading ridges is
b. widespread ash falls; c. accumulation of mostly:

thick layers of pyroclastic materials; d. the a.
Jf.
mafic; b. felsic; c. intermediate;
origin of lahars on composite volcanoes; d. all of these; e. answers (a) and (b) only.
e. Jf- eruptions of fluid lava from long fissures. 17. The volcanoes of are unrelated to either a
5. One other Cascade Range volcano besides Mount St. divergent or a convergent plate margin.
Helens has erupted during this century. It is: a. East Africa; b. the mid-oceanic ridges;
a Mount Hood, Oregon; b.^fe_ Mount Lassen, c. the Cascade Range; yf^ rhe Hawaiian
d.-
California; Mount Garibaldi, British

c. Islands; e. Iceland.
Columbia; d. Mount Adams, Washington; 18. The largest volcano in the world is:
e. Mount Mazama, Oregon. a Mount St. Helens, Washington; b. Mount

6. Volcanic or extrusive igneous rocks form by the Etna, Sicily; c. Fujiyama, Japan; d. Mount
cooling and crystallization of lava flows and the: Vesuvius, Italy; e. jjfel Mauna Loa, Hawaii.
a. crystallization of magma beneath the surface; 19. The only area where fissure eruptions are currently
b. Ar consolidation of pyroclastic materials;- occurring is:
c. reaction of volcanic gases with the a. the Red Sea; b. western South America;
atmosphere; d. heating of sedimentary rocks c. the Pacific Northwest; d.^^-Iceland;
beneath lava flows; e. all of these. e. Japan.
7. A felsic magma: 20. Why is silica the major component of magma?
a. contains a high percentage of iron and 21. How can a mafic magma be derived from ultramafic
magnesium; b. cools to form volcanic rocks such rock?
as basalt; c. -^ contains more than 65% silica; 22. What controls the viscosity of a lava flow?
d. is characterized as silica poor; e. contains 23. Explain how pyroclastic materials and volcanic gases
mostly sodium and potassium. can affect climate.
8. The viscosity of magma is primarily controlled by: 24. How do spatter cones and columnar joints form?
a. temperature; b.-î silica content,; 25. What accounts for the fact that volcanic ash can
c. pressure; d. texture; e elevation. __— cover vast areas, whereas pyroclastic materials such
9. The most commonly emitted volcanic gas is: as cinders are not very widely distributed?
a carbon dioxide; b. hydrogen sulfide; 26. Explain how most calderas form.
c. nitrogen; d. chlorine; e. ^** water vapor. 27. What kinds of warning signs enable geologists to
10 Small, steep-sided cones that form on the surfaces of forecast eruptions?
lava flows where gases escape are: 28. Why do shield volcanoes have such low slopes?
a lava tubes; b. <&~ spatter cones; 29. How do pahoehoe and aa lava flows differ?
c. columnar joints; d. pahoehoe; 30. Draw a cross section of a composite volcano.
e. volcanic bombs. Indicate its constituent materials, and show how and
11 Much of the upper part of the oceanic crust is where a flank eruption might occur.
composed of interconnected bulbous masses of 31. Why do composite volcanoes occur in belts near
igneous rock called: convergent plate margins? Are such volcanoes
a. if- pillow lava; b. lapilli; c. pyroclastic present at all convergent plate margins?
material; d. parasitic cones; e. blocks. 32. Why are lava domes so dangerous?
12 Shield volcanoes have low slopes because they are 33. Compare and contrast basalt plateaus and
composed of: pyroclastic sheet deposits.
a mostly pyroclastic layers; b. lahars and 34. Give a brief summary of the origin and development
viscous lava flows; c. J^cT fluid mafic lava flows; of the Hawaiian Islands.
d. felsic magma; e. pillow lavas.

^ ADDITIONAL READINGS The eruptions of Mt. Pelee, 1929-1932.
Perret, F. A. 1937.
Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Aylesworth, T. G., and V. Aylesworth. 1983. The Mount St. Publication No. 458.
Helens disaster: What we've learned. New York: Franklin Rampino, M. R., S. Self, and R. B. Strothers. 1988. Volcanic
Wans. winters. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
Bullard, F. M.
1984. Volcanoes of the Earth. 2d ed. Austin, 16:73-99.
Tex.: University of Texas Press. Simkin, T. et al. 1981. Volcanoes of the world: A regional
Decker, R. W., and Decker, B. B. 1991. Mountains of fire: The gazetteer, and chronology of volcanism during the last 10,000
nature of volcanoes. New York: Cambridge University Press. years. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Hutchison Ross Publishing Co.
Erickson, J. 1988. Volcanoes & earthquakes. Blue Ridge Tilling, R. I. 1987 Eruptions of Mount St. Helens: Past, present,
Summit, Pa.:Tab Books. and future. U.S. Geological Survey.
Harris, S. L. 1976. Fire and ice: The Cascade volcanoes. Seattle, Tilling, R. I., C. Heliker, and T. L. Wright. 1987. Eruptions of
Wash.: The Mountaineers. Hawaiian volcanoes: Past, present, and future. U. S.
Lipman, P. W, and D. R. Mullineaux, eds. 1981. The 1980 Geological Survey.
eruptions of Mount St. Helens, Washington. United States Volcanoes and the Earth's interior. 1982. Readings from
Geological Survey Professional Paper 1250. Scientific American. San Francisco, Calif.: W
H. Freeman and
McClelland, L., T. Simkin, M. Summers, E. Nielsen, and C. T Co.
Stein, eds. 1989. Global volcanism 1975-1985. Englewood Wenkam, R. 1987. The edge of fire: Volcano and earthquake
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. country in western North America and Hawaii. San
Francisco, Calif.: Sierra Club Books.

CHAPTER 5
IGNEOUS ROCKS
AND INTRUSIVE
IGNEOUS ACTIVITY
=*= OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Textures
Composition
Bowen's Reaction Series
Crystal Settling
Assimilation
Magma Mixing
Classification
Ultramafic Rocks
Basalt-Gabbro
"V Perspective 5-1: Ultramafic Lava Flows
Andesite-Diorite
Rhyolite-Granite
Other Igneous Rocks
INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS BODIES: PLUTONS
Dikes and Sills
Laccoliths
Volcanic Pipes and Necks
Batholiths and Stocks
MECHANICS OF BATHOLITH
EMPLACEMENT
PEGMATITES
PLATE TECTONICS AND IGNEOUS
ACTIVITY
"•' Perspective 5-2: Complex Pegmatites
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Intrusive igneous rock exposed in Yosemite

National Park, California.
PROLOGUE song, the rock grew to the present size of Devil's
Tower. In both legends, the bear's attempts to reach
the Indians left deep scratch marks in the tower's
rocks (Fig. 5-2).
About 45 50 million years ago,
to
several small masses of magma were
Geologists have a less dramatic explanation for the
intruded into the Earth's crust in what is now The near vertical striations (the bear's
tower's origin.
scratch marks) are simply the lines formed by the
northeastern Wyoming. These cooled and solidified,
forming intrusive igneous rock bodies; the best known intersections of columnar joints. As explained in
of these, Devil's Tower, was established as our first
Chapter 4,columnar joints form in response to
cooling and contraction in some intrusive igneous
national monument by President Theodore Roosevelt
bodies and in some lava flows (see Fig. 4-13). Many
in 1906. Devil's Tower is a remarkable landform; it
of the columns are six sided, but columns with four,
rises nearly m above its base and stands more
260
five, and seven sides occur as well. The larger columns
than 390 m
above the level of the nearby Belle
Fourche River (Fig. 5-1). The tower is visible from 48 measure about 2.5 m across. The pile of rubble at the
km away and served as a landmark for early travelers
in the area.
Devil's Tower and other similar, nearby bodies such
"^" FIGURE 5-2 An artist's rendition of a Cheyenne
as Bear Butte in South Dakota are important in the
legend about the origin of Devil's Tower.
legends of the Cheyenne and Lakota Sioux Indians.
These native Americans call Devil's Tower Mateo
Tepee, which means "Grizzly Bear Lodge." It was also
called the "Bad God's Tower," and reportedly,
"Devil's Tower" is a translation of this phrase.
According to one Indian legend, the tower formed
when the Great Spirit caused it to rise up from the
ground, carrying with it several children who were
trying to escape from a gigantic grizzly bear. Another
legend tells of six brothers and a woman who were
also being pursued by a grizzly bear. The youngest
brother carried a small rock, and when he sang a
"^ FIGURE 5-1 Devil's Tower in Wyoming exhibits

well-developed columnar jointing.
Prologue 111
tower's base is an accumulation of columns that have debatable, however. Some geologists believe that
fallen from the tower. Devil's Tower is the eroded remnant of a more
Geologists agree that Devil's Tower originated as a extensive body of intrusive rock, whereas others think
small intrusive body, and that subsequent erosion it is simply the remnant of the magma that solidified
exposed it in its present form. The type of igneous in a volcanic conduit and that it has been little
body and the extent of its modification by erosion are modified by erosion.
neous processes and activity in general, but here we are

=*= INTRODUCTION concerned primarily with the textures, composition, and
In Chapter 4, we discussed volcanism and the origin of classification of igneous rocks and with plutonic or in-
different volcanic landforms, such as volcanoes and trusive igneous activity (Fig. 5-3).
calderas, and the origin of volcanic or extrusive igneous Although volcanism and intrusive igneous activity are
rocks. In this chapter we continue our discussion of ig- discussed in separate chapters, they are related phenom-
FIGURE 5-3 The rock cycle, with emphasis on intrusive igneous rocks.
Weathering
112 Chapter 5 Igneous Rocks and Intrusive Igneous Activity

ena. Volcanic rocks are widespread, but they probably Rapid cooling Slow cooling
represent only a small portion of the total rocks formed by
the cooling and crystallization of magma. Most magma
cools below the Earth's surface and forms bodrcs-of-Feek
calEd^gfarcOTsrThTiame types of magmas~areinvolved in
both volcanism and plutonism, although mafic magmas,
because of their greater mobility, more commonly reach
the surface. Plutons typically underlie areas of extensive
volcanism and were the sources of the overlying lavas and
pyroclastic materials. Furthermore, like volcanism, most
plutonism occurs at or near plate margins.
^ IGNEOUS ROCKS
As previously discussed, geologists recognize two major
categories ofTgnebiis^rocks: (1) volcahic^br extrusive
igneouTrocksTwhich fofm^when magma extruded onto
the Earth's surface coolsând crystallizes or when pyro-
Fine-grained Coarse-grained
become consolidated, and (2) plutonic
clastic materials
(aphanitic) texture (phaneritic) texture
or jntrusive igneous rocks, which crystallize from
magma intruded into jX_forrned in pla££_adthin the (a) (b)
E arth's c rust (Fig. 5-3). "^ FIGURE The effect of the cooling rate of a
5-4
The process of crystallizing minerals from magma magma on nucleation and growth of crystals: {a) Rapid
involves the formation of crystal nuclei and subsequent cooling results in many small grains and a fine-grained
texture, {b) Slow cooling results in a coarse-grained texture.
growth of these The atoms in a magma are in
nuclei.
constant motion, but when cooling begins, some atoms
bond to form small groups, or nuclei, whose arrange-
ment of atoms corresponds to the arrangement in min- Rocks with porphyritic textures have a somewhat
eral crystals.As other atoms in the liquid chemically more complex cooling history. Such rocks have a com-
bond to these nuclei, they do so in an ordered geometric bination of mineral grains of markedly different sizes.
arrangement, a nd the nuclei grow into crystalline mi n- The and the smaller ones
larger grains are phenocrysts,
eratgrains, the individual parucle_sjhaic£nipns^^rock. are referred to as groundmass (Fig. 5-5c). Suppose that
During rapid cooling, the rate of nuclei formation ex- a magma begins cooling slowly as an intrusive body, and
ceeds the rate of growth, and an aggregate of many that some mineral-crystal nuclei form and begin to
small grains results (Fig. 5-4a). With slow cooling, the grow. Suppose further that before the magma has com-
rate of growth exceeds the rate of nucleation, so rela- pletely crystallized, the remaining liquid phase and solid
tively large grains form (Fig. 5-4b). mineral grains within it are extruded onto the Earth's
surface where it cools rapidly, forming an aphanitic tex-
ture. The resulting igneous rock would have large min-
Textures
eral grains (phenocrysts) suspended in a finely crystal-
Several textures of igneous rocks are related to the cool- line groundmass, and the rock would be characterized
ing history of a magma or lava. For example, rapid cool- as a porphyry.
ing, as occurs in lava flows or some near-surface intru- A lava may its constituent atoms
cool so rapidly that
sions, results in a fine-grained texture termed aphanitic. do not have time become arranged in the ordered,
to
In an aphanitic texture, individual mineral grains are three-dimensional frameworks typical of minerals. As a
too small to be observed without magnification (Fig. consequence of such rapid cooling, anatura^gj ass such
5-5a). In contrast, igneous rocks with a coarse-grained Even though obsidian is not
as obsid ian forms (Fig. 5-6a).
or phaneritic texture have mineral grains that are easily composed of minerals, it is still considered to be igneous
visible without magnification (Fig. 5-5 b). Such large rock; it is one of the exceptions to the general definition
mineral grains indicate slow cooling and generally an of rock as an aggregate of grains of one or more min-
intrusive origin; a phaneritic texture can develop in the erals. Such substances that lack a crystalline structure
interiors of some thick lava flows as well. are said to be amorphous, meaning without form.
Igneous Rocks 113

PWp?SS£rTv '"'
;^^H
Olivine
7\»
Dtion
Pyroxene
A Amphibole
%
Reaction m
Biotite
mica
Potassium
feldspar
Muscovite
1
mica
"^ FIGURE 5-7 Bowen's reaction

series. Note that it consists of a
discontinuous branch and a
continuous branch.
Some magmas contain large amounts of water vapor (see Table 4-2). The parent magma plays a significant
and other gases. T hese gases may_be trappgdjn cool ing role in determining the mineral composition of igneous
lava where th ey form nu m erou s small holes or^ cavities rocks. However, it is possible for the same magma to
called^vesicles; rocks possessing numero us vesicles ar e yield different igneous rocks because its composition
termed vesicular' as in vesicular basalt (Fig. 5-6b). Many can change as a consequence of contamination or the
cinder cones are composed of fragments containing so sequence in which minerals crystallize.
many vesicles that the rock, known as scoria, contains
more cavities than solid rock (Fig. 5-6c).
Bowen's Reaction Series
A pyroclastic or fragmental texture characterizes ig- During the early part of this century, N. Bowen hy-
L.
neous rocksTormed by explosive volcanic activity. For pothesized that mafic, intermediate, and magmas
felsic
example, ash may be discharged high lntcTthe atmo- could all derive from a parent mafic magma. He knew
sphere and eventually settle to the surface where it ac- that minerals do not all crystallize simultaneously from
cumulates; if it is turned into solid rock, it is considered a magma. Based on his observations and laboratory ex-
to be a pyroclastic igneous rock. periments, Bowen proposed a mechanism, now called
Bowen's reaction series, to account for the derivation of
intermediate and felsic magmas from a basaltic (mafic)
Composition
magma Bowen's reaction series consists of
(Fig. 5-7).
Magmas are characterized as mafic (45—52% silica), two branches: a discontinuous branch and a continuous
intermediate (53—65% silica), or felsic (> 65% silica) branch (Fig. 5-7). Crystallization of minerals occurs
Igneous Rocks 115

along both branches simultaneously, but for conve- Calcium-rich plagioclase crystallizes first. As cooling of
nience we will discuss them separately. the magma proceeds, calcium-rich plagioclase reacts
In the discontinuous branch, which contains only fer- with the melt, and plagioclase containing proportion-
romagnesian minerals, one mineral changes to another ately more sodium crystallizes until all of the calcium
over specific temperature ranges (Fig. 5-7). As the tem- and sodium are used up. In many cases, however, cool-
perature decreases, a temperature range is reached in ing is too rapid for a complete transformation from
which a given mineral begins to crystallize. However, a calcium-rich to sodium-rich plagioclase to occur. Plagio-
previously formed mineral reacts with the remaining liq- clase forming under these conditions is zoned, meaning
uid magma (the melt) such that it forms the next mineral that it has a calcium-rich core surrounded by zones pro-
in the sequence. For example, olivine [(Mg, Fe) 2 Si0 3 is ] gressively richer in sodium (Fig. 5-8).
the first ferromagnesian mineral to crystallize. As the Magnesium and iron on the one hand and calcium
magma continues to cool, it reaches the temperature and sodium on the other are used up as crystallization
range at which pyroxene is stable; a reaction occurs occurs along the two branches in Bowen's reaction se-
between the olivine and the remaining melt, and pyrox- ries. Accordingly, any magma left over is enriched in
ene forms. potassium, aluminum, and silicon. These elements com-
A similar reaction occursbetween pyroxene and the bine to form potassium feldspar (KAlSi 3 8 ), and if the
melt as further cooling occurs, and the pyroxene struc- water pressure is high, the sheet silicate muscovite mica
ture is rearranged to form amphibole. Further cooling will form. Any remaining magma is predominantly sil-
causes a reaction between the amphibole and the melt, icon and oxygen and forms the mineral quartz
(silica)
and its structure is rearranged such that the sheet struc- (Si0 2 ). The crystallization of potassium feldspar and
ture typical of biotite mica forms. Although the reac- quartz is not a true reaction series, however, because
tions just described tend to convert one mineral to the they form independently rather than from a reaction of
next in the series, the reactions are not always complete. the orthoclase with the remaining melt.
For example, olivine might have a rim of pyroxene, in-
Crystal Settling
dicating an incomplete reaction. In any case, by the time
biotite has crystallized, essentially all magnesium and Crystal settling involves the physical separation of min-
iron present in the original magma have been used up. erals by crystallization and gravitational settling (Fig.
Plagioclase feldspars are the only minerals in the con- 5-9). For example, olivine, the first ferromagnesian min-
tinuous branch of Bowen's reaction series (Fig. 5-7). eral to form in the discontinuous branch of Bowen's
reaction series, has a specific gravity greater than that of
the remaining magma and thus tends to sink downward
"^" in the melt. Accordingly, the remaining melt becomes
FIGURE 5-8Photomicrograph of zoned plagioclase
crystals. The magma in which these crystals formed cooled
too quickly for a complete transformation from calcium-rich
to sodium-rich plagioclase to occur.They contain cores rich
incalcium surrounded by zones progressively richer in
""*"FIGURE 5-9 Differentiation by crystal settling.
sodium. (Photo courtesy of R. V. Dietrich.) Early-formed ferromagnesian minerals have a specific gravity
greater than that of the magma so they settle and
accumulate in the lower part of the magma chamber.

relatively rich in silica, sodium, and potassium, because
much of the iron and magnesium were removed when
minerals containing these elements crystallized.
Although crystal settling does occur in magmas, it
does not do so on the scale envisioned by Bowen. In
some thick, tabular, intrusive igneous bodies called sills,
the first formed minerals in the reaction series are indeed
concentrated. The lower parts of these bodies contain
more olivine and pyroxene than the upper parts, which
are less mafic. However, even in these bodies, crystal
settling has yielded very little felsic magma from an orig- Assimilated pieces
of country rock
inal mafic magma.
magma could be derived on a large scale from
If felsic "^ FIGURE 5-10 As magma moves upward, fragments of
mafic magma as Bowen believed, there should be far country rock are dislodged and settle into the magma. If
they have a lower melting temperature than the magma,
more mafic magma than felsic magma. In order to yield
they may be incorporated into the magma by assimilation.
a particular volume of granite (a felsic igneous rock),
Incompletely assimilated pieces of country rock are
about 10 times as much mafic magma would have to be inclusions.
present initially for crystal settling to yield the volume of
granite in question. If this were so, then mafic intrusive
igneous rocks should be much more common than felsic
ones. However, just the opposite is the case. Thus, it

from the magma itself, and this would have the effect of
appears that mechanisms other than crystal settling cooling the magma. This process is analogous to placing
must account for the large volume of felsic magma. As an ice cube in a hot drink: the ice melts and the drink
we noted in Chapter 4, partial melting of mafic oceanic cools, but only a very limited amount of ice can be
crust and silica-rich sediments of continental margins melted in a drink of a given volume. Likewise, only a
during subduction yields magma richer in silica than the limited amount of rock can be assimilated by a magma,
source rock. Furthermore, magma rising through the and that amount is usually insufficient to bring about a
continental crust can absorb some felsic materials by major compositional change.
assimilation and thus become more enriched in silica. Neither crystal settling nor assimilation can produce
a significant amount of felsic magma from a mafic one.
Assimilation However, both processes, if operating concurrently, can
The composition of a magma can be changed by assim- change the compositon of a mafic magma much more
ilation, a process whereby a magma reacts with preex-
isting rock, called country rock, with which it comes in
contact (Fig. 5-10). The walls of a volcanic conduit or
"^ FIGURE 5-11 Dark-colored inclusions in granitic-rock
magma chamber are, of course, heated by the adjacent (Photo courtesy of David J. Matty.)
in California.
magma, which may reach temperatures of 1,300°C.
Some of these rocks can be partly or completely melted,
provided their melting temperature is less than that of
the magma. Since the assimilated rocks seldom have the
same composition as the magma, the compositon of the
magma is changed.
The fact that assimilation occurs can be demon-
strated by inclusions, incompletely melted pieces of rock
that are fairly common within igneous rocks. Many in-
clusions were simply wedged loose from the country

rock as the magma forced its way into preexisting frac-
tures (Figs. 5-10 and 5-11).
There is no doubt that assimilation occurs, but its
effect on the bulk composition of most magmas must be
slight. The reason is that the heat for melting must come
Igneous Rocks 117

ing would be a modified version of the parent magmas.
Felsic magma For example, suppose that a rising mafic magma mixes
with a felsic magma same volume (Fig.
of about the
5-12). The resulting "new" magma would have a more
intermediate composition.
Classification
rnagma
Most igneous rocks are classified on the basis of textural
features and composition (Fig. 5-13). Notice in Figure
5-13 that all of the rocks, except peridotite, constitute
pairs; the members of a pair have the same composition
"^ FIGURE 5-12 Magma mixing. Two rising magmas but different textures. Thus, basalt and gabbro, andesite
mix and produce a magma with a composition different and diorite, and and granite are compositional
rhyolite
from either of the parent magmas. (mineralogical) equivalents, but basalt, andesite, and
rhyolite are aphanitic and most commonly extrusive,
whereas gabbro, diorite, and granite have phaneritic tex-
tures that generally indicate an intrusive origin. How-
than either process acting alone. Some geologists believe continuum. The
ever, all of these pairs exist in a textural
is one way that

that this many intermediate magmas extrusive and intrusive members of each pair can usually
form where oceanic lithosphere is subducted beneath be differentiated by texture, but many shallow intrusive
continental lithosphere. rocks have textures that cannot be readily distinguished
from those of extrusive igneous rocks.
Magma Mixing The igneous rocks shown in Figure 5-13 are also dif-
The fact that a single volcano can erupt lavas of different ferentiated by composition. Reading across the chart
composition indicates that magmas of differing compo- from rhyolite to andesite, to basalt, for example, the
sition must be present. Thus, it seems likely that some of relative proportions of nonferromagnesian and ferro-
these magmas would come into contact and mix with magnesian minerals differ. However, the differences in
one another. If this is the case, we would expect that the composition are gradual so that a compositional con-
composition of the magma resulting from magma mix- tinuum exists. In other words, there are rocks whose
ir FIGURE 5-13 Classification Texture

of igneous rocks. Diagram Aphanitic: Rhyolite Andesite Basalt
illustrates relative proportions of
Phaneritic: Granite Diorite Gabbro
the chief mineral components of
common igneous rocks.
Darkness and specific gravity increase

i s

"•' FIGURE 5-14 The ultramafic rock peridotite. (Photo (a)
compositions are intermediate between rhyolite and

andesite, and so on.
Ultramafic Rocks
Ultramafic rocks are composed largely of ferromagne-
sian silicate minerals (Fig. 5-14). For example, the ultra-
mafic rock peridotite contains mostly olivine, lesser
amounts of pyroxene, and generally a little plagioclase
feldspar (Fig. 5-13). Another ultramafic rock (pyroxen-
ite) is composed predominantly of pyroxene. Because
these minerals are dark colored, the rocks are generally

black or dark green. Peridotite is thought to be the rock
type composing the upper mantle (see Chapter 11), but
ultramafic rocks are rare at the Earth's surface. In fact,
ultramafic lava flows are rare in rocks younger than 2.5
billion years (see Perspective 5-1). Ultramafic rocks are
generally believed to have originated by concentration
of the early-formed ferromagnesian minerals that sepa-
rated from mafic magmas.
Basalt-Gabbro
Basalt and gabbro (45-52% silica) are the fine-grained
and coarse-grained rocks, respectively, that crystallize
from mafic magmas (Fig. 5-15). Thus, both have the
same composition — mostly calcium-rich plagioclase and
pyroxene, with smaller amounts of olivine and amphib-
ole (Fig. 5-13). Because they contain a large proportion
of ferromagnesian minerals, basalt and gabbro are dark
colored; those that are porphyritic typically contain cal-
(c)
cium plagioclase or olivine phenocrysts.
Basalt is generally considered to be the most common "*»" FIGURE 5-15 Mafic igneous rocks: (a) basalt;
(b) basalt lava flows near Twin Falls, Idaho; and (c) gabbro.
extrusive igneous rock. Extensive basalt lava flows were
(Photos courtesy of Sue Monroe.)
erupted in vast areas in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and
Igneous Rocks 119

Perspective 5-1
ULTRAMAFIC LAVA FLOWS

Geologists refer to the interval of geologic time from
3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago as the Archean Eon. Some
of the most interesting rocks that formed during the
Archean Eon are ultramaflc lava flows because such
flows are rare in younger rocks and none are forming
at present. Archean ultramafic lava flows are generally
parts of large, complex associations of rocks known
as greenstone belts. An idealized greenstone belt
consists of threemajor rock units: the lower and
middle units are dominated by volcanic rocks, and the
upper unit is composed mostly of sedimentary rocks
(Fig. 1). The lower volcanic units of some Archean
greenstone belts contain ultramafic lava flows.

Why did ultramafic lava flows occur during early
Earth history, but only rarely later? The answer is
related to the heat produced within the Earth. When it
formed, the Earth possessed a considerable

first
amount of residual heat inherited from the formative

processes (see Chapter 2). As we noted earlier, rock is
I Compl'
a poor conductor of heat, so this primordial heat was "^ FIGURE 1 Two adjacent greenstone belts showing
slowly lost. Another source of heat within the Earth is their structure and sequence of rock types. The lower
related to the phenomenon of radioactive decay. volcanic units of some greenstone belts contain ultramafic
Recall from Chapter 3 that as the isotopes of some lava flows.
"** FIGURE 2 The ratio of heat produced by radioactive

decay during the past and at the present. The shaded band
encloses the ratios according to different models.
d a.
E <3
O..C
ra c
c in
_ o
O Q.
°8
northern California (Fig. 4-25 and 5-15b). Oceanic is-
lands such as Iceland, the Galapagos, the Azores, and

the Hawaiian Islands are composed mostly of basalt.
Furthermore, the upper part of the oceanic crust is com-
posed almost entirely of basalt.
Gabbro is much less common than basalt, at least in
the continental crust or where it can be easily observed.
Small intrusive bodies of gabbro do occur in the conti-
nental crust, but less mafic intrusive rocks such as diorite
and granite are much more common. The lower part of
the oceanic crust is composed of gabbro, however.
Andesite-Diorite
Magmas intermediate in composition (53-65% silica)
crystallize to form andesite and diorite, which are com-

positionally equivalent fine- and coarse-grained igneous
rocks (Fig. 5-16). Andesite and diorite are composed
predominantly of plagioclase feldspar, with the typical
ferromagnesian component being amphibole or biotite
(Fig. 5-13). Andesite is generally medium to dark gray,
but diorite has a salt and pepper appearance because of
its white to light gray plagioclase and dark ferromagne-
sian minerals (Fig. 5-16).

Andesite is a common extrusive igneous rock formed
from lavas erupted in volcanic chains at convergent
plate margins. The volcanoes of the Andes Mountains of
South America and the Cascade Range in the northwest-
ern United States are composed in part of andesite. In-
trusive bodies composed of diorite are fairly common in
the continental crust. However, diorite is not nearly as
(b)
abundant as granitic rocks and is uncommon outside the
"^ FIGURE 5-16 Intermediate igneous rocks: (a) andesite
areas where andesites occur.
and (b) diorite. (Photos courtesy of Sue Monroe.)
Rhyolite-Granite
Rbyolite and granite (> 65% silica) crystallize from fel- The rhyolitic lava flows that do occur are thick and
sic magmas and are therefore silica-rich rocks (Fig. highly viscous and thus move only short distances.
5-17). Rhyolite and granite consist largely of potassium Among geologists, granite has come to mean any
feldspar, sodium-rich plagioclase, and quartz, with per- coarsely crystalline igneous rock with a composition
haps some biotite and rarely amphibole (Fig. 5-13). Be- corresponding to that of the field shown in Figure 5-13.
cause nonferromagnesian minerals predominate, rhyo- Strictly speaking, not all rocks in this field are granites.
lite and granite are generally light colored. Rhyolite is For example, a rock with a composition close to the line
fine grained, although most often it contains phenoc- separating granite and diorite is usually called grano-
rysts of potassium feldspar or quartz, and granite is diorite. To avoid the confusion that might result from
coarse grained. Granite porphyry is also fairly common. introducing more rock names, we will follow the prac-
Rhyolite lava flows are much less common than tice of referring to rocks to the left of the granite-diorite
andesite and basalt flows. Recall that the greatest con- line in Figure 5-13 as granitic.
trol of viscosity in a magma is the silica content. Thus, Granitic rocks are by far the most common intrusive
if a felsic magma rises to the surface, it begins to cool, igneous rocks, although they are restricted to the conti-
the pressure on it decreases, and gases are released ex- nents. Most granitic rocks were intruded at or near con-
plosively, usually yielding rhyolitic pyroclastic particles. vergent plate margins during episodes of mountain
Igneous Rocks 121

r
forms as particles erupted from explosive volcanoes. If
pumice falls into water, it can be carried great distances
because it is so porous and light that it floats.
» INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS
BODIES: PLUTONS
Unlike volcanism and the origin of extrusive or volcanic
igneous rocks, which can be observed, intrusive igneous
activity can be studied only indirectly. Intrusive igneous
bodies called plutons form when magma cools and crys-
tallizes within the Earth's crust (Fig. 5-20). Although
plutons can be directly observed after erosion has ex-
posed them at the surface, we cannot duplicate the con-
ditions that exist deep in the crust, except in small-scale
laboratory experiments. Thus, geologists face a greater
challenge in interpreting the mechanisms whereby plu-
tons originate than in studying the origins of extrusive
igneous rocks.
Several types of plutons are recognized, all of which
are defined by their geometry (three-dimensional shape)
and their relationship to the country rock (Fig. 5-20).
Geometrically, plutons may be characterized as massive

or irregular, tabular, cylindrical, or mushroom shaped.
Plutons are also described as concordant or discordant.
A concordant pluton, such as a sill, has boundaries that
are parallel to the layering in the country rock. A dis-
cordant pluton, such as a dike, has boundaries that cut

across the layering of the country rock (Fig. 5-20).
Dikes and Sills
Both dikes and sills are tabular or sheetlike plutons, but

dikes are discordant whereas sills are concordant (Fig.
5-20). Dikes are common intrusive features (Fig. 5-21).
Many are small bodies measuring 1 or 2 m across, but
they range from a few centimeters to more than 100 m
thick. Dikes are emplaced within preexisting zones of
weakness where fractures already exist or where the
fluid pressure is great enough for them to form their
own fractures during emplacement.
(b)
Erosion of the Hawaiian volcanoes exposes dikes in
rift zones, the large fractures that cut across these vol-
^ FIGURE 5-19 (a) Obsidian and (b) pumice. (Photos
canoes. The Columbia River basalts (discussed in Chap-
ter 4) issued from long fissures, and the magma that
cooled in the fissures formed dikes. In some cases, dikes Iceland and the Eldgja where erup-
fissure, also in Iceland,
that reach the surface are marked by rows of spatter tions occurred in a.d. 950 from 300 km long.
a fissure
cones as on Mount Etna, Italy. Some of the large historic Sills are concordant plutons, many of which are a
fissure eruptions are underlain by dikes; for example, meter or less thick, although some are much thicker
dikes underlie both the Laki fissure eruption of 1783 in (Fig. 5-20). For example, the Whin Sill of northern En-
Intrusive Igneous Bodies: Plutons 123

Cinder cone
Volcanic neck
Composite volcano
Volcanic pipe
Stock Laccolith
"^ FIGURE Block diagram showing the various types of plutons. Notice that
S-20
some of these plutons cut across the layering in the country rock and are thus
discordant, whereas others parallel the layering and are concordant.
-^ FIGURE 5-21 The dark layer cutting diagonally across gland, which is up to 100 m thick, underlies an area of
The other dark layer is a sill 2

the rock layers is a dike. at least 5,000 km and has an estimated volume of 215
because it parallels the layering.
km 3 Probably the best-known sill in the United States is
.
the Palisades sill that forms the Palisades along the west
side of the Hudson River in New York and New Jersey
(Fig. 5-22). It is exposed for 60 km along the river and
is up to 300 m thick.
Most sills have been intruded into sedimentary rocks.

Many of these parallel the layering for some distance
and then cut through these strata in abrupt steps. Thus,
sills many change laterally into dikes. Eroded volcanoes
also reveal that sills are commonly injected into piles of

volcanic rocks. In fact, some of the inflation of volca-
noes preceding eruptions may be caused by the injection
of sills (see Perspective 4-3).
In contrast to dikes, which follow zones of weakness,
sills are emplaced when the fluid pressure is so great that

the intruding magma actually lifts the overlying rocks.
Because emplacement requires fluid pressure exceeding
the force exerted by the weight of the overlying rocks,
sills are typically shallow intrusive bodies.
Laccoliths
Laccoliths are similar to sills in that they are concor-

dant, but instead of being tabular, they have a mush-
roomlike geometry (Fig. 5-20). They tend to have a flat
floor and are domed up in their central part. Like sills,
laccoliths are rather shallow intrusive bodies that actu-

ally up the overlying strata. In this case, however, the
lift
strata are arched upward over the pluton (Fig. 5-20).

Most laccoliths are rather small bodies. The best-known ^ FIGURE 5-22 The Palisades sill of the Hudson River.
laccoliths in this country are in the Henry Mountains of
southeastern Utah.
Nevada batholith of California (Fig. 5-25) was em-

Volcanic Pipes and Necks
placed over a period of millions of years during a
The conduit connecting the crater of a volcano with an mountain-building episode known as the Nevadan
underlying magma chamber is a volcanic pipe (Fig. orogeny. Later uplift and erosion of the Sierra Nevada
5-20). In other words, it is the structure through which exposed this huge composite pluton at the Earth's sur-
magma rises to the surface. When a volcano ceases to face. Other large batholiths in North America include
erupt, it is eroded as it is attacked by water, gases, and the Idaho batholith and the Coast Range batholith in
acids. The volcanic mountain eventually erodes away, British Columbia, Canada.
but the magma is more resis-

that solidified in the pipe
tant to weathering and erosion and is often left as an
erosional remnant, a volcanic neck (Fig. 5-20). A num-
ber of volcanic necks are present in the southwestern FIGURE 5-23 A volcanic neck in northern Arizona.
United States, especially in Arizona and New Mexico
(Fig. 5-23), and others are recognized elsewhere.
Batholiths and Stocks
Batholiths are the largest intrusive bodies. By definition

2
they mustliave at least 100 km ofTurface area, and
most are much larger than this (Fig. 5-20). Stocks have
the same general features as batholiths but are smaller,
although some stocks are simply the exposed parts of
much larger intrusions, that once revealed by erosion
are batholiths (Fig. 5-24). Batholiths are generally dis-
cordant, and most consist of multiple intrusions. In
other words, a batholith is a large composite body pro-
duced by repeated, voluminous intrusions of magma in

the same area. The coastal batholith of Peru, for exam-
ple, was emplaced over 60 to 70 million years and con-
sists of perhaps as many as 800 individual plutons.
The igneous rocks composing batholiths are mostly

granitic, although diorite may also occur. Most batho-
liths areemplaced near continental margins during ep-
isodes of mountain building. For example, the Sierra
Intrusive Igneous Bodies: Plutons 125

during the early history of the Earth, and the mountains
that were once present have long since been eroded
away. Thus, the remaining rocks represent the eroded
"roots" of these ancient mountains.
^ MECHANICS OF
BATHOLITH EMPLACEMENT
Geologists realized long ago that the emplacement of
'""'
FIGURE 5-24 Some stocks are small intrusive bodies, batholiths posed a space problem; that is, what hap-
but others are simply exposed parts of larger plutons. In this pened to the rock that formerly occupied the space now
example, erosion to the dashed line would expose a
occupied by a granite batholith? One solution to this
batholith.
space problem was to propose that no displacement had
occurred, but rather that the granite had been formed in
place by alteration of the country rock through a pro-
A number of mineral resources occur in rocks of cess called granitization. According to this view, granite
batholiths and stocks and in the country rocks adjacent did not originate as a magma, but rather from hot, ion-
to them. For example, silica-rich igneous rocks, such as rich solutions that simply altered the country rock and
granite, are the primary source of gold, which forms transformed it into granite. Granitization is a solid-state
from mineral-rich solutions moving through cracks and phenomenon so it is essentially an extreme type of meta-
fractures of the igneous body. The copper deposits at morphism (see Chapter 8).
Butte, Montana, are in rocks near the margins of the Many granites show clear evidence of an intrusive
Near
granitic rocks of the Boulder batholith (Fig. 5-26). origin. For example, the contact between these granites
Salt Lake City, Utah, mined from the miner-
copper is and the adjacent country rock is sharp rather than gra-
alized rocks adjacent to the Bingham stock, a composite dational, and elongated mineral crystals are commonly
pluton composed of granite and granite porphyry. oriented parallel with the contact (Fig. 5-27). Some gra-
As noted above, batholiths appear to be emplaced in nitic rocks lack sharp contacts, however, and gradually
the cores of mountain ranges that resulted from plate change in character until they resemble the adjacent
collisions. However, large exposures of granitic rocks country rocks. Some of these have likely been altered by
also occur within the interiors of continents where granitization. Most geologists think that only small
mountains are absent. For example, a large area in Can- quantities of granite are formed by this process, and that
ada is underlain by extensive granitic rocks as well as by itcannot account for the huge granite batholiths of the
other rock types. These granites were apparently em- world. These geologists believe an igneous origin for
placed during mountain-building episodes that occurred granite is clear, but then they must deal with the space
"^ FIGURE 5-25 View of part of the Sierra Nevada

batholith in Yosemite National Park, California. "*»" FIGURE 5-26 A copper mine in Butte, Montana.

"** FIGURE 5-27 A sharp rather than gradational contact
between this granite and the dark-colored country rock
indicates that it had an intrusive origin. The granite also
contains an inclusion of the country rock.
problem. One solution, proposed by some geologists, is
way "^" FIGURE 5-28 Emplacement of a hypothetical

that these large igneous bodies melted their into the
crust. In other words, they simply assimilated the coun- batholith. As the magma rises, it shoulders aside and
deforms the country rock.
try rock as they moved upward (Fig. 5-10). The presence
of inclusions, especially near the tops of such intrusive
bodies, indicates that assimilation does occur. Neverthe-
less, as we noted previously, assimilation is a limited of the country rock fills the space beneath the magma
process because magma is cooled as country rock is as- (Fig. 5-28). A somewhat analogous situation was dis-
similated; calculations indicate that far too little heat is covered in which large masses of sedimentary rock
available in a magma to assimilate the necessarily huge called rock salt rise through the overlying rocks to form
quantities of country rock. salt domes.
Most geologists now agree that batholiths were em- Salt domes are recognized in several areas of the world
placed as magma and magma, being less dense
that the including the Gulf Coast of the United States. Layers of
than the rock from which it was derived, moved upward rock salt exist at some depth, but salt is less dense than
toward the surface. Recall, however, that granite is de- most other types of rock materials. Thus, when under
rived from viscous felsic magma and, thus, it rises pressure, it rises toward the surface even though it re-
slowly. It appears that the magma deforms and shoul- mains solid, and as it moves upward, it pushes aside and
ders aside the country rock, and as it rises further, some deforms the country rock (Fig. 5-29). Natural examples
"^ FIGURE 5-29 Three stages in the origin of a salt dome. Rock salt is a low-density
sedimentary rock that {a) when deeply buried (b) tends to rise toward the surface,
(c) pushing aside and deforming the country rock and forming a dome. Salt domes are
thought to originate in much the same manner as batholiths are intruded into the
Earth's crust.
Mechanics of Batholith Emplacement 127

H9
Lava -
Dikes
Dikes
•^ FIGURE 5-32 Intrusive
igneous activity at a spreading
ridge. The oceanic crust is
Gabbro
composed largely of vertical dikes
Magma of basaltic composition and gabbro
Mantle Oceanic crust that appears to have crystallized in
the upper part of a magma
chamber.
eral others are complex pegmatites (see Perspective 5-2). nuclei. The silica tetrahedra are inhibited from forming
Some complex pegmatites contain 300 different mineral the ordered configuration of minerals. However, some
species, afew of which are important economically. In nuclei do form, and because the appropriate ions in the
addition, several gem minerals such as emerald and liquid can move easily and attach themselves to a grow-
aquamarine, both of which are varieties of the silicate ing crystal, individual mineral grains have the opportu-
mineral beryl, and tourmaline are found in some peg- nity to grow to very large sizes (see Perspective 5-2).
matites. Many rare minerals of lesser value and well-
formed crystals of common minerals, such as quartz, are » PLATE TECTONICS AND
also mined and sold to collectors and museums.
The formation and growth of mineral-crystal nuclei
IGNEOUS ACTIVITY
in pegmatites are similar to those processes in magma, In Chapter 4 we discussed plate tectonics and the oc-
but with one critical difference: the vapor phase from currence of volcanism at spreading ridges (see Fig. 4-28)
which pegmatites crystallize inhibits the formation of and subduction zones (see Fig. 4-31). Plutons are also
Volcano ^ FIGURE 5-33 Generation of

magma and the emplacement of
plutons at a convergent plate
Magma
Trench margin.
Lithosphere-
Continental
crust f-Lithosphere
v
Oceanic crust
Asthenosphere
v
Upper mantle
1
kfili 11 liî
"«* FIGURE 3 Giant spodumene crystals in the Etta pegmatite in the Black Hills of South
Dakota. The crystal above the miner's head measures more than 12 mlong.
Jefferson, Lincoln, and Theodore Roosevelt on Mount Many of these complex pegmatites have been mined
Rushmore were carved into rocks of the Harney Peak for various resources. One of the best known is the
Granite (Fig. 2). These pegmatites formed about 1.7 Etta pegmatite, which contains crystals of spodumene,
billion years ago, during the Late Proterozoic Eon, a lithium-bearing silicate mineral, that commonly
when was emplaced as a composite pluton
the granite measure 1 to 3 m spodumene crystals
long; the larger
consisting of numerous sills and dikes. Subsequent are the size of large logs, and one was more than 14 -
upliftduring the Late Cretaceous Period resulted in m long (Fig. 3)! Micas and tin were originally mined
erosion of the overlying rocks, thus exposing the from the Etta pegmatite, and for many years it was a
granite and its associated pegmatities. major producer of lithium. It closed in 1960, however,
Most of the Black Hills pegmatites are simple, with because more economical sources of lithium are
compositions closely resembling that of the Harney available from arid region lake deposits.
Peak Granite; about 1% are complex pegmatites.
form of pillow lavas (see Fig. 4-14). (see Fig. 4-31). Some of this magma is erupted at the
Magmas generated by partial melting of mafic oce- surface and forms the typical large composite volcanoes
anic crust and silica-rich continental margin sediments that characterize such plate margins. Much of it, how-
at convergent plate margins where subduction takes ever, simply cools at depth as large plutons, especially
place are mostly intermediate and felsic in composition batholiths (Fig. 5-33, page 129).
Plate Tectonics and Igneous Activity 131

Common
*= CHAPTER SUMMARY 9.
discordant);
plutons include dikes (tabular geometry,
sills (tabular geometry, concordant);
1. Minerals crystallize from magma and lava when volcanic necks (cylindrical geometry, discordant);
small crystal nuclei form and grow. laccoliths (mushroom shaped, concordant); and
2. Volcanic rocks generally have aphanitic textures batholiths and stocks (irregular geometry,
because of their rapid cooling, whereas slow cooling discordant).

and phaneritic textures characterize plutonic rocks. 10. By definition batholiths must have at least 100 km 2
Igneous rocks with a porphyritic texture have of surface area; stocks are similar to batholiths but
mineral crystals of markedly different sizes. Other smaller. Many batholiths are large composite bodies
igneous rock textures include vesicular and consisting of many plutons emplaced over a long
pyroclastic. period of time.
3. The composition of igneous rocks is determined 11. Most batholiths appear to have formed in the cores
largely by the composition of the parent magma. It of mountain ranges during episodes of mountain
is possible, however, for an individual magma to building.
yield igneous rocks of differing compositions. 12. Some geologists think that granite batholiths are
4. Under ideal cooling conditions, a mafic magma emplaced when felsic magma moves upward and
yields a sequence of different minerals that are stable The
shoulders aside and deforms the country rock.
within specific temperature ranges. This sequence, upward movement of rock salt and the formation of
called Bowen's reaction series, consists of a salt domes provide a somewhat analogous situation.
discontinuous branch and a continuous branch. 13. Pegmatites are very coarse-grained igneous rocks,
a. The discontinuous branch contains only most of which have an overall composition similar
ferromagnesian minerals, each of which reacts to that of granite. Crystallization from a vapor-rich
with the melt to form the next mineral in the phase left over after the crystallization of granite
sequence. accounts for the very large mineral crystals in
b. The continuous branch involves changes only in pegmatites.
plagioclase feldspar as sodium replaces calcium in 14. Most plutons form in areas where volcanism occurs,
the crystal structure. such as at spreading ridges and above subduction

5. The ferromagnesian minerals form first in
that zones.
Bowen's reaction series and become
can settle 15. Ancient batholiths within the interiors of continents
concentrated near the base of a magma chamber or where no mountains are present probably represent
intrusive body. Such settling of iron- and the eroded "roots" of former mountain ranges.
magnesium-rich minerals causes a chemical change
in the remaining melt.
6. A magma can be changed compositionally when it
assimilates country rock, but this process usually has IMPORTANT TERMS
only a limited effect. Magma mixing may also bring
about compositional changes in magmas. aphanitic natural glass
7. Most igneous rocks are classified on the basis of assimilation pegmatite
their textures and composition. Two fundamental batholith phaneritic
groups of igneous rocks are recognized: volcanic or Bowen's reaction series phenocryst
extrusive rocks, most of which are aphanitic, and concordant pluton
plutonic or intrusive rocks, most of which are country rock plutonic rock
phaneritic. crystal settling porphyritic
a. Common volcanic rocks include rhyolite, dike pyroclastic
andesite, and basalt. Tuff is another common discordant sill
volcanic rock. extrusive igneous rock stock

b. Common plutonic rocks include granite, diorite, granitization stoping
and gabbro. igneous rock vesicle
8. Plutons are igneous bodies that formed in place or inclusion volcanic neck
were intruded into the Earth's crust. Various types of intrusive igneous rock volcanic pipe
plutons are classified by their geometry and whether laccolith volcanic rock
they are concordant or discordant. magma mixing

^ REVIEW QUESTIONS 13. An igneous rock possessing mineral grains large
enough to be seen without magnification is said to
1. The first minerals to crystallize from a mafic magma have a texture.
are: a. porphyritic; b. aphanitic;
a. quartz and potassium feldspar; c. fragmental; d. phaneritic; e. vesicular.
b. calcium-rich plagioclase and olivine; 14. What are the two major kinds of igneous rocks?
c. biotite and muscovite; d. amphibole and How do they differ?
pyroxene; e. andesite and basalt. 15. Describe the process whereby mineral crystals form
2. The most common aphanitic igneous rock is: and grow. Why are volcanic rocks generally
a. basalt; b. granite; c. pumice; aphanitic?
d. obsidian; e. rhyolite. 16. What is a natural glass, how does it form?
and
3. Volcanic rocks can usually be distinguished from 17. In terms of composition, how are granite and diorite
plutonic rocks by: similar and dissimilar?
a. color; b. composition; c. iron- 18. Compare and
contrast the continuous and
magnesium content; d. the size of their mineral discontinuous branches of Bowen's reaction series.
grains; e. specific gravity. 19. Describe how the composition of a magma can be
4. An example of a concordant pluton having a tabular changed by crystal settling; by assimilation. Cite
geometry is a: evidence indicating that both of these processes occur.
a. sill; b. batholith: c. volcanic neck; 20. Why is the oceanic crust composed of gabbro and
d. lava flow; e. dike. basalt? (Refer to the section "Plate Tectonics and
5. Most pegmatites are essentially: Volcanism" in Chapter 4.)
a light-colored gabbro; b. thick 21. What is a welded tuff?

accumulations of pyroclastic materials; c. very 22. How do dikes and sills differ? How is each
coarse-grained granite; d. rhyolite porphyry; emplaced?
e. cylindrical plutons. 23. Describe the sequence of events in the formation of
6. An igneous rock possessing a combination of a volcanic neck.
mineral grains with markedly different sizes is: 24. Briefly explain where and how batholiths form.
a. a natural glass; b. the product of very 25. What are pegmatites? Explain why some pegmatites
rapid cooling; c. formed by explosive volcanism; contain very large mineral crystals.
d. a porphyry; e. a tuff. 26. Are extrusive and intrusive igneous activity related,
7. Which of the following minerals is likely to be or are these completely separate phenomena?
separated from a mafic magma by crystal settling? 27. In what plate tectonic settings does intrusive igneous
a. sodium-rich plagioclase; b. muscovite; activity occur?
c. quartz; d. olivine; e. potassium

feldspar.
8. The process whereby
incorporates preexisting rock
a magma reacts with
is:
and ^ ADDITIONAL READINGS
a. crystal differentiation; b. granitization; Baker, D. S. 1983. Igneous rocks. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall.
c. plutonism; d. magma mixing;
assimilation.
Best, M.G. 1982. Igneous and metamorphic petrology. San
e.
Francisco, Calif.:W. H. Freeman and Co.
9. Igneous rocks composed largely of ferromagnesian
Dietrich, R. V, and B. J. Skinner. 1979. Rocks and rock
minerals are characterized as:
minerals. New York: John Wiley Sons. &
a. pyroclastic; b. ultramafic; Dietrich, R. V. and R. Wicander. 1983. Minerals, rocks, and
c intermediate; d. felsic; e. mafic. fossils. New York: John Wiley &c Sons.
10. Which of the following pairs of igneous rocks have Ernst, W G. 1969. Earth materials. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
the same mineral composition? Prentice-Hall.

a. granite-tuff; b. andesite-rhyolite; Hall, A. 1987. Igneous petrology. Essex, England: Longman
c. pumice-diorite; d. basalt-gabbro; Scientific and Technical.
peridotite-andesite. Hess, P. C. 1989. Origins of igneous rocks. Cambridge, Mass.:
e.
Harvard University Press.
11. Which of the following is a concordant pluton?
McBirney, A. R. 1984. Igneous petrology. San Francisco, Calif.:
a. sill; b. stock; c. volcanic neck;
Freeman, Cooper and Co.
d. dike; e. batholith.
MacKenzie, W. S., C. H. Donaldson, and C. Guilford. 1982.
12. Batholiths are composed mostly of what type of Atlas of igneous rocks and their textures. New York: Halsted
rock? Press.
a. granitic; b. gabbro; c. basalt; Middlemost, E. A. K. 1985. Magma and magmatic rocks.
d. andesite; e. peridotite. London: Longman Group.

CHAPTER 6
WEATHERING,
EROSION, AND
SOIL
W OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
MECHANICAL WEATHERING
Frost Action
Pressure Release
Thermal Expansion and Contraction
"^ Perspective 6-1: Bursting Rocks and Sheet
Joints
Activities of Organisms
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Solution
Oxidation
Hydrolysis
**" Perspective 6-2: Acid Rain
FACTORS CONTROLLING THE RATE OF
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Particle Size
Climate
Parent Material
SOIL
THE SOIL PROFILE
FACTORS CONTROLLING SOIL
FORMATION
Climate
Parent Material
Organic Activity
~^~ Guest Essay: Environmental Geology:
Sustaining the Earth
Relief and Slope
Time
SOIL EROSION
WEATHERING AND MINERAL
RESOURCES
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Weathering and erosion of sedimentary rocks

is responsible for the scenery in Bryce
Canyon National Park, Utah.

PROLOGUE where it settled on New York City, Washington, D.C.,
and other eastern cities as well as on ships some 480
km out in the Atlantic Ocean. The Soil Conservation
Service reported that dust storms of regional extent
^j^JlV^jj The stock market crash of 1929
occurred on 140 occasions during 1936 and 1937.
ushered in the Great Depression, a
Dust was everywhere. It seeped into houses,
timewhen millions of people were unemployed and
suffocated wild animals and livestock, and adversely
many had no means to provide food and shelter.
affected human healt ,
Urban areas were affected most severely by the

The dust was, of course, the material derived from
depression, but rural areas suffered as well, especially
during the great drought of the 1930s. Prior to the
the tilled lands; in other words, m jch of the soil in
many regions was simply blown away. Blowing dust
1930s, farmers had enjoyed a degree of success
was not the only problem; sand piled up along fences,
unparalleled in U.S. history. During World War I, the
drifted against houses and farm machinery, and
price of wheat soared, and after the war when Europe
covered what otherwise might have been productive
was recovering, the government subsidized wheat
prices. High prices and mechanized farming practices
resulted in more and more land being tilled. Even the
weather cooperated, and land in the western United FIGURE 6-1 The Dust Bowl of the 1930s. Drought
States that would otherwise have been marginally conditions extended far beyond the boundaries shown here,
but this area was particularly hard hit by drought and wind
productive was plowed. Deep-rooted prairie grasses
erosion.
that held the soil in place were replaced by
shallow-rooted wheat.
Beginning in about 1930, drought conditions
prevailed throughout the country; only two
states — Maine
and Vermont— were not
drought-stricken. Drought conditions varied from
moderate to severe, and the consequences of the
drought were particularly severe in the southern Great
Plains. Some rain fell, but in amounts insufficient to
maintain agricultural production. And since the land,
even marginal land, had been tilled, the native
vegetation was no longer available to keep the soil
from blowing away. And blow away it did — in huge
quantities. Nothing stopped the wind from removing
large quantities of top soil.
A large region in the southern Great Plains that
was particularly hard hit by the drought, dust storms,
and soil came to be known as the Dust Bowl.
erosion
Although boundaries were not well defined, it
its
included parts of Kansas, Colorado, and New Mexico

as well as the panhandles of Oklahoma and Texas
(Fig. 6-1); Bowl and its less affected
together the Dust Explanation
fringe area covered more than 400,000 km ! Severe wind erosion

Dust storms became common during the 1930s, in 1935-36
and some reached phenomenal sizes (Fig. 6-2). One of Severe wind erosion
in 1938
the largest storms occurred in 1934 and covered more
2 Severe wind erosion
than 3.5 million km It lifted dust nearly 5 km into
.
in 1940
the air, obscured the sky over large parts of six states,
Most severe wind erosion
and blew hundreds of millions of tons of soil eastward in 1935-38
Prologue 135
^ FIGURE 6-2 The huge dust
storm of April 14, 1935, also
known as Black Sunday, photo-
graphed at Hugoton, Kansas.
soils. Agricultural production fell precipitously in the farmers were deeply in debt— mostly because they had
Dust Bowl, farmers could not meet their mortgage purchased farm machinery in order to produce more
payments, and by 1935 tens of thousands were and benefit from the high prices. Feeling economic
leaving. Many of these people went west to California pressure because of their huge debts, they tilled
and became the migrant farm workers immortalized in marginal land, and employed few, if any, soil
John Steinbeck's novel The Grapes of Wrath. conservation measures.
The Dust Bowl was an economic disaster of great If the Dust Bowl has a bright side, it is that the
magnitude. Droughts had stricken the southern Great government, farmers, and the public in general no
Plains before, and have done so since, but the drought longer take soil for granted or regard it as a substance
of the 1930s was especially severe. Political and that needs no nurturing. In addition, a number of soil
economic factors also contributed to the disaster. Due conservation methods developed then have now
in part to the artificially inflated wheat prices, many become standard in agriculture.
^ INTRODUCTION
the weathered materials
water, wind
is known as erosion.
(see the Prologue), or glaciers
Running
commonly
Weathering is the physical breakdown (disintegration) transport the weathered materials elsewhere where they
and chemical alteration (decomposition) of rocks and are deposited as sediment, which may become sedimen-
minerals at or near the Earth's surface. It is the process tary rock (Fig. 6-3). Whether they are eroded or not,
whereby rocks and minerals are physically and chemi- weathered rock materials can also be further modified to
cally altered such that they are more nearly in equilib- form a soil. Thus, weathering provides the raw materials
rium with a new set of environmental conditions. For for both sedimentary rocks and soils. Weathering is also
example, many rocks form within the Earth's crust important in the origin of some mineral resources such
where little or no water or oxygen is present and where as aluminum ores, and it is responsible for the enrich-
temperatures, pressures, or both are high. At or near the ment of other deposits of economic importance.
surface, however, the rocks are exposed to low temper- Weathering is such a pervasive phenomenon that
atures and pressures and are attacked by atmospheric many people take it for granted or completely overlook
gases, water, acids, and organisms. it. Nevertheless, it occurs continuously although its rate
Geologists are interested in the phenomenon of and impact vary from area to area or even within the
weathering because it is an essential part of the rock same area. Rocks are not homogeneous throughout; be-
cycle (Fig. 6-3). The parent material, or rock being cause they vary in structure and composition, some
weathered, is broken down into smaller pieces, and weather more rapidly than others. This differential
some of its constituent minerals are dissolved or altered weathering, as weathering at different rates is called, yields
and removed from the weathering site. The removal of uneven surfaces. In Bryce Canyon National Park in Utah,
136 Chapter 6 Weathering, Erosion, and Soil

FIGURE 6-3 The rock cycle, with emphasis on weathering.
differential weathering and erosion of sedimentary rocks "^ FIGURE 6-4 The scenery of Bryce Canyon National
cut by intersecting fractures have produced oddly shaped Park in Utah is the result of differential weathering and
rock formations (Fig. 6-4).Rocks in natural exposures and erosion of sedimentary rocks.
in road cuts, quarries, mines, and tombstones disintegrate
and decompose, as do the rocklike materials of roadways,
sidewalks, and foundations (Fig. 6-5).
Two types of weathering are recognized, mechanical
and chemical. Both types occur simultaneously at the
weathering site, during erosion and transport, and even
in the environments where weathered materials are
deposited.
MECHANICAL WEATHERING /;Wy*

Mechanical weathering occurs when physical forces
break rock materials into smaller pieces that retain the
chemical composition of the parent material. For exam-
Mechanical weathering 137

"^ FIGURE 6-6 Mechanically weathered granite. The
sandy material consists of small pieces of granite (rock
fragments) and minerals such as quartz and feldspars
liberated from the parent material.
pie, granite may be mechanically weathered to yield

smaller pieces of granite, or disintegration may liberate
individual mineral grains from it (Fig. 6-6). The physical
processes responsible for mechanical weathering include
""" FIGURE 6-5 Weathering of the rocklike material of a frost action, pressure release, thermal expansion and
bridge. (Photo courtesy of R. V. Dietrich.) contraction, and the activities of organisms.
Frost Action /F***+ c^cd^^y / nticsny ne*"f*

"^ FIGURE 6-7 Frost wedging occurs when water seeps
into cracksand expands as it freezes. Repeated freezing and Frost action involves the repeated freezing and thawing
thawing pry loose angular pieces of rock. of water in cracks and crevices in rocks. When water
seeps into a crack and freezes, it expands by about 9%
and exerts great force on the walls of the crack, thus
widening and extending it by frost wedging. As a con-
sequence of repeated freezing and thawing, pieces of
rock are eventually detached from the parent material
(Fig. 6-7). Frost wedging is particularly effective if the
crack is convoluted. If the crack is wedge-
a simple
shaped opening, much of the force of expansion is re-
leased upward toward the surface.
Frost action is most effective in areas where temper-
atures commonly fluctuate above and below freezing.
For example, in the high mountains of the western
United States and Canada, frost action is very effective
even during summer months. In the tropics and in areas
where water is permanently frozen, frost action is of
little or no importance.
The debris produced by frost wedging in mountains

commonly accumulates as large cones of talus lying at
the bases of slopes (Fig. 6-8). The materials that form
the talus are simply angular pieces of rock from a larger

a
"^ FIGURE 6-8 Talus in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. "^ FIGURE 6-9 Sheet join ts in granite in the Sierra
•— Nevada of California.
body that has been mechanically weathered. Most rocks

have a system of fractures called joints along which frost Thermal Expansion and Contraction
action is particularly effective. Water seeps along the
During thermal expansion and contraction the volume
joint surfaces and eventually wedges pieces of rock
of solids, such as rocks, changes in response to heating
loose; these then fall downslope to accumulate with
and cooling. where the temperature may
In a desert,
other loosened rocks.
vary as much as 30°C one day, rocks expand when
in
In the phenomenon known mass of
as frost heaving, a
heated and contract as they cool. Expansion jnd co n-
sediment or soil undergoes freezing, expansion, and ac-
t raction do not occur uniformly throughout rocks, h ow-
tual lifting, followed by thawing, contraction, and low-
ever. For one thing, a rock is a poor conductor of heat,
ering of the mass. Frost heaving is particularly evident
so its outside heats up more than the inside. Conse-
where water freezes beneath roadways and sidewalks.
quently, the surface expands more than the interior,
causing stresses that may cause fracturing. Furthermore,
Pressure Release dark minerals absorb heat faster than light-colored min-
erals, so differential expansion occurs even between the
Pressure release is a mechanical weathering process that
mineral grains of some rocks.
is especially evident in rocks that formed as deeply bur-
ied intrusive bodies such as batholiths, but it occurs in
other types of rocks as well. When a batholith forms, the
"•" FIGURE 6-10 Exfoliation domes in Yosemite National
magma under tremendous pressure (the
crystallizes
Park, California.
weight of the overlying rock) and is stable under these
pressure conditions. When the batholith is uplifted and
the overlying rock is stripped away by erosion, the pres-
sure is reduced. However, the rock contains energy that
is released by expansion and the formation of sheet
joints, large fractures that more or less parallel the rock
surface (Fig. 6-9). Slabs of rock bounded by sheet joints
may slip, slide, or spall (break) off of the host rock—
process called exfoliation— and accumulate as talus.
The large rounded domes of rock resulting from this
process are exfoliation domes; examples are found in

Yosemite National Park in California and Stone Moun-
tain in Georgia (Fig. 6-10). Sheet-jointing and exfolia-
tion constitute an engineering problem in many areas
Mechanical Weathering 139

Perspective 6-1
BURSTING ROCKS AND

SHEET JOINTS
The fact that solid rockcan expand and produce
fractures well-known phenomenon. In deep mines,
is a
for example, masses of rock suddenly detach from the
sides of the excavation, often with explosive violence.
Such rock bursts generally occur below depths of
about 600 m; spectacular rock bursts have been
recorded in deep gold mines in South Africa and
Canada and in zinc mines in Idaho. Obviously, rock
bursts and related phenomena, such as less violent
popping, pose a danger to mine workers. In South
Africa, about 20 miners are killed by rock bursts
every year.
In some quarrying operations,* the removal of
surface materials to a depth of only 7 or 8 m has led
to the formation of sheet joints in the underlying rock
(Fig. 1). At quarries in Vermont and Tennessee, for
example, the excavation of marble exposed rocks that
were formerly buried under great pressure. When the
overlying rock was removed, the marble expanded "»*" FIGURE 2 Sheet joints in granite of the Sierra Nevada
and sheet joints formed. Some slabs of rock that were in California.
bounded by sheet joints burst so violently that
quarrying machines weighing more than a ton were
abandoned because fracturing rendered the stone
thrown from their tracks, and some quarries had to be
useless.
Sheet joints paralleling the walls of the Vaiont
*A quarry is a surface excavation, generally for the extraction of
River valley in Italy contributed to the worst reservoir
building stone.
disaster in history. On October 9, 1963, more than
FIGURE 1 Sheet joints formed by
rî" expansion in the
240 million m 3
of rock slid into the Vaiont Reservoir.
Mount Airy Granite in North Carolina. (Photo courtesy of Although several factors contributed to this slide, it
W. D. Lowry.) moved The slide

partly along a system of sheet joints.
displaced water in the reservoir, causing a large wave
to overtop the dam and flood the downstream area
where nearly 3,000 people drowned. (See Perspective
15-2 for a more complete discussion of the Vaiont
Reservoir disaster.)
The Sierra Nevada of California are composed of
granitic rocks, many of which contain numerous sets
of sheet joints parallel to the canyon walls. Large
slabs of granite bounded by sheet joints lie on steeply
inclined surfaces above highways and railroad tracks
where they pose a danger to the road or trackway
below (Fig. 2). Occasionally, a mass of this
unsupported rock slides or falls, blocking highways
and railroad tracks.

($1 * K'f^ka^^
"^ FIGURE 6-12 The contribution of organisms to

mechanical weathering. Tree roots enlarge cracks in rocks.
bring material from depth to the surface where further
^ FIGURE 6-11 This desert rock appears to have been

weathering
worms
may occur. Even materials ingested by
are further reduced in size, and animal burrows
weathered by repeated heating and cooling.
allow gases and water to have easier access to greater
depths. The roots of plants, especially large bushes and
Repeated thermal expansion and contraction is a trees, wedge themselves into cracks in rocks and further
common phenomenon, but are the forces generated suf- widen them (Fig. 6-12). Tree roots that grow under or
ficient to overcome the internal strength of a rock? Ex- through sidewalks and foundations may do consider-
periments in which rocks are heated and cooled repeat- able damage.
edly to simulate years of such activity indicate that

thermal expansion and contraction is not an important
agent of mechanical weathering.* Despite these experi-
^ CHEMICAL WEATHERING jdwrttd M™*-**
mental results, many rocks in deserts do indeed appear Chemical weathering is the process whereby rock ma-
to show the effects of this process (Fig. 6-11). terials aredecomposed by chemical alteration of the
Daily temperature variation is the most common parent material. A number of clay minerals, for exam-
cause of alternate expansion and contraction, but these ple, form as the chemically altered products of other
changes occur over periods of hours. In contrast, fire can minerals. Some minerals are completely decomposed
cause very rapid expansion. During a forest fire, rocks during chemical weathering, but others, which are more
may heat very rapidly, especially near the surface since resistant, are simply liberated from the parent material.
they conduct heat so poorly. The heated surface layer Such weathering is accomplished by the action of atmo-
expands more rapidly than the interior, and thin sheets spheric, gases, especially oxygen,and water and acids .
paralleling the rock surface become detached. Organisms also play an important role in chemical
weathering. Rocks that have Hcii£ns (co mposite orga n-
isms consisting of fungi and algae growing on their
)
Activities of Organisms
surfaces undergo more extensive chemical alteration
Animals, plants, and bacteria all participate in the me- than lichen-free rocks (Fig. 6-13). Plants remove ions
chanical and chemical alteration of rocks. Burrowing from soil water and reduce the chemical stability of soil
animals, such as worms, reptiles, rodents, and many minerals, and their roots release organic acids.
others, constantly mix soil and sediment particles and
Solution
'Thermal expansion and contraction may be a significant
mechanical weathering process on theMoon where extreme During solution the ions of a substance become disso-
temperature changes occur quickly. ciated from one another in a liquid, and the solid sub-
Chemical Weathering 141

A There are several sources of carbon dioxide that may
combine with water and react to form acid solutions.
The atmosphere is mostly nitrogen and oxygen, but
about 0.03% is carbon dioxide, causing rain to be
slightly acidic. Human activities have added materials to
the atmosphere that contribute to the problem of acid
rain (see Perspective 6-2). Carbon dioxide is also pro-
duced in soil by the decay of organic matter and the
respiration of organisms, so groundwater is also gener-
Climate affects the acidity, however,
ally slightly acidic.
with arid regions tending to have alkaline groundwater
(that is, it has a low concentration of hydrogen ions).
Whatever the source of carbon dioxide, once an

acidic solution is present, calcite rapidly dissolves ac-
"^ FIGURE 6-13
Lichen-covered rocks are chemically cording to the following reaction:
weathered more rapidly than lichen-free rocks.
CaC0 3 + H 2 + C0 2 ?± Ca" + 2HC0 3 -
calcite water carbon calcium bicarbonate
dioxide
stance dissolves. Water is a remarkable solvent because
its molecules have an asymmetric shape; they consist of Because of the dissociation of the ions in carbonic acid,
one oxygen atom with two hydrogen atoms arranged this reaction may also be written as
such that the angle between the two hydrogens is about
CaC0 3 + H+ HCO3- ^±
104 degrees (Fig. 6-14). Because of this asymmetry, the calcite hydrogen bicarbonate
oxygen end of the molecule retains a slight negative elec- ion ion
trical charge, whereas the hydrogen end retains a slight
When a solu ble sjjbsiance
Ca ++ + 2HCCV
positive charge. such as the
calcium bicarbonate
m ineral halit e
(
NfaQ) comes in contact with a water
molecule7~tne positively charged sodium ions are at-
tracted to the negative end of the water molecule, and The dissolution of the calcite in limestone and marble
the negatively charged chloride ions are attracted to the has had dramatic effects in many places ranging from
positively charged end of the water molecule (Fig. 6-14). small cavities to large caverns such as Mammoth Cave in
Thus, ions are liberated from the crystal structure, and Kentucky and Carlsbad Caverns in New Mexico (see
the solid dissolves. Chapter 17).
'
Most mi nerals are not very soluble in pure water
because the attractiveTorces~oTwater molecules are not
Oxidation
suffic ient to overcome theTorces between particles in
minerals. For example, the mTneraTcalcite (CaC0 3 ), the The term oxidation has a variety ofmeanings to chem-
major constituent of the sedimentary rock limestone and ists, but in chemical weathering meaning is more
its
the metamorphic rock marble, is practically insoluble in Oxidation refers

restricted. to reactions with oxygen to
pure water, but rapidly dissolves if a small amount of form oxides or, if water is present, hydroxides. For ex-
acid is present. An easy way to make water acidic is by ample, iron rusts when it combines with oxygen to form
dissociating the ions of carbonic acid as follows: the iron oxide hematite:
-
H2 + C0 2 ?± H 2 C0 3 ^ H +
+ HC0 3
4Fe
water carbon carbonic hydrogen bicarbonate
dioxide acid ion ion
According to this chemical equation, water and carbon

dioxide combine to form carbonic acid, a small amount
of which dissociates to yield hydrogen and bicarbonate
ions. The concentration of hydrogen ions determines the
acidity of a solution; the more hydrogen ions present,
the stronger the acid.
Water molecule
©o© o> n o
o©p
©o®
D o ^ FIGURE 6-14 (a) The
©o© structure of a water molecule.

asymmetric arrangement of the
hydrogen atoms causes the molecule
The
to have a slight positive electrical

charge at its hydrogen end and a
slight negative charge at its oxygen
end. (£>) The dissolution of sodium
(b)
chloride (NaCl) in water.
phiboles, and biotite. Iron in these minerals combines place p ositive ions in minerals. Such replacement
with oxygen to form the reddish iron oxide hematite changes the composition oFmuierals by liberating solu-
(Fe 2 3 or the yellowish or brown hydroxide limonite.
) ble salts and iron that then may be oxidized.
The and red colors of many soils and
yellow, brown, As an illustration of hydrolysis, consider the chemical
sedimentary rocks are caused by the presence of small alteration of feldspars. Potassium feldspars such as or-
amounts of hematite or limonite. thoclase (KAlSi 3 8) are common in many rock types, as
An oxidation reaction of particular concern in some are the plagioclase feldspars (which vary in composition
areas is the oxidation of iron sulfides such as the mineral from CaAl 2 Si 2 8 to NaAlSi 3 8 ). All feldspars are
pyrite (FeS 2 ). Pyrite is commonly associated with coal, framework silicates, but when altered, they yield soluble
so in mine tailings* pyrite oxidizes to form sulfuric acid salts and clay minerals, such as kaolinite, which are
(H 2 S0 4 and iron oxide. Acid soils and waters in coal-

) sheet silicates.
mining areas are produced in this manner and present a The chemical weathering of potassium feldspar by
serious environmental hazard (Fig. 6-15). hydrolysis occurs as follows:
Hydrolysis 2KAlSi 3 O s +
orthoclase
Hydrolysis is the chemical reaction between the hydro-
+
gen (H ) ions and hydroxyl (OH~) ions of water and a
mineral's ions. In hydrolysis hydrogen ions actually re-
"Tailings are the rock debris of mining; they are considered too
poor for further processing and are left as heaps on the surface.
Perspective 6-2
ACID RAIN
Atmospheric pollution one of the consequences of
is form nitric acid (HN0 3 ). Although carbon dioxide
industrialization. Several of themost industrialized and nitrogen gases contribute to acid rain, the greatest
nations, such as the United States, Canada, and the culprit is sulfur dioxide (S0 2 ), which is primarily
Soviet Union, have actually reduced their emissions released by burning coal that contains sulfur. Once in
into the atmosphere, but many developing nations the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen to
continue to increase theirs. Some of the consequences form sulfuric acid (H 2 S0 4 ), the main component of
of atmospheric pollution include smog, possible acid rain.
disruption of the ozone layer, global warming (see The phenomenon of acid rain was first recognized
Chapter 18), and acid rain. in England by Robert Angus Smith in 1872, about a
As we noted previously, water and carbon dioxide century after the beginning of the Industrial
in the atmosphere react to form carbonic acid that Revolution. It was not until 1961, however, that acid
dissociates and yields hydrogen ions and bicarbonate rain become a public environmental concern. At that
ions. The net effect of this reaction is that all rainfall time, it was realized that acid rain is corrosive and
is slightly acidic. Thus, acid rain is the direct irritating, kills vegetation, and has a detrimental effect
consequence of the self-cleansing nature of the on surface waters. Since then, the effects of acid rain
atmosphere; that is, many suspended particles of have been recognized in Europe, especially in Eastern
gases in the atmosphere are soluble in water and are Europe where so much coal is burned, the eastern
removed from the atmosphere during precipitation United States, and southeastern Canada. During the
events. last 10 years, the developed countries have made
Several natural processes, including volcanism and efforts to reduce the impact of acid rain; in the United
the activities of soil bacteria, introduce gases into the States the Clean Air Act of 1990 outlined specific
atmosphere that cause acid rain. Human activities, steps to reduce the emissions of pollutants that cause
however, produce added atmospheric stress. For acid rain.
example, the burning of fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, The areas most affected by acid rain invariably lie
and coal) has added carbon dioxide to the downwind from coal-burning power plants or other
atmosphere. Nitrogen oxide (NO) from internal industries that emit sulfur gases. Chemical plants and
combustion engines and nitrogen dioxide (N0 2 ), smelters (plants where metal ores are refined)
which is formed in the atmosphere from NO, react to discharge large quantities of sulfur gases and other
In this reaction hydrogen ions attack the ions in the problem because they inhibit the reaction of detergents
orthoclas e structure, a ndsome liberate d ions are inco r- with dirt and precipitate as scaly mineral matter in wa-
p orated in a dev elo ping clay mi neral. The potassium ter pipes and water heaters.
andbicar bonate ions go into solution and comSne-to

orm
f a soluble salt . On the right side of the equation is
excess silica that would not fit into the crystal structure ^ FACTORS CONTROLLING THE
of the clay mineral. Such dissolved an important
silica is
source of cement in sedimentary rocks (see Chapter 7).

RATE OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Plagioclase feldspars are altered by hydrolysis in the Chemical weathering processes operate on the surfaces
same way as orthoclase. The only difference is that sol- of particles; that is, chemically weathered rocks or min-
uble calcium and sodium salts are formed rather than erals are altered from the outside inward. Several factors
potassium salt. In fact, these dissolved salts are what including particle size, climate, and parent material con-
make hard water hard. Calcium salts in water are a trol the rate of chemical weathering.

substances such as heavy metals. The effect of acid plants built before 1975 have no emission controls
rain in these areas may be modified by the existing and must be addressed if emissions are to be reduced
geology. For example, if an area is underlain by to an acceptable level. The most effective way to
limestone or alkaline soils, the acid rain tends to be reduce emissions from these older plants is with
neutralized by the limestone or soil. Areas underlain flue-gas desulfurization (FGD), a process that removes
by granite, on the other hand, are acidic to begin with up to 90% of sulfur dioxide from exhaust gases.
and have little or no effect on the rain. There are drawbacks to FGD, however. One is that
The effects of acid rain vary. Small lakes become some plants are simply too old to be profitably
more acid as they lose the ability to neutralize the acid upgraded; the 85-year-old Phelps Dodge copper
rainfall. As the lakes increase in acidity, various types smelter in Douglas, Arizona, closed in 1987 for this
of organisms disappear, and, in some cases, all reason. Other problems with FGD include disposal of
life-forms eventually die. Acid rain also causes sulfur wastes, the lack of control on nitrogen gas
increased weathering of limestone and marble (recall emissions, and reduced efficiency of the power plant,
that both are soluble in weak acids) and, to a lesser which must burn several percent more coal.
degree, sandstone. Such effects are particularly visible Other ways to control emissions include the
on buildings, monuments, and tombstones; a notable conservation of electricity; the less that is used, the
example is Gettysburg National Military Park in lower the emissions of pollutants. Natural gas
Pennsylvania, which lies in an area that receives some contains practically no sulfur, but converting to this
of the most acidic rain in the country. alternate energy source would require the installation
While the effects on vegetation in the immediate of expensive new furnaces in existing plants.
areas of sulfur-gas-emitting industries are apparent, Acid rain is problem that knows no
a global
some people have questioned whether acid rain has national boundaries. currents may blow
Wind
much effect on forests and crops distant from such pollutants from the source in one country to another
sources. Nevertheless, many forests in the eastern where the effects are felt. Developed nations have the
United States show signs of stress that cannot be economic resources to reduce emissions, but many
attributed to other causes. In Germany's Black Forest, underdeveloped nations cannot afford to do so.
the needles of firs, spruce, and pines are turning Furthermore, many nations have access to only
yellow and falling off. high-sulfur coal and cannot afford to install FGD
Currently, about 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide devices. Nevertheless, acid rain can be controlled only
are released yearly into the atmosphere in the United by the cooperation of all nations contributing to the
States, mostly from coal-burning power plants. Power problem.
Particle Size
ume remains the same at 1 m
3
.
jq Because chemical weathering affects particle surfaces, We can make two important statements regarding the
the greater the surface area, the more effective is the block in Figure 6-16. First, as it is split into a number of
weathering. It is important to realize that small particles smaller blocks, its total surface area increases. Second,
have larger surface area s compared t o t heir volume_than the smaller any single block is, the more surface area it
do large particles. Notice in Figure 6-16 that a block has compared to its volume (Fig. 6-16). Because chem -
~melisuring~TTfroh a side has a total surface area of 6 m ,
ical weather ing is a su rface proce ss, the fact that small
but when the block is broken into measuring

particles objects have proportionately more surface area com-
2
0.5 m on a side, the total surface area increases to 12 m . pared to volume than do large objects has profound
And if these particles are all reduced to 0.25 m on a side, implications. We can conclude that mechanical weath-
the total surface area increases to 24 m Note that while
2
. ering,which reduces the size of particles, contributes to
the surface area in this example increases, the total vol- chemical weathering by exposing more surface area.
Factors Controlling the Rate of Chemical Weathering 145

more effective in tropical regions than in arid and arctic
regions because temperatures and rainfall are high and
evaporation rates are low. In addition, vegetation and
animal life are much more abundant in the tropics than
in arid or cold regions. Consequently, the effects of
weathering extend to depths of several tens of meters in
the tropics, but commonly extend only centimeters to a
few meters deep in arid and arctic regions. One should
however, that chemical weathering goes on ev-
realize,
erywhere, except perhaps where Earth materials are per-
manently frozen.
Parent Material
It should be apparent that some rocks are chemically

more stable than others and thus are not altered as rap-
idly by chemical processes. For example, the metamor-
phic rock quartzite, composed of quartz, is an extremely
stable substance that alters very slowly compared to

most other rock types. In contrast, rocks such as granite,
which contain large amounts of feldspar minerals, de-
compose rapidly because feldspars are chemically unsta-
ble. Ferromagnesian minerals are also chemically unsta-
ble and, when chemically weathered, yield clays, iron
oxides, and ions in solution. In fact, the stability of com-
"^ FIGURE 6-15 The oxidation of pyrite in mine tailings
mon minerals is just the opposite of their order of crys-
forms acid water as in this small stream. More than tallization inBowen's reaction series (Fig. 6-17): the
11,000 km of U.S. streams, mostly in the Appalachian minerals that form last in this series are chemically sta-
region, are contaminated by abandoned coal mines that leak ble, whereas those that form early are easily altered by
sulfuric acid.
chemical processes because they are most out of equi-
librium with their conditions of formation.
One manifestation of chemical weathering is spheroi-
dal weathering (Fig. 6-18). In spheroidal weathering, a
Climate
stone, even one that is rectangular to begin with, weath-
Most chemical processes occur more rapidly at high ers to form a spheroidal shape because that is the most
temperatures and in the presence of liquids. Accord- stable shape it can assume. The reason is that on a rect-
ingly, it is not surprising that chemical weathering is angular stone the corners are attacked by weathering
*~ FIGURE 6-16 Particle size and Surface area = 6 m- Surface area = 12 m2

chemical weathering. As a rock is
reduced into smaller and smaller
particles,
but its
its surface area increases
volume remains the same.
i
Thus, in (a) the surface area is 6 m2 ,
2
in {b) it is 12 m
, and in (c) 24 m2 ,
but the volume remains the same at

1 m 3
Accordingly, small particles
.
have more surface area in proportion

to their volume than do large
particles.
(a) (b) (c)

: ' ; :
.
--
:
.--' :
1 1
I i
i
A
1GL"RE 6-1" torn*
:
- -.' r- i- i --t— .:
• «-f- :-: -
rr _
— :" ::: : ;: r. .z . : r.i :
- - :-i i.-i :-_• - :-"
:::::: zr.iztr.i.. iztz. i .:.
.- _::::: zz.'r.z :: : zr
~
tatrz i. ..-•: rr~ rr" :~r
the life above. Most land-
endent on soil for their ex-
nutrients and most of their
: ;„__-.£ ::-;.- :::;:: i -
: .-r. : rser ;; .r. zzir : . - : : --j.zz~.z-Zi

- -j.--.-n-i. ::.: ;.i
its. Fluids follow the joint . i.'.z.
_ir :
-:-: : jr.izi r. : ;•:- : :oocL fertile soil for garden-
-19. r.=. ; r.i Truer.: :: sue.- is
is humus — _~ _
: organic matter, b
SOIL -.:: -zt.zjzi- zr.z : ;"--
Inmost places the land surface is covered by a
.-;::•:..::::: :::: ir.J r..:.::i. :::r:::: ; ji ..;_ re- ~:.iin onh
gootfa. Regouth may consist of volcanic ash, sediment an essential source of ;
deposited by wind, streams, or glaciers, or weathered : -r_rr ztztT.T. : r.
::_>: — iztzi. z:—.tz s. z.izz if i zzi.ZJz S ~ e re- :
>:_ 14"
"^ FIGURE 6-18 Spheroidal weathering, (a) The rectangular blocks outlined by joints
are attacked by chemical weathering processes, (£>) but the corners and edges are
weathered most rapidly, (c) When a block has been weathered so that it is spherical, its
entire surface is weathered evenly, and no further change in shape occurs.
and silt-sized mineral grains, especially quartz, but other the granite and is converted to soil, the soil thus formed
weathered materials may be present as well. Such solid is residual. In contrast, transported soils are developed
particles are important because they hold soil particles on weathered material eroded and transported from the
apart, allowing oxygen and water to circulate more weathering site to a new location (Fig. 6-20b). Many
freely. Clay minerals are also important constituents of fertile transported soils of the Mississippi River valley
soils and aid in the retention of water as well as supply- and the Pacific Northwest developed on deposits of
ing nutrients to plants. Soils with excess clay minerals, windblown dust called loess (see Chapter 19).
however, drain poorly and are sticky when wet and hard
when dry.
Residual soils are formed where parent material has
=» THE SOIL PROFILE
weathered (Fig. 6-20a). For example, if a body of granite Soil-forming processes begin at the surface and work
weathers, and the weathering residue accumulates over downward, so the upper layer of soil is more altered
from the parent material than the layers below. Ob-
served in vertical cross section, a soil consists of distinct
"^ FIGURE 6-19 Spheroidal weathering of granite in layers or soil horizons that differ from one another in
Australia.
texture, structure, composition, and color (Fig. 6-21).
WWMV^Wg^: Starting from the top, the horizons

designated O, A, B, and C, but the boundaries between
horizons are transitional rather than sharp.
typical of soils are
The O horizon, which is generally only a few centi-

meters thick, consists of organic matter. The remains of
plant materials are clearly recognizable in the upper part
of the O horizon, butlower part consists of humus.
its
Horizon A, lying beneath horizon O, is called top soil
(Fig. 6-21). This layer contains more organic matter

than those below. It is also characterized by intense bi-
ological activity because plant roots, bacteria, fungi, and
animals such as worms are abundant. Threadlike soil
bacteria give freshly plowed soil its earthy aroma. In
soils developed over a long period of time, the A horizon

(a) (b)
^p" FIGURE 6-20 (a)Residual soil developed on bedrock near Denver, Colorado.
(b) Transported soil developed on windblown dust deposit.
consists mostly of clays and chemically stable minerals symbols for aluminum (Al) and iron (Fe). Because these
such as quartz. Water percolating down through hori- soils form where abundant moisture is present, most of
zon A dissolves the soluble minerals that were originally the soluble minerals have been leached from horizon A.
present and carries them away or downward to lower Although it may be gray, horizon A is generally dark
by a process called leaching.
levels in the soil colored because of abundant organic matter, and
Horizon B, or subsoil, contains fewer organisms and aluminum-rich clays and iron oxides tend to accumulate
less organic matter than horizon A (Fig. 6-21). Horizon in horizon B (Fig. 6-22a).
B is also called the zone of accumulation, because sol- Pedocals are soils characteristic of arid and semiarid
uble minerals leached from horizon A accumulate as regions and are found in much of the western United
irregular masses. If horizon A is stripped away by ero- States, especially the southwest (Fig. 6-22b). Pedocal de-
sion leaving horizon B exposed, plants do not grow as rives its name in part from the first three letters of calcite.
well, and if horizon B is clayey, it is harder when dry and Such soils contain less organic matter than pedalfers, so
stickier when wet than other soil horizons. horizon A is generally lighter colored and contains more
Horizon C, the lowest soil layer, consists of partially unstable minerals because of less intense chemical weath-
altered to unaltered parent material (Fig. 6-21). In horizons
A and B, the composition and texture of the parent material
have been so thoroughly altered that the parent material is
no longer recognizable. In contrast, rock fragments and "''' FIGURE 6-21 The soil horizons in a fully developed
mineral grains of the parent material retain their identity in or mature soil. «t Ô '
J;.. ,
horizon C. Horizo n C contains litt le organic matte r.
Horizons
^ FACTORS CONTROLLING SOIL O = thin layer of organic matter
FORMATION
A = zone of leaching
Climate
It has long been acknowledged that climate is the single
B = zone of accumulation
most important factor in soil origins. A very general
classification recognizes three major soil types charac-
teristic of different climatic settings. Soils that develop in C = partially altered to
unaltered parent material
humid regions such as the eastern United States and
much of Canada are pedalfers, a name derived from the
Greek word pedon, meaning soil, and from the chemical
Factors Controlling Soil Formation 149

-^ FIGURE 6-23 Caliche on Mormon Mesa in southern
Nevada.
soil water evaporation is intense yields alkali soils that

are so alkaline that they cannot support plants.
Laterite is a soil formed in the tropics where chemical
weathering is intense and leaching of soluble minerals is
complete. Such soils are red, commonly extend to depths
of several tens of meters, and are composed largely of
aluminum hydroxides, iron oxides, and clay minerals;
even quartz, a chemically stable mineral, is generally
leached out (Fig. 6-24a).
Although laterites support lush vegetation, they are

not very fertile. The native vegetation is sustained by
nutrients derived mostly from the surface layer of or-

ganic matter, but little humus is present in the soil itself
because bacterial action destroys it. When such soils are
cleared of their native vegetation, the existing surface

accumulation of organic matter is rapidly oxidized, and
there is little to replace it. Consequently, when societies
practicing slash-and-burn agriculture clear these soils,
they can raise crops for only a few years at best. Then
the soil is completely depleted of plant nutrients, the
clay-rich laterite bakes brick hard in the tropical sun,
and the farmers move on to another area where the
process is repeated.
One aspect of laterites is of great economic importance.
"^ FIGURE 6-22 (a) Pedalfer is the type of soil that If the parent material is rich in aluminum, aluminum hy-
develops in humid regions, whereas {b) pedocal is typical of droxides may
accumulate in horizon B as bauxite, the ore
arid and semiarid regions. of aluminum (Fig. 6-24b). Because such intense chemical
weathering currently does not occur in North America, we
are almost totally dependent on foreign sources for alumi-
ering. As soil water evaporates, calcium carbonate num ores. Some aluminum do exist in Arkansas, Al-
ores
leached from above commonly precipitates in horizon B abama, and Georgia, which had a tropical climate about
where it forms irregular masses of caliche (Fig. 6-23). 50 million years ago, but currently it is cheaper to import
Precipitation of sodium salts in some desert areas where aluminum ore than to mine these deposits.

(a) (b)
"^ FIGURE 6-24 (a) Laterite, shown here in Madagascar, is a deep, red soil that
forms response to intense chemical weathering in the tropics, {b) Bauxite, the ore of
in
aluminum, forms in horizon B of laterites derived from aluminum-rich parent materials.
(Photo courtesy of Sue Monroe.)
Parent Material Much humus in soils is provided by grasses or leaf

litter decompose to obtain food. In
that microorganisms
The same rock type can yield different soils in different
so doing, they break down organic compounds within
climatic regimes, and in the same climatic regime the
plants and release nutrients back into the soil. Addition-
same soils can develop on different rock types. Thus, it
ally, organic acids produced by decaying soil organisms
seems that climate is more important than parent ma-
are important in further weathering of parent materials
terial in determining the type of soil that develops. Nev-
and soil particles.
ertheless, rock type does exert some control. For exam-
Burrowing animals constantly churn and mix soils,
ple, the metamorphic rock quartzite will have a thin soil
and their burrows provide avenues for gases and water.
over it because it is chemically stable, whereas an adja-
Soil organisms, especially some types of bacteria, are
cent body of granite will have a much deeper soil (Fig.
6-25).
^ SoiHhat develops on basalt will be rich in iron oxides
because basalt contains abundant ferromagnesi an min - "^ FIGURE 6-25 The influence of parent material on soil
erals,buTfocksTacking such minerals will not yield an development. Quartzite is resistant to chemical weathering,
iron oxide-rich soil no matter how thoroughly they are whereas granite is altered quickly.
weathered. Also, weathering of a pure quartz sandstone
will yield no clay, whereas weathering of clay will yield
nqj and.
Organic Activity-
Soils not only depend on organisms for their fertility, but

also provide a suitable habitat for organisms ranging from
microscopic, single-celled bacteria to large burrowing an-
imals such as ground squirrels and gophers. Earthworms —
as many as one million per acre— ants, sowbugs, termites,
centipedes, millipedes, and nematodes, along with various
types of fungi, algae, and single-celled animals, make their
homes in the soil. AUof these contribute to the formation
of and provide humus when they die and are decom-
soils Quartzite
posed by bacterial action.
Factors Controlling Soil Formation 151

Guest Essay STEPHEN H. STOW
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ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY:
SUSTAINING THE EARTH
We can think of Earth as a spaceship, upon which all resources are another crucial area. The demand for
humans live. Our existence depends on our learning petroleum will continue, as will the need for geologists
about our home, the Earth, about its behavior, its limits, in that industry.
and about how we, as passengers on this spaceship, can Although my first job after graduate school involved
most efficiently live with our environment. exploration and geochemistry for a major oil company,
Earth science touches almost every aspect of our lives. my current work deals almost entirely with the
It encompasses natural disasters— volcanoes, application of the earth sciences to environmental
earthquakes, tropical storms, and floods. Such natural studies. My present position involves the study of the
events make us acutely aware of the dynamics of the sites where the
cleanup of historical waste disposal
Earth and the need to understand its processes. Of equal Department of Energy (and its predecessor agencies)
importance is our dependence on the Earth's resources, disposed of nuclear and chemical wastes from nuclear
virtually everything we use owes its existence to water, energy and weapons manufacturing. This cleanup is a
mineral, energy, and soil resources. But most resources massive effort being undertaken throughout the entire
are limited, and they are not distributed evenly United States; it requires sophisticated understanding of
throughout the world, so shortages often arise, Earth processes, such as groundwater flow and
sometimes leading to confrontations between nations. contaminant transport, structural and stratigraphic
The impact of the human race on the Earth's aspects of disposal and computer modeling of data
sites,
environment is another important aspect of the earth obtained from and laboratory studies. To function
field
sciences. We have all become aware of the ozone hole in effectively in this area, earth scientists must not only
the atmosphere and global warming with a resultant have a sound base in their discipline, but must also be
increase in sea level that could inundate coastal cities. familiar with other sciences, mathematics, and legislation
These situations,though not yet fully understood, may that guides many of the environmental studies.
be the result of humans' release of materials into the My interest in the Earth goes back to my childhood
fragile atmosphere, altering the delicate heat balance that days; in high school, I decided to major in geology in
evolved over millions of years. Another problem is college. My interest was aroused by mineral-hunting
groundwater contamination due to unrestricted disposal field trips with the geology club as well as by an
of waste products over the last several decades. The excellent chemistry teacher, who encouraged my
challenges and costs of assessing and correcting these interests in science. My professional interests are no
situations are immense, but must be undertaken. longer the same as those initial enthusiasms, but that
Everyone, not just professional earth scientists, should be is to be expected because the profession has changed,
aware of the fragility of our planet and the impact that too.It is gratifying to be applying fundamental
we can have on it. knowledge to the solution of issues that confront us

All earth scientists, including geologists, are much in daily— issues that absolutely must be solved if our
demand. market for geologists was
Historically, the job future existience is to be ensured. A
driven by the petroleum industry, but today there is an
unprecedented need for earth scientists to undertake Otephen H. Stow earned a
environmental studies. For instance, hydrology studies Ph.D. in geochemistry from Rice
dealing with waste disposal issues are needed as are University. He has worked as a
studies of how water resources respond to changes in research scientist for Continental
global climates. Deciphering the rock record to identify Oil Company and has served on
the faculty at the University of
past fluctuations in climate may help us predict future
Alabama. Currently, he heads the
fluctuations.As populations grow, the proper use of
Geosciences Section of the
precious land and resources has become an increasingly Environmental Sciences Division
important issue, and earth scientists are becoming at the Oak Ridge National
intimately involved in the decision process. Energy Laboratory in Tennessee.
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA

extremely important in changing atmospheric nitrogen soil will develop faster on unconsolidated sediment than
into a form of soil nitrogen suitable for use by plants. it willon solid bedrock.*
Under optimum conditions of soil formation, the
soil-forming process occurs at a rapid rate in the context
Relief and Slope
of geologic time. From the human perspective, however,
Relief is the difference in elevation between high and soil formation is a slow process; consequently, soil is
low points in a region. Because climate changes with regarded as a nonrenewable resource.
elevation, relief affects soil-forming processes largely
through elevation. For example, on the west slope of the =» SOIL EROSION
Bighorn Mountains in Wyoming, soils change laterally
from pedocal at low elevation to pedalfer at the crest of Unquestionably, construction and farming can acceler-
the mountains. ate the rate of soil erosion, and soil losses to erosion are
Slope affects soils in two ways. One is simply slope critical in some magnitude of
areas. Nevertheless, the
angle: the steeper the slope, the less opportunity for soil the problem varies. For one thing, a problem in one area
development because weathered material is eroded may be only a minor inconvenience someplace else; the
faster than soil-forming processes can work. The other two of a thin
loss of a centimeter or soil ismore critical
slope control is the direction the slope faces. In the than the same loss on a deep, fertile soil. The Soil Con-
Northern Hemisphere, north-facing slopes receive less servation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
sunlight than south-facing slopes. If a north-facing slope has determined that soil losses exceeding five tons per
is steep, it may receive no sunlight at all. Consequently, acre per year adversely affect the productivity of the soil.
north-facing slopes have soils with cooler internal tem- Most soils in the United States are being eroded at rates
peratures, may support different vegetation, and, if in a less than this maximum. This same agency estimates
cold climate, remain frozen longer. that 13% of all agricultural land accounts for 71% of
the erosion. In some parts of the world, however, soil
erosion is a much more serious problem. Madagascar,
Time
for example, has lost a large percentage of its soil to
Recall our statement that soil-forming processes begin poor farming and deforestation.
practices, overgrazing,
at the surface and work downward. Thus, the degree of Most soil erosion occurs by the action of wind and
alteration of parent material in horizon A is complete water. When the natural vegetation is removed and a
because it has been undergoing change for the longest soil is pulverized by plowing, the fine particles are easily
time. The properties of a soil are determined by the blown away. The Dust Bowl of the 1930s is a poignant
factors of climate and organisms altering parent mate- reminder of just how effective wind erosion can be (see
rialthrough time; the longer these processes have oper- the Prologue). Falling rain disrupts soil particles, and
ated, the more fully developed the soil will be. If a soil is when it runs off at the surface, it carries soil with it. This
weathered for extended periods of time, however, its is particularly devastating on steep slopes from which
fertility decreases as plant nutrients are leached out, un- the vegetative cover has been removed by overgrazing or
less new materials are delivered. For example, agricul- deforestation. Two types of erosion by water are recog-
tural lands adjacent to major streams such as the Nile nized: sheet erosion and rill erosion.
River in Egypt have their soils replenished during yearly Sheet erosion is more or less evenly distributed over
floods. In areas of active tectonism, uplift and erosion the surface and removes thin layers of soil. Rill erosion,
provide fresh materials that are transported to adjacent on the other hand, occurs when running water scours
areas where they contribute to soils. small channels. If these rills become too deep to be elim-
How much needed to develop a centimeter of
time is inated by plowing (about 30 cm), they are gullies (Fig.
soil or a fully developed soil a meter or so deep? No 6-26). Where gullying becomes extensive, croplands can
definitive answer can be given because weathering pro- no longer by tilled and must be abandoned.
ceeds at vastly different rates depending on climate and If the rate of soil erosion is less than five tons per year
parent material, but an overall average might be about per acre— as most parts of the United
is the case in
2.5 cm per century. However, a lava flow a few centuries States — soil-forming processes can keep pace, and the
old in Hawaii may have a well-developed soil on it,
whereas a flow the same age in Iceland will have con- "Bedrock is a general term for the rock underlying soil or
siderably less soil. Given the same climatic conditions, unconsolidated sediment.
Soil Erosion 153

"^ FIGURE 6-27 One soil conservation practice is
contour plowing, which involves plowing parallel to the
contours of the land. The furrows and ridges are
perpendicular to the direction that water would otherwise
flow downhill and thus inhibit erosion.
ported elsewhere, perhaps onto neighboring cropland,

onto roads, or into channels. Sediment accumulates in
canals and irrigation ditches, and agricultural fertilizers
and insecticides are carried into streams and lakes.
Problems experienced during the past, particularly
during the 1930s, have stimulated the development of
methods to minimize soil erosion on agricultural lands.
Various practices including crop rotation, contour plow-
ing, and the construction of terraces have all proved
helpful (Fig. 6-27). Other practices include no-till plant-
ing in which harvested crop residue is left on the ground
to protect the surface from the ravages of wind and

water.
^ WEATHERING AND
MINERAL RESOURCES
In a preceding section, we discussed intense chemical
weathering and the origin of bauxite, the
in the tropics
chief ore of aluminum. Such an accumulation of valu-
able minerals formed by the selective removal of soluble
""^" FIGURE 6-26 (a) Rill erosion in a field during a substances is a residual concentration. It represents an
rainstorm. This rill was later plowed over, (b) This small insoluble residue of chemical weathering. In addition to
gully is too deep to be plowed.
bauxite, a number of other residual concentrations are
economically important; for example, ore deposits of
iron, manganese, clays, nickel, phosphate, tin, dia-
soilremains productive. If the maximum is exceeded, monds, and gold.
however, the upper layers of soil— the most productive Some limestones contain small amounts of iron car-
layers— are removed first, thus exposing horizon B. Such bonate minerals. When the limestone is dissolved during
losses are problems, of course, but there are additional chemical weathering, a residual concentration of insol-
consequences. For one thing, the eroded soil is trans- uble iron oxides accumulates. Some of the sedimentary

-
iron deposits (see Chapter 7) of the Lake Superior region

were enriched by chemical weathering when the soluble Country rock
constituents that were originally present were carried

away. Residual concentrations of insoluble manganese
oxides form in a similar fashion from manganese-rich
source rocks.
Most commercial clay deposits were formed by hy-
drothermal alteration of granitic rocks or by sedimen-
Water table
tary processes. However, some have formed in place as
residual concentrations. For example, a number of ka-
olinite deposits in the southern United States were
formed by the chemical weathering of feldspars in peg-
matites and of clay-bearing limestones and dolostones. ""' FIGURE 6-28 A cross sectionshowing a gossan and
Kaolinite is a type of clay mineral used in the manufac- the origin of oxidized ores and the supergene enrichment of
ores.
ture of paper and ceramics.
Gossans, oxidized ores, and supergene enrichment of
ores are interrelated, and all result from chemical weath-
ering (Fig. 6-28). A gossan is a yellow to reddish deposit
composed largely of hydrated iron oxides that formed other metals such as lead, zinc, nickel, and copper that
by the oxidation and leaching of sulfide minerals such as have a greater affinity for sulfur. Indeed, supergene chal-
pyrite (FeS 2 ). The dissolution of such sulfide minerals cocite (Cu 2 S), an important copper ore, forms as a re-
forms sulfuric acid, which causes other metallic minerals placement of primary pyrite (FeS 2 and chalcopyrite
)
to dissolve, and these tend to be carried downward to- (CuFeS 2 ). Notice that both chalcocite and chalcopyrite
ward the groundwater table (Fig. 6-28). Oxidized ores are copper-bearing minerals, but the former is a richer
form just above the groundwater table as a result of source of copper than the latter.
chemical reactions with these descending solutions. Gossans have been used occasionally as sources of
Some of the minerals formed in this zone contain cop- iron, but they are far more important as indicators of
per, zinc, and lead. underlying ore deposits. One of the oldest known un-
Supergene enrichment of ores occurs where metal- derground mines exploited such ores about 3,400 years
bearing solutions penetrate below the water table (Fig. ago in what is now southern Israel. Supergene enriched
6-28). Such deposits are characterized by the replace- ore bodies are generally small but extremely rich sources
ment of primary deposit with
sulfide minerals of the of various metals. The largest copper mine in the world,
sulfide minerals introduced by the descending solutions. at Bingham, Utah, was originally mined for supergene
For example, the iron in iron sulfides may be replaced by ores, but currently only primary ores are being mined.
^ CHAPTER SUMMARY 4. Solution, oxidation, and hydrolysis are chemical

weathering processes; they result in a chemical
1. Mechanical and chemical weathering are processes change of the weathered products. Clay minerals,
whereby parent material is disintegrated and various ions in solution, and soluble salts are formed
decomposed so that it is more nearly in equilibrium during chemical weathering.
with new physical and chemical conditions. The 5. Ch emical we ather ing p roceeds most rapidly inhot,
products of weathering include solid particles, wet environments, but it occurs in all areas, except
soluble salts, and ions in solution. perhaps where water is permanently frozen.
2. The residue of weathering can be further modified to 6. Mechanical weathering aids chemical weathering_ by
form soil, orcan be deposited as sediment, which
it "breaking parent material intojj maller piec es, thereby
may become sedimentary rock. exposing more surface a rea.
3. Mechanical weathering includes such processes as 7. Mechanic al and~ch emical weath eri ng produ ce
frost action, pressure release, thermal expansion and r egolith , some ofwhich is soil if ft consists^ of solids,
contraction, and the activities of organisms. Particles air, water, and humus and supports plant growth.
liberated by mechanical weathering retain the 8. Soils are characterized by horizons that are
chemical composition of the parent material. designated, in descending order, as O, A, B, and C;
Chapter Summary 155

soil horizons differ from one another in texture, d. \ oxidation and reduction; e. pressure
structure, composition, and color. release.
9. The factors controlling soil formation include 3. Limestone, which is composed of the mineral calcite
climate, parent material, organic activity, relief and (CaC0 3 ), is nearly insoluble in pure water but
slope, and time. dissolves rapidly if is present.
10. Soils called pedalfers develop in humid regions such a. X x
carbonic acid; b. silicon dioxide;
as the eastern United States and much of Canada. c. calcium sulfate; d. residual manganese;
Arid and semiarid regions soils are pedocals, many e. clay.
of which contain irregular masses of caliche in 4. Talus is an accumulation of:

horizon B. a. calcium carbonate in horizon B of pedocals;
11. Laterite is from intense chemical
a soil resulting b. angular rock fragments at the base of a slope;
weathering as Such soils are deep, red,
in the tropics. c. valuable minerals formed by selective removal
and sources of aluminum ores if derived from of soluble substances; d. debris produced mostly
aluminum-rich parent material. by the activities of organisms; e.^_ soil produced
12. Soil erosion, caused mostly by sheet and rill erosion, by intense weathering in the tropics.
is a problem in some areas. Human practices such as 5. When the ions in a substance become dissociated,
construction, agriculture, and deforestation can the substance has been:
accelerate losses of soil to erosion. a. weathered mechanically; b. altered to
13. Intense chemical weathering is responsible for the clay: c. ^ dissolved; d. oxidized;
origin of residual concentrations, many of which e. converted to soil.
contain valuable minerals such as iron, lead, copper, 6. The process whereby hydrogen and hydroxyl ions of
and clay. water replace ions in minerals is:
14. Gossans, oxidized ores, and supergene enrichment of a. supergene enrichment; b. oxidation;
ores all result from chemical weathering. c. laterization; d. X hydrolysis;
e. carbonization.
7. Which of the minerals in Bowen's reaction series is
IMPORTANT TERMS most stable chemically?

a. calcium plagioclase; k s\ quartz;
chemical weathering pedocal c. pyroxene; d. biotite; e olivine.
differential weathering pressure release 8. Granite weathers more rapidly than quartzite
erosion regolith because it contains abundant:
exfoliation rill erosion a. —f- feldspars; b. quartz;
exfoliation dome sheet erosion c. ferromagnesian minerals; d. carbonate
frost action sheet joint minerals; e. caliche.
frost heaving spheroidal weathering 9. The soil and unconsolidated rock material covering
frost wedging soil the Earth's surface in most places are:
humus soil horizon a. ~yr regolith; b. laterite; c. humus;
hydrolysis solution d. parent material; e. talus.
laterite talus 10. Horizon B of a soil is alsoknown as the:
leaching thermal expansion and a. top soil; b. humus layer; c. alkali
mechanical weathering contraction zone; d. Y zone of accumulation; e. organic-
oxidation transport rich layer.
parent material weathering 11. The chief ore of aluminum is:
pedalfer zone of accumulation a. caliche; b. pedalfer; c. subsoil;

d. gossan; e. X^ bauxite.
12. The removal of thin layers of soil by water over a
» REVIEW QUESTIONS more or less continuous surface is:
a. gullying; b. )( sheet erosion;
1. The type of soil typical of arid and semiarid regions c. weathering; d. leaching; e. exfoliation.
is: 13. Oxidation and leaching of sulfide minerals yield a
-V
a. laterite; b. A pedocal; c. gossan; yellow to red deposit of hydrated iron oxides known
d. bauxite; e. pedalfer.
2. Which mechanical weathering process forms a. residual deposit; b. exfoliation dome;
exfoliation domes? c.)^ gossan; d. sheet joint; e. clay deposit.
a. heating and cooling; b. expansion and 14. Bacterial decay of organic matter yields
contraction; c. the activities of organisms; which is/are essential to soil fertility.

a sand; b. /\ humus; c pedalfer; 30. Discuss several ways in which soil erosion can be
d. subsoil; ferromagnesian minerals.
e. minimized on agricultural lands.
15. How does mechanical weathering differ from and 31. What are residual concentrations, and how do they
contribute to chemical weathering? form?
16. What is differential weathering, and why does it
17.
occur?
How does frost wedging differ from frost heaving?
18. Explain how sheet joints and exfoliation domes Bear, F. E. 1986. Earth: The stuff of life. 2d revised ed.
originate. Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press.
19. Describe the process whereby soluble minerals such Birkeland, W. 1984. Soils and geomorphology. New York:
P.
as halite (NaCl) are dissolved. Oxford University Press.

20. Why are most minerals not very soluble in pure Buol, S. W., F. D. rlole, and R. J. McCracken. 1980. Soil
water? genesis and classification. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University
Press.
21. What is an acid solution, and why are acid solutions
Carroll, D. 1970. Rock weathering. New York: Plenum Press.
important in chemical weathering?
Coughlin, R. C. 1984. State and local regulations for reducing
22. What role do hydrogen ions play in the hydrolysis
American Planning Association, Planning
agricultural erosion.
process?
Advisory Service Report No. 386.
23. Explain why panicle size is an important factor in
Courtney, F. M., and S. T. Trudgill. 1984. The soil: An
chemical weathering. introduction to soil study. 2d ed. London: Arnold.
24. Describe spheroidal weathering. Gibbons, B. 1984. Do we treat our soil like din? National
25. Draw a soil profile and list the characteristics of Geographic 166, no. 3:350-89.
each soil horizon. Loughnan, F. C. 1969. Chemical weathering of the silicate
26. What is the significance of climate and parent minerals. New York: Elsevier.
Oilier, C. 1969. Weathering. New York: Elsevier.
material in the development of soil?
Parfit, M. 1989. The dust bowl. Smithsonian 20, no. 3:44-54,
27. Howdo organisms contribute to soil formation?
56-57.
28. Compare and contrast pedalfer, pedocal, and laterite.
29. Explain how plowing, overgrazing, and deforestation
contribute to soil erosion.
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JULVC s .i- Additional Readings 157
CHAPTER 7
SEDIMENT AND
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
p OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND
DEPOSITION
LITHIFICATION: SEDIMENT TO
SEDIMENTARY ROCK
""•'
Guest Essay: Exploring for Oil and
Natural Gas
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
Conglomerate and Sedimentary Breccia
Sandstone
Mudrocks
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Limestone-Dolostone
^-Perspective 7-1: The Mediterranean
Desert
Evaporites
Chert
Coal
SEDIMENTARY FACIES
Marine Transgressions and Regressions
ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
Sedimentary Structures
Fossils
Environment of Deposition
SEDIMENTS, SEDIMENTARY ROCKS,
AND NATURAL RESOURCES
Petroleum and Natural Gas
Uranium
Banded Iron Formation
**r Perspective 7-2: Persian Gulf Petroleum
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Sedimentary rocks exposed in the Sheep

Rock area of John Day Fossil Beds National
Monument, Oregon. This small hill is capped
by the remnants of a lava flow.
PROLOGUE its
The Green River Formation
huge deposits of oil
is also well
shale (Fig. 7-2). Oil shale
known for
consists of small clay particles and an organic

^^pl^| About 50 million years ago, two large substance known as kerogen. When the appropriate
lakes existed in what are now parts of extraction processes are used, liquid oil and
Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado. Sand, mud, and combustible gases can be produced from the kerogen
where
dissolved minerals were carried into these lakes of oil shale. To be designated as a true oil shale,
they accumulated as layers of sediment that were however, the rock must yield a minimum of 10
subsequently converted into sedimentary rock. These gallons of oil per ton of rock. The use of oil shale as a
sedimentary rocks, called the Green River Formation, source of fuel is not new, nor is oil shale restricted to
contain the fossilized remains of millions of fish, plants, the Green River Formation. During the Middle Ages,
and insectsand are a potential source of large quantities people in Europe used oil shale as solid fuel for
of oil, combustible gases, and other substances. domestic purposes, and during the 1850s, small oil
Thousands of fossilized fish skeletons are found on shale industries existed in the eastern United States;
single surfaces within the Green River Formation, the latterwere discontinued, however, when drilling
indicating that mass mortality must have occurred and pumping of oil began in 1859. Oil shales occur
repeatedly (Fig. 7-1). The cause of these events is not on all continents, but the Green River Formation
known with certainty, but some geologists have contains the most extensive deposits and has the
suggested that blooms of blue-green algae produced potential to yield huge quantities of oil.
toxic substances that killed the fish. Others propose Oil can be produced from oil shale by a process in
C
that rapidly changing water temperatures or excessive which the rock is heated to nearly 500 C in the
salinity at times of increased evaporation was absence of oxygen, and hydrocarbons are driven off as
responsible. Whatever the cause, the fish died by the gases and recovered by condensation. During this
thousands and settled to the lake bottom where their process, 25 to 75% of the organic matter of oil shale
decomposition was inhibited because the water can be converted to oil and combustible gases. The
contained little or no oxygen. One area of the Green River Formation oil shales yield from 10 to 140
formation in Wyoming where fossil plants are gallons of oil per ton of rock processed, and the total
particularly abundant has been designated as Fossil amount of oil recoverable with present processes is
Butte National Monument. estimated at 80 billion barrels. Currently, however,
-"^ FIGURE 7-1 Fossil fish from the Green River

Formation of Wyoming. (Photo courtesy of Sue Monroe.)
little oil is produced from oil shale in the United that would be necessary would have considerable
States except at experimental plants, because environmental impact. What would be done with the
conventional drilling and pumping is less expensive. billions of tons of processed rock? Can such
Nevertheless, the Green River oil shale constitutes one large-scale mining be conducted with minimal
of the largest untapped sources of oil in the world. If disruption of wildlife habitats and groundwater
more effective processes are developed, it could systems? Where will the huge volumes of water
eventually yield even more than the currently necessary for processing come from— especially in an
estimated 80 billion barrels. area where water is already in short supply?
One should realize, however, that at the current These and other questions are currently being
and expected consumption rates of oil in the United considered by scientists and industry. Perhaps at some
States, oil production from oil shale will not solve all future time, the Green River Formation will provide
of our energy needs. Furthermore, large-scale mining some of our energy needs.
** INTRODUCTION any particle, regardless of composition, that measures

1/16 to 2.0 mm. Gravel- and sand-sized particles are large
Mechanical and chemical weathering disintegrate and
enough to be observed with the unaided eye or with low-
decompose rocks yielding the raw materials for both
power magnification, but silt- and clay-sized particles are
soils and sedimentary rocks (Fig. 7-3). Any type of rock
too small to be observed except with very high magni-
can weather mechanically to yield small rock fragments
fication. Gravel generally consists of rock fragments,
and individual mineral grains, and some of a rock's min-
whereas sand, silt, and clay particles are mostly individ-
eral constituents may be completely dissolved or chem-
form clay minerals Chapter 6). Such
ual mineral grains. We should note, however, that clay
ically altered to (see
has two meanings: in textural terms, clay refers to sed-
weathered materials are commonly eroded and trans-
ported to another location and deposited as sediment.
imentary grains less than 1/256 mm in size, and in com-
positional terms, clay refers to certain types of sheet sil-
Thus, all sediment is derived from preexisting rocks and
icate minerals (see Fig. 3-12). However, most clay-sized
can be characterized in two ways:
particles in sedimentary rocks are, in fact, clay minerals.
1. Detrital sediment, which consists of rock
2.
fragments and mineral grains.
Chemical sediment, which consists of the
^ SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
minerals precipitated from solution by inorganic AND DEPOSITION
chemical processes or extracted from solution by any geologic
Detrital sediment can be transported by
organisms. agent possessing enough energy to move particles of a
In any case, sediment is deposited as an aggregate of given size. Glaciers are very effective agents of transport
loose solids (Fig. 7-4). Much accumulated sediment set- and can move any sized particle. Wind, on the other
tled from a fluid, such as mud in a lake, or from
the hand, can transport only sand-sized and smaller sedi-
atmosphere as dust. The term sediment is derived from ment. Waves and marine currents also transport sedi-
the Latin sedimentum, meaning settling. ment, but by far the most effective way to erode sediment
Most sedimentary rocks formed from sediment that
was transformed into solid rock, but a few sedimentary
rocks skipped the unconsolidated sediment stage. For
^* TABLE 7-1 Classification of
example, coral reefs form as solids when the reef organ-
Sedimentary Particles
isms extract dissolved mineral matter from seawater for
their skeletons. However, if a reef is broken apart during Size Sediment Name
a storm, the solid pieces of reef material deposited on
the sea floor are sediment.
>2 mm Gravel
1/16-2 mm Sand
One important criterion for classifying detrital sedi- 1/256-1/16 mm
ments and the rocks formed from them is the size of the < 1/256 mm
Gravel refers to any sedimentary
particles (Table 7-1).
particle measuring more than 2.0 mm, whereas sand is * Mixtures of silt and clay are generally referred to as mud.
160 Chapter 7 Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks

FIGURE 7-3 The rock cycle, with emphasis on sediments and sedimentary rocks.
from the weathering site and transport it elsewhere is by areas of sand accumulation^Glaciers and mudflows,
streams. however, are unselective, because their energy allows
During transport, abrasion reduces the size of sedi- them to transport many different-sized particles, and
mentary particles. The sharp corners and edges are their deposits tend to be poorly sorted.
abraded the most as the particles, especially gravel and Sediment may be transported a considerable distance
sand, collide with one another and become rounded from its source area, but eventually it is deposited. Some
(Fig. 7-5a). Another sediment property modified during of the sand and mud being deposited at the mouth of the
transport is sorting. Sorting refers to the size distribu- Mississippi River at the present time came from such
tion in an aggregate of sediment; if all the particles are distant places as Ohio, Minnesota, and Wyoming. Any
approximately the same size, the sediment is character- geographic area in which sediment is deposited is a dep-
ized as well sorted, but if a wide range of grain sizes ositional environment.
occur, the sediment is poorly sorted (Fig. 7-5b). Sorting Although no completely satisfactory classification of
results from processes that selectively transport and de- depositional environments exists, geologists generally
posit particles by size. Wi ndblown dunes are composed recognize three major depositional settings: continental,
of _well-sorted_ sand, because wind cannot transport transitional, and marine (Fig. 7-6). Major continental
gravel effectively and it blows silt and clay beyond_the depositional environments include stream systems,
Sediment Transport and Deposition 161

v^ .
t ^CA^HQp
Desert dunes Playa lake environment Delta Barrier island
Gi aC a
j i
Alluviarfan Beach Tida f)at

environment |
Shallow marine
Shallow marine
— environment
environment
Lagoon
Continental
Organic reef
shelf
Submarine fan Organic reef
FIGURE 7-6 Major depositional environments are shown in this generalized diagram.
be compacted and/or cemented and thereby converted into carbonate (CaC0 3 ) readily dissolves in water contain-
sedimentary rock; the process by which sediment is trans- ing a small amount of carbonic acid, and that chemical
formed into sedimentary rock is lithification. weathering of feldspars and other silicate minerals yields
When sediment is deposited, it consists of solid par- silica (Si0 2 ) in solution. These dissolved compounds
ticles and pore spaces, which are the voids between par- may be pre cipitated pore spaces ot sediments,
in the
ticles. The amount of pore space varies depending on the where They cement that effectively binds the
act as a
depositional process, the size of the sediment grains, and sediment together (Fig. 7-7c). Calcite cement is easily
sorting. When sediment is buried, compaction, resulting
from the pressure exerted by the weight of overlying
sediments, reduces the amount of pore space, and thus
the volume of the deposit (Fig. 7-7b). When deposits of '"•' FIGURE 7-7 Lithification of sand, {a) When initially
mud, which can have as much as 80% water-filled pore deposited, sand has considerable pore space between grains.
space, are buried and compacted, water is squeezed out, (b) Compaction resulting from the weight of overlying
and the volume can be reduced by up to 40%. Sand may sediments reduces the amount of pore space, (c) Sand is
converted to sandstone as cement is precipitated in pore
have up to 50% pore space, although it is generally
spaces from groundwater.
somewhat less, and it, too, can be compacted so that the
sand grains fit more tightly together. However, once Pore space Feldspar
sand grains are arranged in a best fit, sand resists further Quartz
compaction because the rigid mineral-grain framework
supports the weight of overlying sediments.
Compaction alone is generally sufficient for lithifica-
tion ofmud, but for sand and gravel deposits cementa-
tion is necessary to convert the sediment into sedimen- (b) and
Burial (c) Cementation
tary rock (Fig. 7-7c). Recall from Chapter 6 that calcium compaction
Lithification: Sediment to Sedimentary Rock 163

Guest Essay SUSAN M. LANDON
TTTTfTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTrnrTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT
EXPLORING FOR OIL AND
NATURAL GAS
I am
an independent petroleum geologist. I specialize provided the final data necessary to generate a specific
inapplying geological principles to frontier prospect. We then had to convince management that
areas— places where little or no exploration has this prospect had high enough potential to contain
occurred and few or no hydrocarbons have been hydrocarbon reserves to offset the significant risks and
discovered. It is very much like solving a mystery. The costs. An economic evaluation was conducted to
earth provides a variety of clues— rock type, organic determine the worth of the project given a probability
content, stratigraphic relationships, structure, and the of success. In this case, management agreed that the
like— that geologists must piece together to determine risk was by the potential for a very large
offset
the potential for the presence of hydrocarbons. accumulation of hydrocarbons, and a well was
An example of an exploration frontier is the authorized. Amoco drilled a .5,441 m well in Iowa to
Precambrian Midcontinent Rift located in the north test the prospect at a cost of nearly $5 million. The
central portion of the United States. Some rifts, like the well was dry (economically unsuccessful), but the
Gulf of Suez and the North Sea, are characterized by geologic information obtained as a result of drilling
significant hydrocarbon reserves, and the presence of an the well will be used to continue to define prospective
unexplored rift basin in the center of North America is drilling sites in the Midcontinent Rift.
intriguing.Rocks deposited in this rift basin are exposed My began very early as a result
interest in geology
along the shores of Lake Superior where they serve as of collecting rocks and growing up in an oil field in
the host for copper ores. One of the mines in the Upper the Midwest. I completed my undergraduate work at
Peninsula of Michigan, the White Pine Mine, has a small liberal arts college and earned a master's
historically been plagued by oil bleeding out of fractures degree from a larger state university. I believe that a
in the shale. For many years, this had been documented well-rounded education provided me with a sound
as academically interesting because the rocks are much geological background and communication skills that
older than those that typically have been associated with have contributed to my successful career.
hydrocarbon production. Oil and natural gas are My career began in the petroleum industry with
generated from organic material preserved in sediment Amoco, and, after 15 years, I made the decision to leave
that is subjected to increased temperature through time. the company to work independently. I consult for a
However, the sediments associated with the one- variety of companies, assisting them in exploration
billion-year-old rift had a very limited source of projects. My goal is to have the opportunity to develop
organisms (algae, fungi, and bacteria) to contribute to and drill prospects in new frontier areas. I am currently
the organic content. evaluating a Cretaceous chalk in the Rocky Mountain

Field and laboratory work documented that the area. I also teach courses for industry. My career has
copper-bearing shale at the White Pine Mine contained provided me with the opportunity to travel to a wide
adequate organic material to be the source of the oil. variety of places. a
The thermal history of the basin was modeled to
determine the timing of hydrocarbon generation. If
hydrocarbons had been generated prior to deposition of

an effective seal and formation of a trap, the
hydrocarbons would have leaked naturally out into the
atmosphere. Jusan M. Landon began her
Further work identified sandstones with enough career in 1974 with Amoco
Production Company and, in
porosity to serve as reservoirs for hydrocarbons.
1989, opened her own consulting
Analogy with other hydrocarbon productive rifts gave office in Denver, Colorado. In
the exploration team models for trap types. Seismic 1990, she was elected president
data were acquired and interpreted to identify specific of the American Institute of
traps. Coordination with geophysicists and engineers Professional Geologists.
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

.
^ FIGURE 7-8 These

sedimentary rocks in the Valley of
the Gods, Utah are red because they
contain iron oxide cement. (Photo
detected because it effervesces with dilute hydrochloric canyons of Utah and Arizona are colored by small
acid. Rocks cemented by silica are the hardest, most amounts of iron oxide or hydroxide cement (Fig. 7-8).
durable sedimentary rocks.
Calcium carbonate and silica are the most common
cements in sedimentary rocks, but iron oxides and hy-
=*=
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
droxides, such as hematite (Fe 2 3)
and limonite Even though about 95% of the Earth's crust is com-
[FeO(OH)], respectively, also form a chemical cement in posed of igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary
some rocks. Much of the iron oxide cement is derived rocks are the most common at or near the surface.
from the oxidation of iron in ferromagnesian minerals About 75% of the surface exposures on continents con-
present in the original deposit, although some is carried sist of sediments or sedimentary rocks, and they cover
in by circulating groundwater. The yellow, brown, and most of the sea floor. Sedimentary rocks are generally
red sedimentary rocks exposed in the walls of the vast classified as detrital or chemical (Tables 7-2 and 7-3).
"N>
rc.
^ TABLE 7-2 Classification of Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
-cfcp-
Sediment Name 7
and Size Description Rock Name
Gravel (>2 mm) Roun ded grave l Conglo merate

Angular_gravel Sedime ntary Breccia
Sand ('/i6-2 mm) -*"p» Mostly quartz juartz sandstone

Quartz wit h >25% feldspar Arkose
Mud (<Vi6 mm) _5^ Mostly silt

Silt and clay ~> Mudrocks
Mostly clay Claystone* .
*Mudrocks possessing the property offissilim meaning they break along closely spaced, paral lel planes, are corn monly called shale.

"*" TABLE 7-3 Classification of Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
Texture Composition Rock Name
/ \ Clastic or crystalline Calcite (CaC0 3 )

Limestone (includes coquina
Carbonates
Dolomite [CaMg (C0 3 ) 2

chalk,and
Dolostone
oolitic limestone)
I
^?\ Crystalline Gypsum (CaS0 4 -2H 2 0) Rock gypsum
Evaporites
Halite (NaCl) Rock salt
^ ) Usually crystalline Microscopic Si0 2 shells

Altered plant remains
Chert
Coal
Hi.ffû
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks gravel particles; conglomerate consists of rounded

gravel, whereas sedimentary breccia is composed of an-
Detrital sedimentary rocks consist of detritus, the solid
gular gravel called rubble.
particles of preexisting rocks. Such rocks have a clastic
Conglomerate is a fairly common rock type, but sed-
texture, meaning that they are composed of fragments
imentary breccia is rather rare. The reason is that gravel-
or particles also known as clasts (Fig. 7-9a). Several
sized particles become rounded very quickly during
varieties of detrital sedimentary rocks are recognized,
transport. Thus, if a sedimentary breccia is encountered,
each of which is characterized by the size of its constit-
one can conclude that the rubble that composes it was
uent particles (Table 7-2).
not transported very far. High-energy transport agents
such as rapidly flowing streams and waves are needed to
Conglomerate and Sedimentary Breccia 4vw<-t-'< J -
transport gravel, so gravel tends to be deposited in high-

Both conglomerate and sedimentary breccia consist of energy environments such as stream channels and
gravel-sized particles (Table 7-2; Fig. 7- 10a and b). Usu- beaches (Fig. 7-11).
ally, the particles measure a few millimeters to a few

Sandstone
centimeters, but boulders several meters in diameter are
sometimes present. The only difference between con- The term sand is simply a size designation, so sandstone
glomerate and sedimentary breccia is the shape of the may be composed of grains of any type of mineral or rock
""' FIGURE 7-9 (a) Photomicrograph of a sandstone showing a clastic texture

consisting of fragments of minerals, mostly quartz in this case, (b) Photomicrograph of
the crystalline texture of a limestone showing a mosaic of calcite crystals.

( jfc^Wa )
(C)
S^T/i/67?C (d )
-^- FIGURE 7-10 Detrital sedimentary rocks: (a) conglomerate; (b) sedimentary
breccia; (c) sandstone; and (d) the mudrock shale. (Photos courtesy of Sue Monroe.)
fragment. However, most sandstones consist primarily of chemical stability. Both quartz and feldspars are ahun-
the mineral quartz (Fig. 7- 10c) with small amounts of a dant, but quartz is hard, lacks cleavage, and is chemi-
number of other minerals. Geologists recognize several cally stable, whereas feldspars have two directions of
types of sandstones, each characterized by its composi- cleavage and are readily chemically weathered to clays,
tion. is the most common and, as its
Quartz sandstone soluble salts, and ions in solution (see Chapter 6).
name composed mostly of quartz. Arkose,
suggests, is The only other particles of much consequence in
which contains more than 25% feldspars, is also a fairly sandstones are the micas (muscovite and biotite) and
common variety of sandstone (Table 7-2). fragments of chert, a rock composed of microscopic
It may seem odd that quartz is so common in sand- crystals of quartz. The ferromagnesian silicates, other
stones since feldspars are so much more abundant in than biotite, are uncommon in sandstones because they
source rocks.* However, the chance that any specific are chemically unstable. One of the most common ac-
type of mineral will end up in a sedimentary rock de- cessory minerals is the iron oxide magnetite.
pends on its availability, mechanical durability, and
Mudrocks
*The Earth's crust is estimated to contain 39% plagioclase feldspar, The mudrocks include all detrital sedimentary rocks
12% potassium feldspar, and 12% quartz. composed of silt- and clay-sized particles (Fig. 7-10d).

Limestone-Dolostone
Calcite (the main component of limestone) and dolomite
(the mineralcomprising the rock dolostone) are both car-
bonate minerals; calcite is a calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ),
whereas dolomite [CaMg(C0 3 ) 2 ] is a calcium magne-
sium carbonate. Thus, limestone and dolostone are car-
bonate rocks. Recall from Chapter 6 that calcite readily
dissolves in water containing a small amount of acid, but
the chemical reaction leading to dissolution is reversible,
so solid calcite can be precipitated from solution. Ac-
cordingly, some limestone, although probably not very
much, results from inorganic chemical reactions.
Most limestones have a large component of calcite
that was originally extracted from seawater by organ-
"^ FIGURE 7-11 Gravel is deposited in high-energy
isms. Corals, clams, algae, snails, and a number of other
depositional environments such as this mountain stream.
marine organisms construct their skeletons of aragonite,
which is an unstable form of calcium carbonate that
alters to calcite. When such organisms die, their skele-
Among the mudrocks we can differentiate between silt-
tons may be broken up and accumulate as gravel-, sand-,
stone, mudstone, and claystone. Siltstone, as the name
silt-, and clay-sized sediment that becomes lithified and
implies, is composed of silt-sized particles; mudstone
forms limestone (Fig. 7-13).
contains a mixture of silt- and clay-sized particles; and
Most limestones are conveniently classified as bio-
claystone is composed mostly of clay (Table 7-2). Some
chemical sedimentary rocks, because organisms play
mudstones and claystones are designated as shale if they
such a significant role in their origin (Table 7-3). For
are fissile, which means they break along closely spaced
example, the limestone known as coquina consists en-
parallel planes (Fig. 7-10d).
tirely of broken shells cemented by calcium carbonate,
The mudrocks comprise about 40% of all detrital sed-
and chalk is a soft variety of biochemical limestone com-
imentary rocks, making them the most common of these
posed largely of microscopic shells of organisms (Fig.
rocks. Turbulence in water keeps silt and clay suspended
7-13a and b).
and must therefore be at a minimum if they are to settle.
One distinctive type of limestone contains small
Consequently, deposition occurs in low-energy deposi-
spherical grains called ooids. Ooids have a small nu-
tional environments where currents are weak such as in the
quiet offshore waters of lakes and in lagoons (Fig. 7-12).
"^ FIGURE 7-12 Exposure of mudstone that was

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks deposited in an ancient lake.
Chemical sedimentary rocks originate from the ions and

salts taken into solution in the weathering environment
(Table 7-3). Such dissolved materials are transported to
lakes and the oceans where they become concentrated.
Inorganic chemical processes remove these substances
from solution, and they accumulate as solid minerals.
Biochemical sedimentary rocks, which constitute a sub-
category of chemical sedimentary rocks, result from the
chemical processes of organisms (Table 7-3).
Many chemical sedimentary rocks are composed of
an interlocking mosaic of mineral crystals and are said
to have a crystalline texture (Fig. 7-9b). Some, however,
have a clastic texture; many limestones consist of bro-
ken pieces of shells.

(a)
^-FIGURE 7-13 Three types of limestones, (a) Coquina

is composed of the broken shells of organisms. (Photo
courtesy of Sue Monroe.) (b) Chalk cliffs in Denmark.
Chalk is made up of microscopic shells. (Photo courtesy of
R. V. Dietrich.) (c) Photomicrograph of ooids in an oolitic
limestone. These ooids measure about 1 mm in diameter.
cleus, a sand grain or shell fragment perhaps — around

which concentric layers of calcite precipitate; lithified
deposits of ooids form oolitic limestones (Fig. 7-13c).
The near-absence of recent dolostone and evidence
from chemistry and studies of rocks indicate that most
dolostone was originally limestone that has been
changed to dolostone. Many geologists think most do-
lostones originated through the replacement of some of
the calcium in calcite by magnesium. Figure 7-14 shows
one way this can occur. Note that in a restricted envi- Magnesium (Mg), on the other hand, becomes concen-
ronment, such as a lagoon, where evaporation rates are which then becomes denser and per-
trated in the water,
high, much of the calcium in solution is extracted as it meates the preexisting limestone and converts it to do-
goes into calcite (CaC0 3 and gypsum (CaS0 4 -2H 2 0).
)
lostone by the addition of magnesium.
i High evaporation rate * — FIGURE 7-14 One way in

which limestone can be converted to
dolostone. In this example, the
seawater in a lagoon becomes
enriched in magnesium as
evaporation occurs. This
magnesium-rich water is denser
than normal seawater so it
permeates the older limestones and
converts them to dolostone.
Limestone converted
todolostone

Perspective 7-1
THE MEDITERRANEAN DESERT

Vast, thick evaporite deposits are present in several not for the connection with the Atlantic Ocean at the
areas, but one of the most notable is beneath the Strait of Gibraltar (Fig. 1), the Mediterranean would
Mediterranean Sea. At the present time, the eventually dry up and form a vast desert basin far
Mediterranean Sea is in an arid region where the rate below sea level. Some geologists think that the
of evaporation of seawater exceeds the rate at which Mediterranean did dry up during the Cenozoic Era,
water is added to the sea by rainfall runoff. If it were resulting in the deposition of rock gypsum and rock
"^ FIGURE 1 Panoramic view showing the submarine topography of the present-day Mediterranean Basin.
About 6 million years ago, the Mediterranean Basinwas probably a vast desert lying 3,000 m below sea level.
tion limit, the point at which precipitation must occur.

Evaporites Rock composed of the mineral halite (NaCl), is
salt,
Evaporites include such rocks as rock salt and rock gyp- simply sodium chloride that was precipitated from sea-
sum, which form by inorganic chemical precipitation of water or, more rarely, lake water (Fig. 7-15a). Rock
minerals from solution (Table 7-3; Fig. 7-15). Both are gypsum, the most common evaporite rock, is composed
characterized by a crystalline texture. In Chapter 6 we of the mineral gypsum (CaS0 4 H 2 0), which also pre-
noted that some minerals are dissolved during chemical cipitates from evaporating solutions (Fig. 7- 15b). A
weathering, but a solution can hold only a certain vol- number of other evaporite rocks and minerals are
ume of dissolved mineral matter. If the volume of a known, but most of these are rare. Some are important,
solution is reduced by evaporation, the amount of dis- however, as sources of various chemical compounds; for
solved mineral matter increases in proportion to the vol- example, sylvite, a potassium chloride (KC1), is used in
ume of the solution and eventually reaches the satura- the manufacture of fertilizers, dyes, and soaps.

salt now present beneath the floor of the sea. Atlantic Western
Studies of the Mediterranean evaporites indicate Ocean Mediterranean
deposition in shallow water, rather than in a deep-ocean
basin, which is what the Mediterranean is now.
According to this hypothesis, the Mediterranean lost its
connection with the Adantic, evaporated to near dryness

in as little as 1,000 years, and became a vast desert
basin lying 3,000 m below sea level (Fig. 2).
Simply evaporating the Mediterranean to dryness

would yield only 40 to 45 m of evaporites, however,
not a layer 2 km thick. It appears that once the
Mediterranean evaporated, it formed a low-lying basin
in which vast, shallow saline lakes existed. Evaporites
formed in these lakes and simply accumulated,
forming thick deposits. Furthermore, apparently the
connection with the Atlantic was periodically
reestablished so that the Mediterranean refilled.
During the times when an oceanic connection existed,
sand and gravel were deposited near the margins of
the sea, and deep-sea sediments, mostly clay, were
deposited in the offshore areas. Subsequently, the
Mediterranean was again isolated from the Atlantic,
and the evaporation sequence was repeated, perhaps
several times.
Supporting evidence for this view of Mediterranean
history comes from southern Europe and north Africa.
The present-day Mediterranean controls the level to
which streams can erode downward: they can erode
no lower than sea level. In Europe and Africa,
however, there are canyons cut into solid bedrock that
extend to depths far below present sea level. The
contention is that during periods of lower sea level,
(a) (c)
-^ FIGURE 7-15 Core of rock salt from a well

(a) in Michigan, (b) Rock gypsum.
(c) Chert. (Photos courtesy of Sue Monroe.)
cherts result from accumulations of shells of silica- lateand kill the bacteria. Thus, bacterial decay ceases
secreting, single-celled organisms such as radiolarians and plant materials are not completely destroyed. These
and diatoms (Fig. 7-16). Unfortunately, the shells of partly altered plant remains accumulate as layers of or-
these organisms are easily altered, so the evidence for a commonly smell of hydrogen sulfide
ganic muck, which
biochemical origin of many bedded cherts is obscured. odor of swamps). When buried, this or-
(the rotten-egg
ganic muck becomes peat, which looks rather like
Coal coarse pipe tobacco. Where peat is abundant, as in Ire-
Coal is a biochemical sedimentary rock composed of the land and Scotland, it burned as a fuel. Peat that is
is
compressed, altered remains of organisms, especially buried more deeply and compressed, especially if it is
land plants (Table 7-3; Fig. 7-17). It forms in swamps heated too, is altered to a type of dark brown coal called
and bogs where the water is deficient in oxygen or where lignite, in which plant remains are still clearly visible.
organic matter accumulates faster than it decomposes. During the change from organic muck to coal, such vol-
The decompose vegetation in swamps can
bacteria that atile elements of the vegetation as oxygen, hydrogen,
exist without oxygen, but their wastes must be oxidized, and nitrogen are partly vaporized and driven off, thus
and because no oxygen is present, the wastes accumu- enriching the residue in carbon; lignite contains about

¥.-x-j*r- LT
\ .<Mm
(a) (b)
•^ FIGURE 7-16 Bedded chert is composed of microscopic shells of silica-secreting,

single-celled (a) radiolarians and (b) diatoms.
70% carbon as opposed to about 50% in peat. of physical, chemical, and biological attributes. Such
Bituminous coal, which contains about 80% carbon, distinctive bodies of sediment, or sedimentary rock, are
is a higher grade coal than lignite. It is dense and black sedimentary facies.
and has been so thoroughly altered that plant remains Any aspect of sedimentary rocks that makes them
can only rarely be seen. The highest grade coal is an- recognizably different from adjacent rocks of the same
thracite, which is a metamorphic type of coal (see Chap- age, or approximately the same age, can be used to es-
ter 8). It contains up to 98% carbon and, when burned, tablish a sedimentary facies. Figure 7-19 illustrates three
yields more heat per unit volume than other types of coal. sedimentary facies: a sand facies, a mud facies, and a
Historically,most of the coal mined in the United carbonate facies. If these sediments become lithified,
States has been bituminous coal from the coal fields of they are called sandstone, mudstone (or shale), and
the Appalachian coal basin (Fig. 7-18). These coal de- limestone facies, respectively.
posits formed in coastal swamps during the Pennsylva-
nian Period between 286 and 320 million years ago.
Huge lignite and subbituminous coal deposits also exist ^ FIGURE 7-17 Coal is a biochemical sedimentary rock
in the western United States, and these are becoming

composed of the altered remains of land plants. (Photo
increasingly important resources (Fig. 7-18).
^ SEDIMENTARY FACIES
If a layer of sediment or sedimentary rock is traced lat-
erally, it generally changes in composition, texture, or

both. It changes by lateral gradation resulting from the
simultaneous operation of different depositional pro-
cesses in adjacent depositional environments. For exam-
ple,sand may be deposited in a high-energy nearshore
environment while mud and carbonate sediments accu-
mulate simultaneously in the laterally adjacent low-
energy offshore environments (Fig. 7-19). Deposition in
each of these environments produces a body of sedi-
ment, each of which is characterized by a distinctive set
Sedimentary Facies 173

Explanation
Type of Percentage
coal of all coal
| Anthracite 1 %
^\ Bituminous coal 48%
|
^| Subbituminous coal 34%
4 [ ^\ Lignite 17%
I I L_J
600
km
"^ FIGURE 7-18 Distribution of coal deposits in the United States.
environments. The strata in Figure 7-20, for example,

Marine Transgressions and Regressions
consist of a sandstone facies that was deposited in a
Many sedimentary rocks in the interiors of continents nearshore marine environment overlain by shale and
show clear evidence of having been deposited in marine limestone facies that were deposited in offshore environ-
^ FIGURE 7-19 Deposition in

adjacent environments yields
distinct bodies of sediment, each of
which is designated as a
sedimentary facies.

ments. Such a vertical sequence of facies can be ex-
plained by deposition occurring during a time when sea
level rose with respect to the continents. When sea level
rises with respect to a continent, the shorelin£_mxiY£S.
^nland, giving rise to a marine tra nsgression ( Fig. 7-20).
As the shoreline advances inland, the depositional envi-
ronments parallel to the shoreline do likewise. Remem-
ber that each laterally adjacent environment in Figure
7-20 is the depositional site of a different sedimentary
facies.As a result of a marine transgression, the facies
that formed in the offshore environments are super-
posed over the facies deposited in the nearshore envi-
ronment, thus accounting for the vertical succession of
sedimentary facies (Fig. 7-20).
Another important aspect of marine transgressions is
that an individual facies can be deposited over a huge
geographic area (Fig. 7-20). Even though the nearshore
environment is long and narrow at any particular time,
deposition occurs continuously as the environment mi-
grates landward during a marine transgression. The sand
deposited under these conditions may be tens to hun-
dreds of meters thick, but have horizontal dimensions of
length and width measured in hundreds of kilometers.
The opposite of a marine transgression is a marine
regression. If sea level falls with respect to a continent,
the shorelineand environments that parallel the shore-
line move seaward direction. The vertical sequence
in a
produced by a marine regression has facies of the near-
shore environment superposed over facies of offshore
environments. Marine regressions can also account for
the deposition of a facies over a large geographic area.
^ ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
When geologists investigate sedimentary rocks in the field,
they are observing the products of processes that operated
during the past. The only record of these processes is pre-
served in the rocks, so geologists must evaluate those as-
pects of sedimentary rocks that allow inferences to be
made about the original processes and the environment of
deposition. Sedimentary textures such as sorting and
rounding can give clues to the depositional process. Wind-
blown dune sands, for example, tend to be well sorted and
well rounded. The geometry or three-dimensional shape of
rock bodies is another important criterion in environmen-
tal interpretation. Marine transgressions and regressions
yield sediment bodies with a blanket or sheetlike geometry,
whereas deposits in stream channels tend to be long and
narrow and are therefore described as having a shoestring

geometry (Fig. 7-21). Other aspects of sedimentary rocks
that are important in environmental analysis include sed-
imentary structures and fossils.
Mudrock
— Sandstone
"^FIGURE 7-21 Two different geometries of

sedimentary rock bodies. The limestone, sandstone, and
mudrock all have blanket geometries. Within the mudrock,
however, elongate sandstones have a shoestring geometry.
"^ FIGURE 7-22 Most sedimentary rocks show some
kind of layering or bedding as these sandstones in Montana.
composition, grain size, color, or a combination of fea-

tures (Fig. 7-22). Almost all sedimentary rocks show they reach the relatively level sea or lake floor. There,
some kind of bedding; a few, such as limestones that they rapidly slow down and begin depositing trans-
formed as coral reefs, lack this feature, however. ported sediment, the coarsest first followed by progres-
Graded bedding involves an upward decrease in grain sively smaller particles (Fig. 7-23).
size within a single bed (Fig. 7-23). Most graded bed- Many sedimentary rocks are characterized by cross-
ding appears to have formed from turbidity current dep- bedding; cross-beds are arranged such that they are at
osition, although some forms in stream channels during an angle to the surface upon which they accumulated
the waning stages of floods. Turbidity currents are un- (Fig. 7-24). Cross-bedding is common in desert dunes
derwater flows of sediment-water mixtures that are and sediments in stream channels and shallow marine
in
denser than sediment-free water. Such flows move environments. Invariably, cross-beds result from trans-
downslope along the bottom of the sea or a lake until port by wind or water currents, and the cross-beds are
"»" FIGURE 7-23 Graded bedding in an ancient stream

channel in Montana. Notice that the sizes of the "^ FIGURE Cross-bedding forms when the beds are
7-24
sedimentary particles decrease upward; the base of the upon which they
inclined with respect to the surface
deposit consists of conglomerate, whereas the top, just accumulate. Cross-beds indicate ancient current directions
above the hammer handle, is sandstone. by their dip, to the left in this case.

(a) (b)
"^ FIGURE 7-25 (a) Current ripple marks on the bed of a stream in Michigan.
(b) Wave-formed ripples on Heron Island, Australia.
inclined downward, or dip, in the direction of flow. Be- intact. The remains of organisms are called body fossils
cause their orientation depends on the direction of flow, to distinguish them from trace fossils such as tracks,
cross-beds are good indicators of ancient current direc- trails, and burrows (Fig. 7-27), which are indications of
tions or paleocurrents (Fig. 7-24). ancient organic activity.
one can commonly observe small-
In sand deposits For any potential fossil to be preserved, it must es-
scale, ridgelike ripple marks on bedding planes. Two cape the ravages of such destructive processes as running
common types of ripple marks are recognized. One type water, waves, scavengers, exposure to the atmosphere,
is asymmetrical in cross section and forms as a result of and bacterial decay. Obviously, the soft parts of organ-
currents that move in one direction as in a stream chan- isms are devoured or decomposed most rapidly, but even
nel. These are current ripple marks (Fig. 7-25a) and, like the hard skeletal elements will be destroyed unless they
cross-bedding, are good paleocurrent indicators. In con- are buried and protected in mud, sand, or volcanic ash.
trast, ripples that tend to be symmetrical in cross section Even if buried, skeletal elements may be dissolved by
are produced by the to-and-fro motion of waves and are groundwater or destroyed by alteration of the host rock.
known aswave-formed ripple marks (Fig. 7-25b).
Mud cracks are found in clay-rich sediment that has
dried out (Fig. 7-26). When such sediment dries, it
"^ FIGURE 7-26 Mud cracks form in clay-rich sediments
shrinks and forms intersecting fractures (mud cracks).
when they dry and shrink.
Such features in ancient sedimentary rocks indicate that
the sediment was deposited where periodic drying was
possible as on a river floodplain, near a lake shore, or
where muddy deposits are exposed on marine shorelines
at low tide.
Fossils
Fossils are the remains or traces of ancient organisms

(Fig. 7-27).These remains are mostly the hard skeletal
elements of organisms such as shells, bones, and teeth,
but under exceptional conditions even the soft-part
anatomy may be preserved. For example, several frozen
woolly mammoths have been discovered in Alaska and
Siberia with hair, flesh, and internal organs preserved
Environmental Analysis 177

"^ FIGURE 7-28 Specimen of petrified wood showing the
original structure of the woody tissues. (Photo courtesy of
Sue Monroe.)
Nevertheless, fossils are quite common. The remains of

microscopic plants and animals are the most common,
but these require specialized methods of recovery, prep-
aration,and study and are not sought out by casual
of marine animals are also very
fossil collectors. Shells
common and easily collected in many areas, and even

the bones and teeth of dinosaurs are much more com-
mon than most people realize.
Some fossils retain their original composition and
structure, and thus are preserved as unaltered remains,
but many have been altered in some way. For example,
dissolved mineral matter can be precipitated in the pores
of bones, teeth, and shells or can fill the spaces within
cells of wood. Wood may be preserved by the replace-
ment of the woody tissues by silica; it then is referred to
as petrified, a term that means "to become stone" (Fig.
7-28). Silicon dioxide (Si0 2 ) or iron sulfide (FeS 2 ) can

completely replace the calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 )
shells of marine animals (Fig. 7-29a). Insects and the

leaves, stems, and roots of plants are commonly pre-
served as thin carbon films that show the details of the
original organism (Fig. 7-29b). Shells in sediment may
be dissolved leaving a cavity called a mold that is shaped
like the shell. If a mold is filled in, it becomes a cast
(Fig. 7-29c).
If it were not for fossils, we would have no knowl-
edge of such extinct animals as trilobites and dinosaurs.

"»" FIGURE 7-27 (a) Body fossils consist of the actual
Thus, fossils constitute our only record of ancient life.
remains of organisms, trilobites in this case, (b) Trace fossils They are not simply curiosities, however, but have sev-
are an indication of ancient organic activity. These bird eral practical uses. In many geologic studies, it is neces-
tracks are preserved in mudrock of the Green River sary to correlate or determine age equivalence of sedi-
Formation of Wyoming.
mentary rocks in different areas. Such correlations are

(c) (d)
*** FIGURE 7-29 Various types of fossilization. (a) Replacement by iron sulfide (FeS 2 ).
{b) Carbonized leaf, (c) Mold, (d) Cast. (Photos courtesy of Sue Monroe.)
most commonly demonstrated with fossils; we will dis- While conducting field studies, geologists commonly
cuss correlation more fully in Chapter 9. Fossils are also make some preliminary interpretations. For example,
useful in determining environments of deposition. some sedimentary particles such as ôoid sjp limesto nes
most commonly form in shallow marine environments
where cu rrents are vigorou s. Large-sca lg_c ross-beddin g
Environment of Deposition
is typicaTof, but not restricted to, des&rt dunes. Fossils of
The sedimentary rocks in the geologic record acquired land plants and animals can be washed into transitional
their various properties, in part, as a result of the phys- environments, but mosôf them are preserved in depos-
ical, chemical, and biological processes that operated in ts of contin e ntal envir o nment s. Fossil sheuTof such
i
the original depositional environment. One of geolo- marine-dwelling animals as corals obviously indicate
gists' major tasks is to determine the specific deposi- marine depositional environments.
tional environment of sedimentary rocks. Based on their Much environmental interpretation is done in the
knowledge of cross-bedding and present-day processes, laboratory where the data and rock samples collected
such as sediment transport and deposition by streams, during field work can be more fully analyzed. Such anal-
geologists can make inferences regarding the deposi- yses might include microscopic and chemical examina-
tional environments of ancient sedimentary rocks. tion of rock samples, identification of fossils, and
Environmental Analysis 179

—
West
Central
Pennsylvania
Tuscarora
Sandstone
Grain size increases
Shale more common
Sedimentary structures Comparison with recent deposits
Cross-bedding I
Mostly horizontal Textural trends and distribution of sedimentary structures
similar to those of Platte River, Colorado-Nebraska
Interpretation
•^ FIGURE 7-30 A simplified Generally west to northwest Tuscarora Shawangunk and Green Pond-
cross section showing the lateral downstream part upper part of
relationships for three rock units in of braided braided stream
the eastern United States. river system system
graphic representations showing the three-dimensional indicates they were derived from a source region in the
shapes of rock units and their relationships to other rock area of the present-day Appalachian Mountains.
units. In addition, the features of sedimentary rocks are In the Grand Canyon of Arizona, a number of for-
compared with those of sediments from present-day mations are exposed, and many of these can be traced
depositional environments; the contention is that fea- for great distances. Three of these, the Tapeats Sand-
tures in ancient rocks, such as ripple marks, formed stone, the Bright Angel Shale, and the Mauv Limestone,
during the past in response to the same processes re- occur in vertical sequence and contain features, includ-
sponsible for them now. Finally, when all data have been ing fossils, that clearly indicate that they were deposited
analyzed, an environmental interpretation is made. in transitionaland marine environments (Fig. 7-31). In
The following examples illustrate how environmental were forming simultaneously, but a marine
fact, all three
interpretations are made. The Green Pond Conglomer- transgression caused them to be superposed in the order
ate, Shawangunk Conglomerate, and Tuscarora Sand- now observed (Fig. 7-20). Similar sequences of rocks of
stone, three ancient formations* in the eastern United approximately the same age in Utah, Colorado, Wyo-
States, possess characteristic grain sizes, rock types, and ming, Montana, and South Dakota indicate that this
sedimentary structures that indicate deposition in a con- marine transgression was widespread indeed.
tinental environment, particularly a system of streams
that flowed generally
tion
westward (the paleocurrent direc-
was determined by the orientation of cross-beds)
^ SEDIMENTS, SEDIMENTARY
(Fig. 7-30). As supporting evidence for this interpreta-
ROCKS, AND NATURAL RESOURCES
tion, these ancient deposits possess textures and sedi- The uses of sediments and sedimentary rocks or the ma-
mentary structures very similar to those of the present- terials they contain vary considerably. Sand and gravel are
day deposits of the Platte River in Colorado and essential to the construction industry, pure clay deposits
Nebraska. The composition of the sedimentary particles are used for ceramics, and limestone is used in the manu-
facture of cement and in blast furnaces where iron ore is
refined to make steel. Evaporites are the source of com-

*A formation is a body of rock with distinctive upper and lower
boundaries that is extensive enough to be depicted on a geologic
mon table salt as well as a number of chemical com-
map. The term is generally applied to sedimentary rocks, but can be pounds, and rock gypsum is used to manufacture wall-
used for some igneous and metamorphic rocks as well. board. The tiny island nation of Nauru, with one of the

highest per capita incomes in the world, has an economy
based almost entirely on mining and exporting phosphate-
bearing sedimentary rock that is used in fertilizers.
Anthracite coal an especially desirable resource be-

is
cause it burns hot with a smokeless flame. Unfortunately,

it is the least common type of coal, so most coal used for
heating buildings and for generating electrical energy is

bituminous (Fig. 7-18). Bituminous coal is also used to
make coke, a hard, gray substance consisting of the fused
ash of bituminous coal; coke is prepared by heating the
coal and driving off the volatile matter. Coke is used to
fire blast furnaces during the production of steel (Fig.
7-32). Synthetic oil and gas and a number of other prod-
ucts are also made from bituminous coal and lignite.
"^ FIGURE 7-31 View of the Tapeats Sandstone, Bright
Angel Shale (forming the slope in the middle distance), and
Petroleum and Natural Gas Mauv Limestone in the Grand Canyon in Arizona. These
formations were deposited during a widespread marine
Both petroleum and natural gas are hydrocarbons,
transgression.
meaning that they are composed of hydrogen and car-
Crushed ore "^ FIGURE 7-32 Diagrammatic representation of a

limestone and coke blast furnace in which iron ore is refined. The raw
materials needed are iron ore, coke made from
bituminous coal, and limestone as a fluxing agent. The
Exhaust gases
limestone combines with silica in the iron ore and
forms a glassy slag that is drawn off near the bottom
of the blast furnace. Much of the molten iron is
further refined to produce steel.
Preheated air or oxygen
Sediments, Sedimentary Rocks, and Natural Resources 181

bon. Hydrocarbons form from the remains of micro- some kind of rock in which they can be trapped. If there
scopic organisms that exist in the seas and in some large were no trapping mechanism, both would migrate up-
lakes. When these organisms die, their remains settle to ward and eventually seep out at the surface. Indeed,
the sea or lake floor where little oxygen is available to such seeps are known; one of the most famous is the La
decompose them. They are then buried under layers of Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, California. The rock in
sediment. As the depth at which they are buried inwhich petroleum and natural gas accumulate is known
creases, they are heated and transformed into petroleum as reservoir rock (Fig. 7-33). Effective reservoir rocks
and natural gas. The rock in which the hydrocarbons contain a considerable amount of pore space so that
formed is generally called the source rock. appreciable quantities of hydrocarbons can accumulate.
For petroleum and natural gas to occur in economic Furthermore, the reservoir rocks must possess high per-
quantities, they must migrate from the source rock into meability, or the capacity to transmit fluids; otherwise
^ FIGURE 7-33 Oil and natural

gas traps. The arrows
in both
diagrams indicate the migration of
hydrocarbons, (a) Two examples of
stratigraphic traps, (b) Two
examples of structural traps, one
formed by folding, the other by
faulting.
Oil seep
Source bed
(b)

hydrocarbons cannot be extracted in reasonable quan-
tities. In addition, some kind of impermeable cap rock
must be present over the reservoir rock to prevent up-

ward migration of the hydrocarbons (Fig. 7-33).
Many hydrocarbon reservoirs consist of nearshore
marine sandstones in proximity with fine-grained,
organic-rich source rocks. Such oil and gas traps are
called stratigraphic traps because they owe their exist-
ence to variations in the strata. Ancient coral reefs are
also good stratigraphic traps. Indeed, some of the oil in
the Persian Gulf region is trapped in ancient reefs (Per-
spective 7-2). Structural traps result when rocks are de-

formed by folding, fracturing, or both. In areas where
sedimentary rocks have been deformed into a series of
folds, hydrocarbons migrate to the high parts of such
structures (Fig. 7-3 3 b). Displacement of rocks along
faults (fractures along which movement has occurred) "^ FIGURE 7-34 An example of structures adjacent to a
also yields situations conducive to trapping hydrocar- salt dome in which oil and natural gas may be trapped.
bons (Fig. 7-33b).
Coast region, hydrocarbons are commonly
In the Gulf
found domes. A vast layer
in structures adjacent to salt
Uranium
of rock salt was precipitated in this region during the
Jurassic Period as the ancestral Gulf of Mexico formed Most of the uranium used in nuclear reactors in the
when North America separated from North Africa. Rock United States comes from the complex potassium-,
salt is a low-density sedimentary rock, and when deeply uranium-, vanadium-bearing mineral carnotite found in
buried beneath more dense sediments such as sand and some sedimentary rocks. Some uranium is also derived
mud, it rises toward the surface in pillars known as salt from uraninite (UO z ), a uranium oxide that occurs in
domes. As the rock salt rises, it penetrates and deforms granitic rocks and hydrothermal veins. Uraninite is eas-
the overlying rock layers, forming structures along its ily oxidized and dissolved in groundwater, transported
margins that may trap petroleum and gas (Fig. 7-34). elsewhere, and chemically reduced and precipitated in
Other sources of petroleum that will probably be- the presence of organic matter.
come increasingly important in the future include oil The uranium ores in the United States are
richest
shales and tar sands. The United States has about two- widespread Colorado Plateau area of Colorado
in the
thirds of all known oil shales, although large deposits and adjoining parts of Wyoming, Utah, Arizona, and
also occur in South America, and all continents have New Mexico. These ores, consisting of fairly pure
some oil shale. The richest deposits in the United States masses and encrustations of carnotite, are associated
are in the Green River Formation of Colorado, Utah, with plant remains in sandstones that formed in ancient
and Wyoming (see the Prologue). stream channels. Although most of these ores are asso-
Tar sand is a type of sandstone in which viscous, ciated with fragmentary plant remains, some petrified
asphaltlike hydrocarbons fill the pore spaces. This sub- uranium.
trees also contain large quantities of
stance is the sticky residue of once-liquid petroleum Large reserves of low-grade uranium ore also occur
from which the volatile constituents have been lost. Liq- in the Chattanooga Shale. The uranium is finely dissem-
uid petroleum can be recovered from tar sand, but to do inated in this black, organic-rich mudrock that underlies
so, large quantities of rock must be mined and pro- large parts of several states including Illinois, Indiana,
cessed. Since the United States has few tar sand deposits, Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee.
it cannot look to this source as a significant future en-
ergy resource. The Athabaska tar sands in Alberta, Can-
Banded Iron Formation
ada, however, are one of the largest deposits of this type.
These deposits are currently being mined, and it is esti- Banded iron formation is a chemical sedimentary rock of
mated that they contain several hundred billion barrels great economic importance. Such rocks consist of alter-
of recoverable petroleum. nating thin layers of chert and iron minerals, mostly the

Perspective 7-2
PERSIAN GULF PETROLEUM

During the 1850s, the demand for petroleum was of all petroleum imports in the world come from the
increasing in the United States as people sought a cheap Gulf countries.
alternative to other sources to be used for lighting, as a Although large concentrations of petroleum occur in
lubricant for machinery, and as an ingredient in many areas of the world, more than 50% of all proven
liniments. In 1859, Edwin L. Drake drilled an oil well reserves are in the Gulf region (Fig. 2)! Furthermore,
21 m deep at Titusville, Pennsylvania, and began some of the oil fields are gigantic; at least 20 are
pumping 10 to 35 barrels of oil per day (1 barrel = 42 expected to yield more than five billion barrels of oil
gallons). The United States quickly became the world's each, and 7 had surpassed this figure by 1983.
leading producer, a position it maintained until 1965; Several factors account for the prolific quantities of
since that time, it has been in second place (Fig. 1). oil in the Gulf region. By the beginning of the Mesozoic
Nevertheless, barely 90 years after the Drake well was Era, all of the continents had joined together to form the
drilled, the United States became a net petroleum supercontinent Pangaea. However, they were arranged
importer. Currently, the United States imports more than such that present-day Africa and Eurasia were separated
half of all the petroleum it consumes, much of it from by the Tethys Sea (Fig. 3). What is now the Gulf region
the Persian Gulf region. was a broad, stable, marine shelf extending eastward
Even though petroleum was discovered as early as from Africa. Geologists refer to such a shelf as a passive
1908 in Iran, the Gulf region did not become a continental margin as opposed to an active margin
significant petroleum-producing area until the characterized by plate convergence, volcanism,
economic recovery after World War II. Following the earthquake activity, and strong deformation. The U.S.
war, Western Europe and Japan in particular became Gulf Coast, which is also a passive continental margin,
dependent on Gulf oil and still rely heavily on this is another area of significant petroleum reserves.
region for most of their supply. The United States is During the Mesozoic Era, and particularly the
also dependent on imports from the Gulf, but receives Cretaceous Period when most of the petroleum
significant quantities of petroleum from other sources formed, this continental margin lay near the equator
such as Mexico and Venezuela. Currently, fully 40% where countless microorganisms lived in the surface
t*- FIGURE 1 The top 10 oil-producing

countries for 1989. Numbers indicate barrels
of oil produced daily.
United Kingdom
Kuwait 1,743,000
Venezuela 1,742,000
1,732.000

'"'- FIGURE 2 The top 10 countries in
proven oil reserves in 1989. Numbers indicate
millions of barrels of oil.
waters (Fig. 3). The remains of these organisms are particularly susceptible to transgressions and
accumulated with the bottom sediments and were regressions. Several such events occurred during which
buried, beginning the complex process of oil some of the reservoir rocks formed as extensive, thick
generation and formation of source beds. ""•" FIGURE 3 The position of the continents during the
Broad passive continental margins such as the one Cretaceous Period. The Gulf region, which is part of the
that existed in the Gulf region during the Mesozoic Era Arabian plate, was still connected to the African plate.
continued on next page

African
plate
-•-FIGURE 4 The oil and

gas fields or discoveries in
the Gulf region. The
Arabian plate is moving
north (arrow) and colliding
with Eurasia along the
Zagros suture.
regressive sandstones. Other important reservoirs consist Arabian plate against Eurasia causes continuing
of oolitic limestones (Fig. 7- 13c), algal reef limestones, deformation in Iran and northern Iraq. Most of the oil
and reefs composed of the shells of clams. In any case, fields are south of the area of strong deformation,
these reservoir rocks are geographically extensive however (Fig. 4).
because the shelf upon which they were deposited was Many nations including the United States are
2,000 to 3,000 km wide and at least twice as long. heavily dependent on imports of Gulf oil, a
Overlying the reservoir rocks are cap rocks that include dependence that will increase in the future. Within a
widespread shale and evaporite units. few decades, however, the world's petroleum resources
Equally important in the overall geologic history of will likely be nearly exhausted. Most geologists think
the region — and the preservation of petroleum — is its that all of the truly gigantic oil fields have already
deformational history since the petroleum formed. In been found, but concede that some significant
general, tectonism has not been extreme; if it had discoveries are yet to be made. One must view these
been, much of the petroleum would have been potential discoveries in the proper perspective,
destroyed by metamorphism or lost by leakage however. For example, the discovery of an oil field
through extensive fractures. As a consequence of comparable to that of the North Slope of Alaska
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden during the
rifting in the (about 10 billion barrels) constitutes about a two-year
Cenozoic Era, the Arabian plate has separated from supply for the United States at the current
the African plate. Northward movement of the consumption rate.

iron oxides hematite and magnetite (Fig. 7-35). Banded
iron formations are present on all the continents and ac-
count for most of the iron ore mined in the world today.
The origin of banded iron formations is not fully
understood, and none are presently forming. Fully 92%
of all banded iron formations were deposited in shallow
seas between 2.5 and 2.0 billion years ago, during the
Proterozoic Eon. Iron is a highly reactive element that in
the presence of oxygen combines to form rustlike oxides
that are not readily soluble in water. During early Earth
history, however, little oxygen was present in the atmo-
sphere, and thus little was dissolved in seawater. How-
+2
ever, soluble reduced iron (Fe and silica were present
)
in seawater.
Geological evidence indicates that abundant photo- "^ FIGURE 7-35 Outcrop of banded iron formation in
synthesizing organisms were present about 2.5 billion northern Michigan.
years ago. These organisms, such as bacteria, release
oxygen as a byproduct of respiration; thus, they released
oxygen into seawater and caused large-scale precipita-
tion of iron oxides and silica as banded iron formations.
^CHAPTER SUMMARY or the biochemical activities of organisms.

subcategory called biochemical sedimentary rocks
A
1. Detrital sediment consists of mechanically weathered is recognized.

solid particles,whereas chemical sediment consists of 7. Carbonate rocks contain minerals with the
2
minerals extracted from solution by inorganic carbonate ion (C0 3 )~ as in limestone and
chemical processes and the activities of organisms. dolostone. Dolostone probably forms when
2. Sedimentary particles are designated in order of magnesium partly replaces the calcium in
decreasing size as gravel, sand, silt, and clay. limestone.
3. Sedimentary particles are rounded and sorted during 8. Evaporites include rock salt and rock gypsum, both
transport although the degree of rounding and of which form by inorganic precipitation of minerals
sorting depends on particle size, transport distance, from evaporating water.
and depositional process. 9. Coal is a type of biochemical sedimentary rock
4. Any area in which sediment is deposited is a composed of the altered remains of land plants.
depositional environment. Major depositional 10. Sedimentary facies are bodies of sediment or
settings are continental, transitional, and marine, sedimentary rock that are recognizably different
each of which includes several specific depositional from adjacent sediments or rocks.
environments. 11. Some sedimentary facies are geographically
5. Compaction and cementation are the processes of widespread because they were deposited during
sediment lithification in which sediment is converted marine transgressions or marine regressions.
into sedimentary rock. Silica and calcium carbonate 12. Sedimentary structures such as bedding,
are the most common chemical cements, but iron cross-bedding, and ripple marks commonly form in
oxide and iron hydroxide cements are important in sediments when or shortly after they are deposited.
some rocks. Such features preserved in sedimentary rocks aid
6. Sedimentary rocks are generally classified as detrital geologists in determining ancient current directions
or chemical: and depositional environments.
a. Detrital sedimentary rocks consist of solid 13. Sediments and sedimentary rocks are the host
particles derived from preexisting rocks. materials for most fossils. Fossils provide the only
b. Chemical sedimentary rocks are derived from record of prehistoric life and are useful for
ions in solution by inorganic chemical processes correlation and environmental interpretations.
Chapter Summary 187

14. Depositional environments of ancient sedimentary 6. The most abundant detrital sedimentary rocks are:
rocks are determined by studying sedimentary a. l limestones; Jj*—-^ sandstones;
and structures, examining fossils, and
textures c./fc_ evaporites ^3^BL mudrocks; e. arkoses.
making comparisons with present-day depositional 7. Most limestones havera large component of calcite
processes. that was originally extracted from seawater by:
15. Many sediments and sedimentary rocks including a. inorganic chemical reactions;
sand, gravel, evaporites, coal, and banded iron £\y )*tr organisms; c. evaporation;
formations are important natural resources. Most oil d. _mf chemical weathering; e. lithification.
and natural gas are found in sedimentary rocks. 8. Dolostone is formed by the addition of to
limestone.
carbonate; 4h magnesium;
^ IMPORTANT TERMS
a.
d.
calcium; b.
iron; e. sodium.
c.
. The most common evaporite rock is;

bedding fossil
rock gypsum; b. bituminous chert; c.
bedding plane graded bedding
coal; d. -yrock salt; e. siltstone.
biochemical sedimentary lithification
10. The superposition of offshore facies over nearshore
rock marine regression
facies occurs when sea level rises and the shoreline
carbonate rock marine transgression
migrates inland during a marine:
cementation mud crack
a. superposition; b. regression; c. facies;
chemical sedimentary paleocurrent •$
d. invasion; e. transgression.
rock ripple mark 11. Which of the following can be used to determine
clastic texture rounding
paleocurrent direction?
compaction sediment
a. mud cracks; b. graded bedding;
cross-bedding sedimentary facies c. Sfc cross-bedding; d. turbidity currents;
crystalline texture sedimentary rock
e. grain size.
depositional environment sedimentary structure
12. Turbidity current deposition is responsible for most:
detrital sedimentary rock sorting
bedding planes; b. -f- graded bedding:
a.
evaporite
c. wave-formed ripple marks; d. sedimentary
facies; e. marine regressions.
^ REVIEW QUESTIONS 13. Which of
a.
the following is a trace fossil?
dinosaur tooth; b. frozen mammoth;
1. Which of the following is detrital sediment? c. if worm burrow; d. bird bone; e. clam
shell.
a. broken sea shells; b. ions in solution;
c. * quartz sand; d. conglomerate; 14. Traps for petroleum and natural gas resulting from
graded bedding. variations in the properties of sedimentary rocks
e.
are traps.
2. A clay-sized sedimentary particle measures:
a. greater than 2 m; b. 2-10 cm; a reservoir; b. stratigraphic; c. cap
c 1/4-1/2 mm; d.-^Z. less than 1/256 mm; rock; d. structural; e. salt dome.
e. 5 mm. 15. Most of the known oil shales are in;
3. If an aggregate of sediment consists of particles that a. the Soviet Union; b. China;

are all about the same size, it is said to be: c. Venezuela; d. If the United States;
a. -jr well sorted; b. poorly rounded; e. Australia.
c. completely abraded; d. sandstone; 16. In the United States most uranium for nuclear
e. lithified.
reactors is obtained from the mineral:
4. The process whereby dissolved mineral matter a. aragonite; b. gypsum; c. kaolinite;
d. halite; e. «^ carnotite.
precipitates in the pore spaces of sediment and binds
it together is:
17. How does the gravel in sedimentary breccia differ
a. compaction; b. rounding; c. bedding; from the gravel in conglomerate?
d. weathering; e. */ cementation. 18. What are the two meanings of the term "clay"?
5. Sedimentary breccia is a rare rock type because: 19. Explain why the sediment in windblown sand dunes
is better sorted than that in glacial deposits.
a. if gravel is rounded quickly during transport;
b. clay is less abundant than other sedimentary 20. What are the common chemical cements in
particles; c. feldspars are chemically unstable; sedimentary rocks, and how do they form?
d. sand deposits are typically well sorted; 21. Distinguish clastic and crystalline textures. Give an
e. itforms only by evaporation of water. example of a sedimentary rock with each texture.

22. Why is quartz the predominant mineral in most 33. What are banded iron formations, and why are they
sandstones? What is a sandstone called that contains an important resource?
at least 25% feldspar?
What and why are some mudrocks
23. are mudrocks,
called shale?
24. In what fundamental way do chemical sedimentary G. Middleton, and R. Murray. 1980. Origin of
Blatt, H.,
rocks differ from detrital sedimentary rocks? sedimentary rocks. New York: W. H. Freeman.
25. Compare and contrast limestone and dolostone. Boggs, S., Jr. 1987. Principles of sedimentology and
26. What are the common evaporites, and how do they stratigraphy. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co.
originate? Collinson, J. D., and D. B. Thompson. 1982. Sedimentary
27. Briefly describe the origin of coal. structures. London: Allen Unwin. &
28. Name three sedimentary structures and explain how Fritz, W. J., N. Moore. 1988. Basics of physical
and J.
they form. stratigraphy and sedimentology. New York: John Wiley &
Sons.
29. How can be used to interpret ancient
fossils
LaPorte, L. F. 1979. Ancient environments. 2d ed. Englewood
depositional environments?
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
30. What are marine transgressions and regressions?
Moody, R. 1986. Fossils. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.
Explain how a marine transgression can account for Selley, R. C. 1978. Ancient sedimentary environments. Ithaca,
beach sand being deposited over a vast region. N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
31. What kinds of data do geologists use to determine 1982. An introduction to sedimentology. 2d ed. New
depositional environment? York: Academic Press.
32. What is oil shale, and how can liquid oil be Simpson, G. G. 1983. Fossils and the history of life. New York:
extracted from it? Scientific American Books.
Additional Readings. 189

CHAPTER 8
METAMO RPHI M AND

S
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
ÔUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
THE AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM
Heat
Pressure
Fluid Activity
"^Perspective 8-1: Asbestos
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
Contact Metamorphism
Dynamic Metamorphism
Regional Metamorphism
CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks
METAMORPHIC ZONES AND FACIES
METAMORPHISM AND PLATE
TECTONICS
METAMORPHISM AND NATURAL
RESOURCES
-"» Perspective 8-2: Graphite
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Marble quarry, northcentral Vermont. (Photo

courtesy of R. V. Dietrich.)
-•ygg«."* ^^: *'«. ». «.'yr»^. *^-*'y^^'%Y
, , , , ,
PROLOGUE Although marbles

metamorphism
result when
(heat, pressure, and
the agents of
fluid activity) are
applied to carbonate rocks, the type of marble formed
^j^gJ|Vjjj| Marble is a metamorphic rock that is

formed from limestone or dolostone. '~'~ J
s~—
Because of its homogeneity, softness, and textures,
marble has been a favorite rock of sculptors
throughout history. As the value of authentic marble
sculptures has increased through the years, the
number of forgeries has also increased. With the price
of some marble sculptures in the millions of dollars,
private collectors and museums need some means of
assuring the authenticity of the work they are buying.
Aside from the monetary considerations, it is
important that such forgeries do not become part of

the historical and artistic legacy of human endeavor.
Experts have traditionally relied on the artistic style
of the object as well as its weathering characteristics
to determine whether a marble sculpture is authentic

or a forgery. Because marble is not very resistant to
weathering, forgers have had to resort to a variety of
methods to produce the weathered appearance of an
authentic ancient work. Now, however, with new
techniques of analyzing marble, geologists can
differentiate a naturally weathered surface from one
that has been artificially altered.
is because each quarry yields marble with a
distinctive set of carbon and oxygen isotope values
(Fig. 8-lb).
Recall from Chapter 3 that isotopes are forms of
individual elements with different atomic mass
numbers. If the carbon and oxygen isotope ratios of a
sculpture fall outside the typical range of the locality
from which the marble supposedly comes, then it is
probably a forgery. Using this technique, geologists

showed that a marble head of Achilles owned by the
J. Paul Getty Museum in Malibu, California, was a
forgery. When the carbon and oxygen isotope ratios
from the Getty Museum specimen were compared with
those obtained from another marble head of known
authenticity, they did not match, indicating that the two
sculptures were carved from marbles that came from
two different quarries.
Norman Herz of the Geology Department of the
University of Georgia has sampledall of the major
and many of the minor ancient marble quarries in the

Aegean Sea region and assembled a large isotopic data
base for these quarries. Using this data base for
comparative purposes, Herz has been able to
determine the source area of many marble pieces, as
well as demonstrating that some marble sculptures
have been reassembled from marbles that came from
•^ FIGURE 8-2 Carbon and oxygen isotopic analysis of different localities and therefore were not part of the
the 53-cm tall Antonia Minor portrait showed that the head original piece.
is authentic, but unrelated to the other four pieces that In one especially interesting case, Herz was able to
compose it.
determine that the five fragments composing the
Antonia Minor portrait in the Fogg Museum at
Harvard University (Fig. 8-2) are not all the same
marble. The portrait was purchased by the earl of
depends, in part, on the original composition of the Pembroke in 1678 and its restoration was completed
parent carbonate rock as well as the type and intensity in 1758. Since that time, art historians have debated
of metamorphism. Therefore, one way to authenticate the portrait's authenticity and method of restoration,
a marble sculpture is to determine the origin of the with some claiming the portrait was assembled from
marble itself. The major quarrying localities of the completely different statues.
Preclassical, Greek, and Roman periods include the The five fragments composing the portrait are the
islands of Naxos, Thasos, and Paros in the Aegean head, the end of the ponytail, the right shoulder and
Sea as well as the Greek mainland, Turkey, and Italy breast, the lower left shoulder, and the upper left
(Fig. 8-la). shoulder and breast. Carbon and oxygen isotopic

In order to determine the locality that the marble in analysis of the five fragments revealed that three of
various sculptures has come from, geologists have the pieces were of Parian marble and two were
employed a wide variety of analytical techniques. Carrara marble. It was concluded that the head is
These include hand specimen and thin-section analysis authentic, but unrelated to the other pieces, with
of the marble, trace element analysis by X-ray the right shoulder and breast and the upper left
fluorescence, stable isotopic ratio analysis for carbon shoulder and breast being comparatively recent
and oxygen, and other more esoteric techniques. additions.
Currently, however, carbon and oxygen isotopic Another case which carbon and oxygen isotopic
in
analysis has proven to be the most powerful and analysis proved usefulwas the "Livia" head in the Ny
reliable method for source area determination. This Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen, Denmark. Its
192 Chapter 8 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks

authenticity and identification had also been debated added at any time. When the skullcap from "Livia" is
by art historians. Isotopic analysis of the skullcap, removed, iconographically, the portrait is that of
head, and nose showed that the head is Parian marble, Agrippina and is now so labeled.
suggesting that it is authentic and was made in Many museums are now making geological testing
Roman times. The skullcap is Ephesian marble, which to authenticate marble sculptures an important part of
was a popular Roman source, and therefore could their curatorial functions. In addition, a large body of
have come from any statue of that time. The nose is data about the characteristics and origin of marble is
Carrara marble, where quarries have been operating being amassed as more sculptures and quarries are
since Roman times, and therefore could have been analyzed.
^ INTRODUCTION rocks such as marble and slate are used as building ma-
terials, and certain metamorphic minerals are econom-
Metamorphic rocks (from the Greek meta meaning
ically valuable. For example, garnets are used as gem-
change and morpho meaning shape), the third major
stones or abrasives; talc
is used in cosmetics, in the
group of rocks, result from the transformation of other
manufacture of paint, and as a lubricant; asbestos is
rocks, generally beneath the Earth's surface. As Figure 8-3
used for insulation and fireproofing (see Perspective
illustrates, metamorphic rocks can form from any other
8-1); and kyanite is used in the production of refractory
rock, including previously formed metamorphic rocks.
materials such as sparkplugs.
Metamorphism usually takes place beneath the Earth's
surface where rocks are subjected to sufficient heat, pres-
sure, and fluid activity to change their mineral composi-
tion and/or texture, thus forming new rocks. These trans-
» THE AGENTS OF
formations take place and the type of
in the solid state, METAMORPHISM
metamorphic rock formed depends on the original com-
As we have already mentioned, metamorphism involves
position and texture of the parent rock, the agents of meta-
the transformation of preexisting rock by the agents of
morphism, and the amount of time the parent rock was
heat, pressure, and fluid activity. During metamorphism,
subjected to the effects of metamorphism.
the originarpock undergoes change so as to come into
A large portion of the Earth's continental crust is
equilibrium with its new environment. The changes may
composed of metamorphic and igneous rocks. Together,
result in the formation of new minerals and/or a change
they form the crystalline basement rocks that underlie
in the texture of the rock by the reorientation of the
the sedimentary rocks of a continent's surface. This
original minerals. In some instances the change is minor,
basement rock is exposed widely in regions of the con-
and features of the parent rock can still be recognized. In
tinents known as shields; these are areas that have been
other cases the rock changes so much that the identity of
very stable during the past 600 million years (Fig. 8-4).
the parent rock can be determined only with great dif-
Metamorphic rocks also constitute a sizable portion of
ficulty, if at all.
the crystalline core of large mountain ranges. Some of
the oldestknown rocks, dated at 3.96 billion years from
the Canadian Shield, are metamorphic, indicating they
Heat
formed from even older rocks.
Why is it important to study metamorphic rocks? For Heat is an important agent of metamorphism because it
one thing, they provide information about geological increases the rate of chemical reactions that may pro-
processes operating within the Earth and about the way duce new mineral assemblages different from those in
these processes have varied through time. From the pres- the original rock. The heat may come from intrusive
ence of certain minerals in metamorphic rocks, geolo- magmas or result from deep burial in the Earth's crust
gistscan determine the approximate temperatures and such as occurs during subduction along a convergent
pressures that parent rocks were subjected to during plate boundary.
metamorphism and thus gain insights into the physical When rocks are intruded by bodies of magma, they are
and chemical changes that occur at different depths subjected to intense heat that affects the surrounding rock;
within the Earth's crust. Furthermore, metamorphic the most intense heating usually occurs adjacent to the
The Agents of Metamorphism 193

""*"
FIGURE 8-3 The rock cycle, showing how metamorphic, igneous, and
sedimentary rocks are interrelated.
magma body and gradually decreases with distance from

Pressure
the intrusion. The zone of metamorphosed rocks that
forms in the country rock adjacent to an intrusive igneous When rocks are buried, they are subjected to increas-
body is usually rather distinct and easy to recognize. ingly greater lithostatic pressure; this pressure, which
Recall from Chapter 4 that temperature increases results from the weight of the overlying rocks, is applied
with depth and that the Earth's geothermal gradient av- equally in all directions (Fig. 8-5a). A similar situation
erages about 25°C/km. Rocks forming at the Earth's occurs when an immersed in water. For exam-
object is
surface may be transported to great depths by subduc- ple, the deeper a styrofoam cup is submerged in the
tion along a convergent plate boundary and thus sub- ocean, the smaller it gets because pressure increases with
jected to increasing temperature and pressure. During depth and is exerted on the cup equally in all directions,
subduction, some minerals may be transformed into thereby compressing the styrofoam (Fig. 8-5b).
other minerals that are more stable under the higher Just as in the styrofoam example, rocks are subjected
temperature and pressure conditions. to increasing lithostatic pressure with depth such that

E23
Precambnan Sediments Folded
shields covering shields mountain belts
"^ FIGURE 8-4 Shields of the world. Shields are the exposed portion of the
crystalline basement rocks that underlie each continent; these areas have been very
stable during the past 600 million years.
the mineral grains within a rock may become more mountain building and can produce distinctive meta-
closely packed. Under such conditions, the minerals may morphic textures and features (Fig. 8-6).
recrystallize; that is, they may form smaller and denser
minerals either of the same chemical composition or of
Fluid Activity
different mineral assemblages.
In addition to the lithostatic pressure resulting from In almost every region where metamorphism occurs,
burial, rocks may also experience differential pressures. water and carbon dioxide (C0 2 are present in varying
)
In this case, the pressures are not equal on all sides, and amounts along mineral grain boundaries or in the pore
the rock is consequently distorted. Differential pressures spaces of rocks. This water, which may contain ions in
typically occur during deformation associated with solution, enhances metamorphism by increasing the rate of
The Agents of Metamorphism 195

Perspective 8-1
ASBESTOS
Asbestos (from the Latin, meaning unquenchable) is a
general term applied to any silicate mineral that easily
separates into flexible fibers (Fig. 1). The combination
of such features as noncombustibility and flexibility
makes asbestos an important industrial material of
considerable value. In fact, asbestos has more than
3,000 known uses. These include brake linings and
clutch facings, fireproof fabrics, heat insulators,
cements, shingles, acid and chemical equipment,
insulation, and binders for various plasters, porcelains,
and electrical insulators to name only a few.
Commercial users consider asbestos fibers to be
either spinning or nonspinning. Spinning fibers are
more valuable because they can be spun into thread
and yarn that can be woven into a variety of fireproof
textiles. Nonspinning fibers are used mainly in various
types of fireproofing and insulation.
The unique properties of asbestos were certainly
known in the ancient world. The Romans used it to
make lamp wicks that never burned out and also
wove it into cremation clothes for the nobility. The
•^ FIGURE 1 Hand specimen of chrysotile from
modern asbestos industry really began, however, in Thetford, Quebec, Canada. Chrysotile is the fibrous form of
1868 when Italy produced approximately 200 tons of serpentine asbestos.
raw material. A decade later, huge discoveries were
made in Quebec, enabling Canada to become one of serpentine asbestos; it is most valuable type and
the
the world's leading producers. constitutes the bulk of commercial asbestos.
all
Asbestos can be divided into two broad groups, Chrysotile's strong, silky fibers are easily spun and can
serpentine and amphibole asbestos. Cbrysotile, which withstand temperatures up to 2,750°C.
is a hydrous magnesium silicate with the chemical The vast majority of chrysotile asbestos occurs in
formula Mg 3 Si 2 5 (OH)4, is the fibrous form of serpentine that has been altered from such ultramafic
chemical reactions. Under dry conditions, most minerals The chemically active fluids that are part of the meta-
react very slowly, but when even small amounts of fluid morphic process come primarily from three sources. The
are introduced, reaction rates speed up, mainly because first is water trapped in the pore spaces of sedimentary
ions can move readily through the fluid and thus enhance rocks as they form; as these rocks are subjected to heat
chemical reactions and the formation of new minerals. and pressure, the water is heated, thus accelerating the
The following reaction provides a good example of various chemical reaction rates. A second source is the
how new minerals can be formed by fluid activity. Here, volatile fluid within magma; as these hot fluids disperse
seawater moving through hot basaltic rock transforms through the surrounding rock, they frequently react
olivine into the metamorphic mineral serpentine: with and alter the mineralogy of the country rock by
2Mg 2 Si0 4 + 2H 2 - Mg3 Si 2 5 (OH) 4 + MgO adding or removing ions. The third source is the dehy-
olivine water serpentine carried dration of water-bearing minerals such as gypsum
away in (CaS0 4 -2H 2 0) and some clays; when these minerals,
solution which contain water as part of their crystal chemistry,

igneous rocks as peridotite under low- and recently been raised, however, concerning the threat
medium-grade metamorphic conditions. Serpentine is posed by asbestos.*
believed to form from the alteration of olivine by hot, Central to the debate is whether all varieties of
chemically active, residual fluids emanating from the asbestos should be lumped together. Chrysotile, whose
cooling magma. The chrysotile asbestos forms veinlets fiberstend to be curly, does not become lodged in the
of fiber within the serpentine and may comprise up to lungs. Furthermore, the fibers are generally soluble
20% of the rock. Other chrysotile results when the and disappear in tissue. In contrast, crocidolite has
metamorphism of magnesium limestone or dolostone long, straight, thin fibers that penetrate the lungs and
produces discontinuous serpentine bands that develop stay there. Thus, crocidolite, not chrysotile, is
within the limestone beds. overwhelmingly responsible for asbestos-related lung

At least five varieties of amphibole asbestos are cancer. Because about 95% of the asbestos in place in
known, but crocidolite, a sodium-iron amphibole with the United States is chrysotile, many people are
the chemical formula Na 2 (Fe +3 )2 (Fe
+2
) 3 Si 8 22 (OH) 2 , questioning whether the dangers from asbestos have
is the most common. Crocidolite, which is also known been somewhat exaggerated.
as blue asbestos, is a long, coarse, spinning fiber that Removing asbestos from buildings where it has
is stronger but more brittle than chrysotile and also been installed might cost as much as $150 billion, and
less resistant to heat. The other varieties of amphibole some recent studies have indicated that the air in
asbestos have little commercial value and are used buildings containing asbestos has essentially the same
chiefly for insulation. amount of airborne asbestos fibers as the air outdoors.
Crocidolite is found in such metamorphic rocks as In fact, unless the material containing the asbestos is
slates and schists. It is thought that crocidolite forms by disturbed, asbestos does not shed fibers. Furthermore,
the solid-state alteration of other minerals within the improper removal of asbestos can lead to
high temperature and high pressure environment that contamination. In most cases of improper removal,
results from deep burial. Unlike chrysotile, crocidolite is the concentration of airborne asbestos fibers is far
rarely found associated with igneous intrusions. higher than if the asbestos had been left in place.
In spite of its widespread use, the federal The problem of asbestos contamination is a good
Environmental Protection Agency recently enacted a example of how geology affects our lives and why a
gradual ban onall new asbestos products. The ban was basic knowledge of science is important. Asbestos is
imposed because asbestos can cause cancer and scarring certainly a health hazard, but not all varieties of
of the lungs if its fibers are inhaled. The threat of lung asbestos are equally dangerous.
cancer has resulted in legislation mandating the removal
of asbestos already in place in many buildings, including
*P. H. Abelson, "The Asbestos Removal Fiasco," Science 247 no.
all public and private schools. Important questions have 4946 (1990): 1017.
are subjected to heat and pressure, the water may be boundary between them is not always dis-
arately, the
driven off and enhance metamorphism. tinctand depends largely on which of the three meta-
morphic agents was dominant.
» TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
Contact Metamorphism
Three major types of metamorphism are recognized:
contact metamorphism in which magmatic heat and flu- Contact metamorphism takes place when a body of
ids act to produce change; dynamic metamorphism, magma alters the surrounding country rock. At shallow
which is principally the result of high differential pres- depths an intruding magma raises the temperature of the
sures associated with intense deformation;and regional surrounding rock, causing thermal alteration. Further-
metamorphism, which occurs within and is a large area more, the release of hot fluids into the country rock by
caused primarily by mountain-building forces. Even the cooling intrusion can also aid in the formation of
though we will discuss each type of metamorphism sep- new minerals.
Types of Metamorphism 197

Vertical pressure (kbar
Surface —*
1 kilobar (kbar) = 1,000 bars
Atmospheric pressure at sea level = 1 bar ""^ FIGURE 8-6 Differential pressure is pressure that is
unequally applied to an object. Rotated garnets are a good
(a) example of differential pressure applied to a rock during
metamorphism. These rotated garnets come from a
calcareous schist of the Waits River Formation, north of
Springfield, Vermont. (Photo courtesy of John L. Rosenfeld,
University of California, Los Angeles.)
magmas (see Chapter 4) and hence have a greater ther-

mal effect on the rocks directly surrounding them. The
size of the intrusion is also important. In the case of
small intrusions, such as dikes and sills, usually only
those rocks in immediate contact with the intrusion are
affected. Because large intrusions, such as batholiths,
take a long time to cool, the increased temperature in
the surrounding rock may last long enough for a larger
"^ FIGURE 8-5 {a) Lithostatic pressureapplied equally
is
area to be affected.
in all directions in the Earth's crust due to the weight of the
overlying rocks. Thus, pressure increases with depth, {b) A
Fluids also play an important role in contact meta-
similar situation occurs when 200 ml styrofoam cups are morphism. Many magmas are wet and contain hot,
lowered to ocean depths of approximately 750 m and 1,500 chemically active fluids that may emanate into the sur-
m. Increased pressure is exerted equally in all directions on rounding rock. These fluids can react with the rock and
the cups, and they consequently decrease in volume, while
aid in the formation of new minerals. In addition, the
still maintaining their general shape. (Styrofoam cups
courtesy of David J. Matty and Jane M. Matty. Photo

country rock may contain pore fluids that, when heated
courtesy of Sue Monroe.) by the magma, also increase reaction rates.
Temperatures can reach nearly 900°C adjacent to an
intrusion, but they gradually decrease with distance. The
effects of such heat and the resulting chemical reactions
Important factors in contact metamorphism are the usually occur in concentric zones known as aureoles (Fig.
initial temperature and size of the intrusion as well as 8-7). The boundary between an intrusion and its aureole
the fluid content of the magma and/or country rock. The may be either sharp or transitional (Fig. 8-8).
initial temperature of an intrusion is controlled, in part, Metamorphic aureoles vary in width depending on
by its composition: mafic magmas are hotter than felsic and composition of the intrusion
the size, temperature,

Inner
andalusite-cord "^ FIGURE 8-7 A metamorphic
hornfels zone Intermediate zone aureole typically surrounds many
with some biotite igneous intrusions. The
metamorphic aureole associated
with this idealized granite batholith
contains three zones of mineral
assemblages reflecting the decreases
in temperature with distance from
the intrusion. An andalusite-
cordierite hornfels forms the inner
zone adjacent to the batholith. This
is followed by an intermediate zone
of extensive recrystallization in
which some biotite develops, and
farthest from the intrusion is the
outer zone, which is characterized
by spotted slates.
as well as the mineralogy of the surrounding country is baked when fired in a kiln. Sometimes the baking of
rock. For example, small intrusive bodies such as sills country rock produces a metamorphic rock known as
and dikes may produce an aureole only a few centime- spotted slate (Fig. 8-9). This is most common where
ters wide, whereas large intrusive bodies such as batho- clay-rich rocks have been thermally metamorphosed.
liths may give rise to an aureole several kilometers wide. The "spots" result from the growth of new minerals or
Typically, these large intrusive bodies have several meta- the formation of large, scattered crystals during baking.
morphic zones, each characterized by distinctive mineral During the final stages of cooling when an intruding
assemblages indicating the decrease in temperature with magma begins to crystallize, large amounts of hot, wa-
distance from the intrusion (Fig. 8-7). The zone closest
to the intrusion, and hence subject to the highest tem-
peratures, may contain high-temperature metamorphic "^ FIGURE 8-8 A sharp and clearly defined boundary
minerals (that is, minerals in equilibrium with the higher occurs between the intruding light-colored igneous rock on
temperature environment) such as sillimanite. The outer the left and the dark-colored metamorphosed country rock
zones may be characterized by lower temperature meta- on the right. The intrusion is part of the Peninsular Ranges
Batholith, east of San Diego, California. (Photo courtesy oi
morphic minerals such as chlorite, talc, and epidote.
David J. Matty.)
The formation of new minerals by contact metamor-
phism depends not only on proximity to the intrusion, but
also on the mineralogy of the country rock. Shales, mud-
stones, impure limestones, and impure dolostones, for ex-
ample, are particularly susceptible to the formation of new
minerals by contact metamorphism, whereas pure sand-
stones or pure limestones typically are not.
Two types of contact metamorphic rocks are gener-
ally recognized: those resulting from baking of country
rock and those altered by hot solutions. Many of the
rocks resulting from contact metamorphism have the
texture of porcelain; that is, they are hard and fine
grained. This is particularly true for rocks with a high
clay content, such as shale. Such texture results because
the clay minerals in the rock are baked, just as a clay pot
Types of Metamorphism 199

*j>(* '.:•:' »*"-- »- i £ "• «»•« ».
^ FIGURE 8-10 This light-colored, 15-cm thick mylonite

unit is part of the Carthage-Colton Mylonite Zone exposed
along Route 3, south of Harrisville, New York. (Photo
;
!5fri*S' ~r' courtesy of Eric Johnson.)
"^" FIGURE 8-9 Hand specimen
of a spotted slate. The
"spots" result from the growth of new minerals during the
baking of a clay-rich rock. (Photo courtesy of Con Gillen,
The University of Edinburgh, Scotland.) pressure applied to the rock. High shearing pressure
completely pulverizes the country rock and essentially
"smears" the fine particles together, producing a char-
tery solutions are often released. These solutions may acteristic mylonite texture. Fault breccias, which are
react with the country rock and produce new metamor- composed of broken particles, are not, strictly speaking,
phic minerals. This process, which usually occurs near metamorphic rocks. Examples of tectonic settings in
the Earth's surface, is called hydrothermal alteration. which mylonites occur include the Moine Thrust Zone
One source of hydrothermal alteration occurs at or near in northwest Scotland and portions of the San Andreas
mid-ocean ridges, and some of these ocean-floor alter- fault in California.
ations become mineral deposits such as the Kuroko sul-
fide deposit in Japan (see Chapter 13). Geologists think
Regional Metamorphism
that many of the world's ore deposits result from the
migration of metallic ions in hydrothermal solutions. Most metamorphic rocks are the result of regional meta-
Examples include copper, gold, iron ores, tin, and zinc morphism, which occurs over a large area and is usually
in various localities including Australia, Canada, China, the result of tremendous temperatures, pressures, and de-
Cyprus, Finland, the Soviet Union, and the western formation within the deeper portions of the Earth's crust.
United States. Regional metamorphism is most obvious along conver-
gent plate margins where rocks are intensely deformed
and recrystallized during convergence and subduction.
Dynamic Metamorphism
Within these metamorphic rocks, there is usually a gra-
Most dy namic metamorphism is associated with fault dation of metamorphic intensity from areas that were
zones where rocks are subjected to high differential subjected to the most intense pressures and/or highest
pressures. The metamorphic rocks that result from pure temperatures to areas of lower pressures and tempera-
dynamic metamorphism are called mylonites. They are tures. Such a gradation in metamorphism can be recog-
typically restricted to narrow zones adjacent to faults nized by the metamorphic minerals that are present.
(fractures along which movement has occurred). Mylo- Regional metamorphism is not confined to conver-
nites are hard, dense, fine-grained rocks, many of which gent margins. It also occurs in areas where plates di-
are characterized by thin laminations (Fig. 8-10). My- verge, though usually at much shallower depths in the
lonites are differentiated from fault breccias (rocks that Earth's crust because of the high geothermal gradient
are broken up by fault movement) by the intensity of the associated with these areas.

-"•- TABLE 8-1
-*" TABLE 8-2 Classification of Common Metamorphic Rocks
I: ! '
,
'
I;:
jij
.,!!!!!!!
1
I'l !!'!!
i:;:nii;
il'lii'iiiU'iHi'li
Random arrangement Elongated minerals

ofelongated minerals arranged in a parallel
before pressure is fashion as a result of
applied to two sides pressure applied to two
sides
(a)
(b)
^ FIGURE 8-12 (a) When rocks are subjected to

differential pressure, the mineral grains are typically
arranged in a parallel fashion, producing a foliated texture.
(b) Photomicrograph of a metamorphic rock with a foliated
texture showing the parallel arrangement of mineral grains.
Slate is a very fine-grained metamorphic rock that com-

monly exhibits slaty cleavage (Fig. 8-13b). Slate is the re-
sult of low-grade regional metamorphism of shale or, more
rarely, volcanic ash. Because it can easily be split along
cleavage planes into flat pieces, slate is an excellent rock
for roofing and floor and pool table tops, and
tiles, billiard (b)
blackboards. The different colors of most slates are caused ^ FIGURE 8-13 (a) Hand specimen of slate, (b) This
by minute amounts of graphite (black), iron oxide (red and panel of Arvonia Slate from Albemarne Slate Quarry,
Virginia, shows bedding (upper right to lower left) at an
purple), and/or chlorite (green).
angle to the slaty cleavage. (Photo (a) courtesy of Sue
Phyllite is similar in composition to slate, but is
Monroe; photo (b) courtesy of R. V. Dietrich.)
coarser grained. However, the minerals are still too
small to be identified without magnification. Phyllite can
be distinguished from slate by its glossy or lustrous Schist is most commonly produced by regional meta-
sheen. It represents an intermediate grain size between morphism. The type of schist formed depends on the
slate and schist. intensity of metamorphism and the character of the par-

ent rock (Fig. 8-14). Metamorphism of many rock types
can yield schist, but most schist appears to have formed
from clay-rich sedimentary rocks.
All schists contain more than 50% platy and elon-
gated minerals, all of which are large enough to be
clearly visible. Their mineral composition imparts a
schistosity or schistose foliation to the rock that com-
monly produces a wavy type of parting when split.
Schistosity is common
low- to high-grade metamor-
in
phic environments. Because a schist's mineral grains can

be readily identified, each type is known by its most
conspicuous mineral or minerals, for example, mica
and talc schist.
schist, chlorite schist,
Gneiss metamorphic rock that is streaked or has
is a
segregated bands of light and dark minerals. Gneisses "^ FIGURE 8-15 Gneiss is characterized by segregated
are composed mostly of granular minerals such as bands of and dark minerals. This folded gneiss crops
light
out at Wawa, Ontario, Canada.
-"^ FIGURE 8-14 Schist, (a) Garnet-mica schist.

(b) Hornblende-mica-garnet schist. (Photos courtesy of Sue
Monroe.) quartz and/or feldspar with lesser percentages of platy
or elongated minerals such as micas or amphiboles (Fig.
8-15). Quartz and feldspar are the principal light-
colored minerals, while biotite and hornblende are the

typically dark-colored minerals. Most gneiss breaks in
an irregular manner, much like coarsely crystalline non-
foliated rocks.
Most gneiss probably results from recrystallization of
clay-rich sedimentary rocks during regional metamor-
phism. Gneiss also can form from crystalline igneous
rocks such as granite or older metamorphic rocks.
Another fairly common foliated metamorphic rock is
amphibolite. It is dark in color and composed mainly of
hornblende and plagioclase. The alignment of the horn-
blende crystals produces a slightly foliated texture.
Many amphibolites result from medium- to high-grade
metamorphism of such ferromagnesian mineral-rich ig-
neous rocks as basalt.

In some areas of regional metamorphism, exposures
of "mixed rocks" having both igneous and high-grade
metamorphic characteristics are present. These rocks,
called migmatites, usually consist of streaks or lenses of
granite intermixed with high-grade ferromagnesian-rich
metamorphic rocks (Fig. 8-16).
Most migmatites are thought to be the product of

extremely high-grade metamorphism, and several mod-
els for their origin have been proposed. Part of the prob-
lem in determining the origin of migmatites is explaining
how the granitic component formed. According to one
model, the granitic magma formed in place by the par-
tial melting of rock during intense metamorphism. Such
an origin is possible providing that the host rocks con-

ble, uniform texture, and its various colors have
its
made the favorite rock of builders and sculptors

it
throughout history (see the Prologue).

Quartzite is a hard, compact rock typically formed
from quartz sandstone under medium-to-high-grade meta-
morphic conditions during contact or regional metamor-
phism (Fig. 8-19). Because recrystallization is so complete,
metamorphic quartzite is of uniform strength and there-
fore usually breaks across the component quartz grains
rather than around them when it is struck. Pure quartzite
is white, but iron and other impurities commonly impart a
reddish or other color to it. Quartzite is commonly used as

foundation material for road and railway beds.
The name greenstone is applied to any compact,
"**" FIGURE 8-16 Migmatites consist of high-grade dark-green, altered, mafic igneous rock that formed un-
metamorphic rock intermixed with streaks or lenses of der low-to-high-grade metamorphic conditions. The
granite. This Precambrian(P) migmatite crops out at Thirty
green color results from the presence of chlorite, epi-
Thousand Islands of Georgian Bay, Lake Huron, Ontario,
dote, and hornblende.
Canada. (Photo by Ed Bartram, courtesy of R. V. Dietrich.)
Hornfels is a fine-grained, nonfoliated metamorphic
rock resulting from contact metamorphism; it is com-
posed of various equidimensional mineral grains. The

tained quartz and feldspars and that water was present. composition of hornfels is directly dependent upon the
Another possibility is that the granitic components composition of the parent rock, and many compositional
formed by the redistribution of minerals by recrystalli- varieties are known. However, the majority of hornfels
zation in the solid state, that is, pure metamorphism. are apparently derived from contact metamorphism of
clay-rich sedimentary rocks or impure dolostones.
Anthracite is hard coal that con-
a black, lustrous,
Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks
tains a high percentage of fixed carbon and a low per-
Some metamorphic rocks do not show discernible pre- centage of volatile matter. It usually forms from the
ferred orientation of their mineral grains. Instead, they metamorphism of lower grade coals by heat and pres-
generally consist of a mosaic of roughly equidimen- sure and is thus considered by many geologists to be a
sional minerals and are characterized as nonfoliated metamorphic rock.
(Fig. 8-17). Most nonfoliated metamorphic rocks result
from contact or regional metamorphism of rocks in

which no platy or prismatic minerals are present. Fre- "^ FIGURE 8-17 Nonfoliated textures are characterized
by a mosaic of roughly equidimensional minerals as in this
quently, the only indication that a granular rock has
photomicrograph of marble.
been metamorphosed is the large grain size resulting
from recrystallization. Nonfoliatedmetamorphic rocks
are generally of two types: thosecomposed largely of
only one mineral, for example, marble or quartzite; and
those in which the different mineral grains are too small
to be seen without magnification, such as greenstone
and hornfels.
Marble is a relatively well-known metamorphic rock
composed predominantly of calcite or dolomite; its
grain size ranges from fine to coarsely granular (Figs.
8-2 and 8-18). Marble results from either contact or
regional metamorphism of limestones or dolostones.
Pure marble is snowy white or bluish, but varieties of all
colors exist because of the presence of mineral impuri-
ties in the parent sedimentary rock. The softness of mar-

~^ FIGURE 8-18 Marble results from the metamorphism of the sedimentary rock
limestone. (Photos courtesy of Sue Monroe.)
^ METAMORPHIC ZONES Note that these are the metamorphic minerals produced
from clay-rich sediments. Other mineral assemblages
AND FACIES
and index minerals are produced from rocks with dif-
The first systematic study of metamorphic zones was ferent original compositions (Table 8-1).
conducted during the 1800s by George Barrow and
late The successive appearance of metamorphic index
other British geologists working in the Dalradian schists minerals reflects gradually increasing or decreasing in-
of the southwestern Scottish Highlands. In this area of tensity of metamorphism. Going from lower toward
Scotland, clay-rich sedimentary rocks have been sub- higher grade zones, the first appearance of a particular
jected to regional metamorphism, and the resulting index mineral indicates the location of the minimum
metamorphic rocks can be divided into different zones temperature and pressure conditions needed for the for-
based on the presence of distinctive silicate mineral as- mation of that mineral. When the locations of the first
semblages. These mineral assemblages, each recognized appearances of that index mineral are connected on a
by the presence of one or more index minerals, reflect map, the result is a line of equal metamorphic intensity or
different degrees of metamorphism. The index minerals an isograd. The region between isograds is known as a
Barrow and his associates chose to represent increasing metamorphic zone. The rocks within each zone represent
metamorphic intensity were, in order, chlorite, biotite, a metamorphic grade. By noting the occurrence of meta-
garnet, staurolite, kyanite, and sillimanite (Table 8-1). morphic index minerals, geologists can construct a map
**' FIGURE 8-19 Quartzite results from the metamorphism of quartz sandstone.
(Photos courtesy of Sue Monroe.)

METAMORPHIC ZONES
|
Younger, nonmetamorphosed rocks
I |
Chlorite
Increasing
metamorphic
intensity
FIGURE 8-20 Metamorphic

zones in the upper peninsula of
Michigan. The zones in this region
are based on the appearance of
distinctive silicate mineral
assemblages resulting from the
metamorphism of sedimentary rocks
WISCONSIN during an interval of mountain
50 building and minor granitic
I l_j i i I
intrusion during the Proterozoic

Eon, about 1.5 billion years ago.
showing the metamorphic zones of an entire area (Fig. rocks were pure quartz sandstones or pure limestones or
8-20). dolostones. Such rocks would yield only quartzites and
Numerous studies of different metamorphic rocks marbles, respectively.
have demonstrated that while the texture and mineral-
ogy of any rock may be altered by metamorphism, the
overall chemical composition may be little changed. "^ FIGURE 8-21 A pressure-temperature diagram
Thus, the different mineral assemblages found in in- showing where various metamorphic facies occur. A facies is
creasingly higher grade metamorphic rocks derived characterized by a particular mineral assemblage that
from the same parent rock result from changes in tem- formed under the same broad temperature-pressure
conditions. Each facies is named after its most characteristic
perature and pressure (Table 8-1).
rock or mineral.
A metamorphic facies is a group of metamorphic
rocks that are characterized by particular mineral as- j i i . i
55
semblages formed under the same broad temperature- - 50
pressure conditions (Fig. 8-21). Each facies is named
/^
Eclogite
-45
most characteristic rock or mineral. For exam- v
after its 40
1 \
ple, the greenmetamorphic mineral chlorite, which Blueschist \ * \ 35
forms under low temperatures and pressures,
relatively 30
Granulite
yields rocks said to belong to the greenschist facies. Un-
i
25
der increasingly higher temperatures and pressures, 20
other metamorphic facies, such as the amphibolite and Pumpellyite h 15
<£> / /
—7/ //
/ <f
granulite facies develop. ^ / 10
Although usually applied to areas where the original Zeolite /<* / Sanidinite 5
rocks were clay rich, the concept of metamorphic facies
can be used with modification in other situations. It 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
cannot, however, be used in areas where the original Temperature (°C)
Metamorphic Zones and Facies 207

High-temperature,
high-pressure zone
High-temperature,
(amphibolite-granulite facies)
low-pressure zone
(contact metamorphism)
Low-temperature,
high-pressure zone
(blueschist facies^
^-,
Sediment
V Lithosphere
^fwfc cr,,sl
^ FIGURE 8-22 Metamorphic

Upper
mantle
facies resulting from various
temperature-pressure conditions
Asthenosphere
produced along an oceanic-
continental convergent plate
boundary.
^ METAMORPHISM AND As subduction along the oceanic-continental plate

boundary continues, both temperature and pressure in-
PLATE TECTONICS
crease with depth and can result in high-grade metamor-
Although metamorphism is associated with all three phic rocks. Eventually, the descending plate begins to
types of plate boundaries (Fig. 1-14), it is most common melt and generates a magma that moves upward. This
along convergent plate margins. Metamorphic rocks rising magma may alter the surrounding rock by contact
form at convergent plate boundaries because tempera- metamorphism, producing migmatites in the deeper
ture and pressure increase as a result of plate collisions. portions of the crust and hornfels at shallower depths.
Figure 8-22 illustrates the various temperature- Such an environment is characterized by high tempera-
pressure regimes that are produced along an oceanic- tures and low to medium pressures.
continental convergent plate boundary and the type of While metamorphism is most common along conver-
metamorphic facies and rocks that can result. When an gent plate margins, many divergent plate boundaries are
oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, tremen- characterized by contact metamorphism. Rising magma
dous pressure is generated as the oceanic plate is sub- from mid-oceanic ridges heats the adjacent rocks, pro-
ducted. Because rock is a poor heat conductor, the cold ducing contact metamorphic minerals and textures. In
descending oceanic plate heats very slowly, and meta- addition to contact metamorphism, fluids emanating
morphism is caused mostly by the rising pressure as depth from the rising magma — and from the reaction of the
increases. Metamorphism in such an environment pro- magma and sea water— very commonly produce hydro-
duces rocks typical of the blueschist facies (low temper- thermal solutions that may precipitate minerals of great
ature, high pressure), which is characterized by the blue- economic value.
colored amphibole mineral glaucophane (Fig. 8-21).
Thus, geologists use the occurrence of blueschist facies
rocks as evidence of ancient subduction zones. An ex-
cellent example of blueschist metamorphism can be
^ METAMORPHISM AND
found in the California Coast Ranges. Here rocks of the
NATURAL RESOURCES
Franciscan Group were metamorphosed under low- Many metamorphic rocks and minerals are valuable
temperature, high-pressure conditions that clearly indi- natural resources. While these resources include many
cate the presence of a former subduction zone (Fig. 8-23). types of ore deposits, the two most familiar and widely

Ophiolite
"»- FIGURE 8-23 Index map of
Great Valley California showing the location of
Group
the Franciscan Group and a
Franciscan diagrammatic reconstruction of the
Group — environment in which it was
Low-temperature, regionally metamorphosed under
Oceanic crust high-pressure zone low-temperature, high-pressure

Sediment where blueschist subduction conditions during the
facies develops Jurassic Period, approximately 150
million years ago.
used metamorphic rocks, as such, are marble and slate, Tin and tungsten are also important ores associated
which, as previously discussed, have been used for cen- with contact metamorphism (Table 8-3).
turies in a variety of ways. Other economically important metamorphic miner-
Many ore deposits result from contact metamor- als include talc for talcum powder; graphite for pencils
phism in which hot, ion-rich fluids migrate from igneous and dry lubricants (see Perspective 8-2); garnets and
intrusions into the surrounding rock, thereby producing corundum, which are used as abrasives or gemstones,
rich ore deposits. The most common sulfide ore minerals depending on their quality; and andalusite, kyanite, and
associated with contact metamorphism are bornite, sillimanite, all of which are used in the manufacture of
chalcopyrite, galena, pyrite, and sphalerite, while two high-temperature porcelains and refractives for prod-
common oxide ore minerals are hematite and magnetite. ucts such as sparkplugs and the linings of furnaces.
Metamorphism and Natural Resources 209

Perspective 8-2
GRAPHITE
Graphite ( from the Greek grapbo meaning write) is a (CaC0 3 by an inorganic process. Graphite is also
)
soft mineral that is gray to black, has a greasy feel, and found in igneous rocks, pegmatite dikes, and veins; it
iscomposed of the element carbon. Graphite occurs in is thought to have formed in these environments from
two varieties: crystalline, which consists of thin, flat, the primary constituents of the magma or from the
nearly pure black flakes, and amorphous, a hot fluids and vapors released by the cooling magma.
noncrystalline, impure variety found in compact masses. The major producers of graphite are Mexico, the
Graphite has the same composition as diamond Soviet Union, Ceylon, Madagascar, Korea, and
(see Perspective 3-2), but its carbon atoms are strongly Canada. In the United States, graphite has been mined
bonded together in sheets, with the sheets weakly held in 27 states, but production is now generally limited
together by van der Waals bonds (Fig. 3-6). Because to Alabama and New York.
the sheets are loosely held together, they easily slide Graphite is used for many purposes. The oldest use
over one another, giving graphite its ability to mark is in pencil leads, where it is finely ground, mixed
paper and serve as a dry lubricant. with clay, and baked. The amount of clay and the
Graphite occurs mainly metamorphic rocks
in baking time give pencil leads their desired hardness.
produced by contact and regional metamorphism. It is Other important uses include batteries, brake linings,
found in marble, quartzite, schist, gneiss, and even in carbon brushes, crucibles, foundry facings, lubricants,
anthracite. Contact metamorphism of impure refractories, and steel making.
limestones by igneous intrusions produces some of the Synthetic graphite can be produced from anthracite
graphite found in marbles. The graphite resulting from coal or petroleum coke and now accounts for most
regional metamorphism of sedimentary rocks probably graphite production. Its extreme purity (99% to
came from organic matter present in the sediments. 99.5% pure) makes it especially valuable where high
However, some evidence indicates that the graphite in purity is required such as in the rods that slow down
Precambrian aged rocks (>570 million years) may be the reaction rates in nuclear reactors.
the result of the reduction of calcium carbonate
"•" TABLE 8-3

CHAPTER SUMMARY
1. Metamorphic rocks result from the transformation
of other rocks, usually beneath the Earth's surface,
as aconsequence of one or a combination of three
and fluid activity.
agents: heat, pressure,
2. Most of the heat for metamorphism comes from
intrusive magmas. Pressure
is either lithostatic or
trapped in sedimentary rocks or

differential. Fluids
emanating from intruding magmas can enhance
chemical changes and the formation of new
minerals.
3. The three major types of metamorphism are contact,
dynamic, and regional.
4. Metamorphic rocks are classified primarily according
to their texture. In a foliated texture, platy minerals
have a preferred orientation. A nonfoliated texture
does not exhibit any discernible preferred orientation
of the mineral grains.
5. Foliated metamorphic rocks can be arranged in
order of grain size and/or perfection of their
foliation. Slate is very fine grained, followed by
phyllite and schist; gneiss displays segregated bands
of minerals. Another fairly common foliated
metamorphic rock is amphibolite.
6. Common nonfoliated metamorphic rocks are
marble, quartzite, greenstone, and hornfels.
7. Metamorphic rocks can be arranged into
metamorphic zones based on the conditions of
metamorphism. Individual metamorphic facies are
characterized by particular minerals that formed
under specific metamorphic conditions. Such facies
arenamed for a characteristic rock or mineral.
8. Metamorphism can occur along all three kinds of
plate boundaries. Most, however, occurs at
convergent plate margins.
9. Metamorphic rocks formed near the Earth's surface
along an oceanic-continental plate boundary result
from low-temperature, high-pressure conditions. As
a subducted oceanic plate descends, it is subjected to
increasingly higher temperatures and pressures that
result in higher grade metamorphism.
10. Many metamorphic rocks and minerals are valuable
natural resources, for example, marble, slate,
graphite, talc, and asbestos.
^ IMPORTANT
10. What is the correct metamorphic sequence of 19. What are metamorphic rocks, and how do they
increasingly coarser grain size? form?
a. phyllite —* slate —» gneiss —* schist; 20. Name the three agents of metamorphism, and
b. slate —» phyllite —* schist —» gneiss; explain how
each contributes to metamorphism.
c. gneiss —» phyllite -» slate — » schist; 21. What are the two types of pressure? What type of
d. schist —» gneiss — » phyllite —» slate; metamorphic textures does each produce?
e. slate —* schist —* gneiss —* phyllite. 22. Where does contact metamorphism occur, and what
11 An excellent rock for billiard table tops, floor and type of changes does it produce?
roofing tiles, and blackboards is: 23. What are aureoles? How can they be used to
a. marble; b. gneiss; c. phyllite; determine the effects of metamorphism?
d hornfels; e slate. 24. What is regional metamorphism, and under what
12 Mixed rocks containing the characteristics of both conditions does it occur?

igneous and high-grade metamorphic rocks are: 25. Describe the two types of metamorphic texture, and
a. mylonites; b. migmatites; explain how they may be produced.
c. amphibolites; d. hornfels; what metamorphic rocks
26. Starting with a shale,
e. greenstones. would be produced by increasing heat and pressure?
13. Metamorphic zones: 27. Name the three common nonfoliated rocks, and
a. are characterized by distinctive mineral describe their characteristics.
assemblages; b. from each other
are separated 28. What the difference between a metamorphic zone
is
by isograds; c. reflect a metamorphic grade; andmetamorphic facies?

a
d. all of these; e. none of these. 29. What types of metamorphic rocks and facies are
14. To which metamorphic fades do metamorphic rocks produced along a convergent plate margin?
formed under low-temperature, low-pressure 30. Name some common metamorphic rocks or minerals
conditions belong? that are economically valuable, and describe their
a. granulite; b. greenschist; uses.
c. amphibolite; d. blueschist; e. eclogite.
Along what type of plate boundary metamorphism
15.
most common?
is
a. convergent; b. divergent;
Best, M. G. 1982. Igneous and metamorphic petrology. San
c. transform; d. mantle plume; e. static.
Francisco, Calif.: W. H. Freeman and Co.
16. Which of the following isnot a metamorphic Bowes, D. R., ed. 1989. The encyclopedia of igneous and
mineral? metamorphic petrology. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
a. graphite; b. asbestos; c. talc; Gillen, C. 1982. Metamorphic geology. London: George Allen
d. garnet; e. gypsum. & Unwin.

17. Which of the following is the dangerous variety of Hyndman, D. W. 1985. Petrology of igneous and metamorphic
rocks. 2d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.
asbestos?
Margolis, S. V. 1989. Authenticating ancient marble sculpture.
a chrysotile; b. crocidolite; c tremolite;
Scientific American 260, no. 6: 104-11.
d. actinolite; e. anthophyllite.
Turner,F. J. 1981. Metamorphic petrology. 2d ed. New York:
18. Metamorphic rocks form a significant proportion of:
McGraw-Hill Book Co.
a. shields; b. the cores of mountain ranges;
c. oceanic crust; d. answers (a) and (b);
e. answers (b) and (c).

CHAPTER 9
GEOLOGIC TIME
^ OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
EARLY CONCEPTS OF GEOLOGIC TIME
AND THE AGE OF THE EARTH
JAMES HUTTON AND THE
RECOGNITION OF GEOLOGIC TIME
RELATIVE DATING METHODS
Fundamental Principles of Relative Dating
Unconformities
Applying the Principles of Relative Dating to
the Reconstruction of the Geologic History
of an Area
CORRELATION
ABSOLUTE DATING METHODS
Atoms, Elements, and Isotopes
"** Perspective 9-1: Subsurface Correlation
and the Search for Oil and Natural Gas

Radioactive Decay and Half-Lives
Sources of Uncertainty
Long-Lived Radioactive Isotope Pairs
Radiocarbon Dating Methods
"^ Perspective 9-2: Radon: The Silent Killer
Tree-Ring and Fission Track Dating Methods

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
~^~
Guest Essay: Paleontology: Tracing Life
through Time
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Massive cross-bedded sandstones of the

Jurassic-aged Navajo formation as viewed
from Emerald Pool Trail, Zion National
Park, Utah.
PROLOGUE and then by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 led to the
Gregorian calendar, which is accurate to within one
day per 3,323 years.
Su Song, an eleventh-century Chinese scholar, is
(jgSîj^fl is time? We seem obsessed with
What
credited with building one of the first mechanical
and organize our lives around it
it,
water clocks. It was not until the thirteenth century,
with the help of clocks, calendars, and appointment
however, that the first mechanical clock was built in
books. Yet most of us feel we don't have enough of
Europe. The age of precise timekeeping really began
it— we are always running "behind" or "out of time."
two centuries later when the Dutch scientist Christian
According to biologists and psychologists, children
Huygens constructed the first pendulum clock.
less than two years old and animals exist in a
Today the quartz watch is the most popular
"timeless present," where there is no past or future.
timepiece. Powered by a battery, a quartz crystal
They have no conscious concept of time. Some
vibrates approximately 100,000 times per second. An
scientists believe that our early ancestors may also
integrated circuit counts these vibrations and converts
have lived in a state of timelessness with little or no
them into a digital or dial reading on your watch face.
perception of a past or future. According to Buddhist,
An inexpensive quartz watch today is more accurate
Taoist, and Mayan beliefs, time is circular, and like a
than the best mechanical watch, and precision-
circle, all things are destined to return to where they
manufactured quartz clocks are accurate to within one
once were. Thus, in these belief systems, there is no second per 10 years.
beginning or end, but rather a cyclicity to everything. Precise timekeeping is important in our
For most people though, time is and moves
linear technological world. Ships and aircraft plot their
like a flowing stream. It can be measured and locations by satellite, relying on a time signal that has
subdivided. We can place events in a chronology in an accuracy of a millionth of a second. Deep-space
which there is a history of past events and probes such as the Voyagers (see Chapter 2) require
expectations for the future. Most people accept Sir radio commands timed to billionths of a second, while
Isaac Newton's belief that time is absolute and has a physicists exploring the motion inside the nucleus of
life of its own; that is, it "flows equably without an atom deal in trillionths of a second as easily as we
relation to anything external." talk about minutes.
Albert Einstein, however, changed that view in 1905 To achieve such accuracy, scientists use atomic
with his special theory of relativity. Einstein showed that clocks. First developed in the 1940s, these clocks rely
time is a dimension and is not absolute. In fact, like on an atom's oscillating electrons, a rhythm so regular
space, it is bent by gravity. Themass of an
greater the that they are accurate to within a few thousandths of
object, the greater its gravitational attraction, and thus a second per day. Cesium atomic clocks were used to
the slower that time moves relative to an object of lesser prove Einstein's prediction that a clock will slow
mass. For example, if you had two identical clocks and down as its speed increases.
placed one on Jupiter and one on Earth, the clock on While physicists deal with incredibly short intervals
Jupiter would run detectably slower than the clock on of time, astronomers and geologists deal with "deep
Earth because Jupiter has 318 times the mass of the time," millions or billions of years. When astronomers
Earth and thus exerts a greater gravitational attraction. look at a distant galaxy, they are seeing what it
Therefore time is unique to any particular location in looked like billions of years ago. Geologists looking
the universe. into the Grand Canyon are viewing nearly two billion
In some respects, time is defined by the methods years of Earth history preserved in the rocks of the
used to measure it. The Babylonians defined a year as canyon walls. Geologists can measure decay rates of
360 days and divided it into 12 lunar months of 30 such radioactive elements as uranium, thorium, and
days each. Babylonian astronomers knew that there rubidium to determine how long ago an igneous rock
were 365V4 days in a year, but their priests believed formed. Furthermore, geologists know that the Earth's
that the number 360 possessed magical properties. rotational velocity has been slowing down a few
Improvements in time measurement by the Romans thousandths of a second per century as a result of the
Prologue 215
frictional effects of tides, ocean currents, and varying Time is a fascinating topic that has been the subject
thicknesses of polar ice. Five hundred million years of numerous essays and books. And although we can
ago a day was only 20 hours long, and at the current grasp concepts such as milliseconds and understand
rate of slowing, 200 million years from now a day how a quartz watch works, deep time, or geologic
will be 25 hours long. time, is still not easy for most people to comprehend.
^^^'^m . ^^ ^^^^^^^^^^m.^^»r^- «g7»r^^g^^-^^^ ^^^^^m.^ '^î ,
* INTRODUCTION gies found in Scripture. Based on their analyses, they gen-

erally believed that the Earth and all of its features were no
Time is what sets geology apart from all of the other
more than about 6,000 years old. The idea of a very young
sciences except astronomy, and an appreciation of the
Earth provided the basis for most western chronologies of
immensity of geologic time is fundamental to under-
Earth history prior to the eighteenth century.
standing both the physical and biological history of our
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, sev-
planet (Fig. 9-1). Most people have difficulty compre-
eral attempts were made to determine the age of the
hending geologic time because they tend to view time
Earth on the basis of scientific evidence rather than rev-
from the perspective of their own existence. Ancient his-
elation. One scholar assumed that the Earth gradually
tory is what occurred hundreds or even thousands of
cooled to its present condition from a molten beginning.
years ago, but when geologists talk in terms of ancient
To simulate this history, he melted iron balls of various
geologic history, they are referring to events that hap-
diameters and allowed them to cool to the surrounding
pened millions or even billions of years ago!
temperature. By extrapolating their cooling rate to a ball
Geologists use two different frames of reference when
speaking of geologic time. Relative dating involves pla c-
the size of the Earth, he determined that the Earth was
ing gfo)o p;ic events in a s equential order as determined
at least75,000 years old. While this age was much older
than that derived from Scripture, it was still vastly
from their position in the rock record. Relative Hating
younger than we now know the Earth to be.
will not tell us how long agu a panicular event occurred,
Other scholars were equally ingenious in their at-
only that one event preceded another. The various prin-
tempts to calculate the age of the Earth. For example, if
ciples used todetermine relative dating were discovered
deposition rates could be determined for various sedi-
hundreds of years ago and used to construct the relative
ments, geologists reasoned that they could calculate how
geologic time scale. They are still widely used today.
long it would take to deposit any rock layer. Further-
Absolute dating results in speci fic dates for rock un its
more, they could then extrapolate how old the Earth was
or events expressed in year s before the presen t. Radio-
from the total thickness of sedimentary rock in the
metnc dating is the most common method of obtaining
Earth's crust. However, even for the same type of rock,
absolute age dates. Such dates are calculated from the
rates of deposition vary. Furthermore, it is impossible to
natural rates of decay of various radioactive elements
estimate how much rock has been removed by erosion,
occurring in trace amounts in some rocks. It was not
or how much a rock sequence has been reduced by com-
until the discovery of Radi oactivity near the end of the
paction. As a result of these variables, estimates ranged
nineteenth century that absolute ages could be accu-
from less than a million years to more than a billion years.
rately applied to the relative geologic time scale. Today the
Another attempt to determine the Earth's age in-
geologic time scale is really a dual scale: a relative scale
volved ocean salinity. Scholars assumed that the Earth's
based on rock sequences with radiometric dates expressed
ocean waters were originally fresh and that their present
as years before the present added to it (Fig. 9-2).
salinity was the result of dissolved salt being carried into
the ocean basins by streams. Knowing the volume of
^ EARLY CONCEPTS OF GEOLOGIC ocean water and its John Joly, a nineteenth-
salinity,
century Irish geologist, measured the amount of salt cur-
TIME AND THE AGE OF THE EARTH rently in the world's streams. He then calculated that it
The concept of geologic time and its measurement have would have taken at least 90 million years for the oceans
changed through human history. For example, many early to reach their present salinity level. This was still much
Christian scholars and clerics tried to establish the date of younger than the now accepted age of 4.6 billion years
creation by analyzing historical records and the genealo- for the Earth, mainly because Joly had no way of cal-
216 Chapter 9 Geologic Time

3.96
BYA
^ FIGURE
Otc&St rucks
9-1 Geologic time is depicted in this spiral history of the Earth from the
time of its formation 4.6 billion years ago to the present. (B.Y. = billion years;
M.Y. = million years.)
Early Concepts of Geologic Time and the Age of the Earth 217
Millions
Epoch of Years Major Geologic and Biologic Events
Ago
Recent or
Holocene
Quaternary 0.01 Ice Age ends
1.6
Pliocene
5.3
23.7
Oligocene
36.6
Eocene
57.8
66
Cretaceous
144
Permian
Pennsyl-
vanian
Carbon-
iferous
Missis-
sippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Proterozoic Eon
— FIGURE 9-2
The geologic time
scale. Some of the
major biological and
geological events are
indicated along the
right-hand margin.
he concluded that the Earth must be very old and wrote ogists were a quandary. They either had to accept
in
that "we find no vestige of a beginning, and no prospect Kelvin's dates and squeeze events into a shorter time frame
of an end." or reject his calculations. However, Kelvin's quantitative
Observing the processes of wave action, erosion by measurements and arguments seemed unassailable.
running water, and sediment transport, Hutton con- While Kelvin's reasoning and calculations were
cluded that given enough time these processes could ac- sound, his basic premises were false, thereby invalidat-
count for the geologic features of his native Scotland. He ing his conclusions. Kelvin was unaware that the Earth
believed that "the past history of our globe must be has an internal heat source, radioactivity, that has al-
explained by what can be seen to be happening now." lowed it to maintain a fairly constant temperature
Thjs_as snmption t h at present-day processes have o per- through time.* His 40-year campaign for a young Earth
ated throughout geologic time was the basis for the_prin- ended with the discovery o f radioactivity n ear the end of
cipleof_uniformita riariism (see Chapter 1). the nineteenth century. His "unassailable calculations"
Unfortunately, Hutton's ideas were not widely dissem- were no longer valid, and his proof for a geologically
inated or accepted. In 1830, however, Charles Lyell pub- young Earth collapsed. Moreover, while the discovery of
landmark book, Principles of Geology, in which
lished a radioactivity destroyed Kelvin's arguments, it provided
he championed Hutton's concept of uniformitarianism. geologists with a clock that could measure the Earth's
Instead of relying on catastrophic events to explain var- age and validate what geologists had been saying all
ious features of the Earth, Lyell recognized that imper- along, namely, that the Earth was indeed very old! Less
ceptible changes brought about by present-day processes than 10~ years after the discovery that radium generated
could, over long periods of time, have tremendous cu- heat, radiometric calculations were providing ages, of
mulative effects. Through his writings, Lyell firmly es- billions 6T yeariFfor some of the Earth's oldest rocks.
tablished uniformitarianism as the guid ing jphilosophy of
geolo gy. Furthermore, the recognitionof virtually limit- ^ RELATIVE DATING METHODS
less time was also necessary for, and instrumental in, the
acceptance of Darwin's 1859 theory of evolution. Before the development of r adiometric dating tech-
After finally establishing that present-day processes

niques, geologists had no acceptable means oT absolute
have operated over vast periods of time, geologists were gjgTdat ing and t hus depended on relative dating method s.
nevertheless nearly forced to accept a very young age for

These methods only allow events to be placed in sequen-
tial order and do not tell us how long ago an event took
the Earth when a highly respected English physicist,
1866 to have de- place. While the principles of relative dating may now
Lord Kelvin (1824-1907), claimed in
stroyed the uniformitarian foundation of Huttonian-

seem self-evident, their discovery was important because
they provided geologists with a means to interpret Earth
Lyellian geology. Starting with the generally accepted
history and develop a relative geologic time scale.
belief that the Earth was originally molten, Kelvin as-
sumed that the Earth has gradually been losing heat and
that, by measuring this heat loss, he could determine the Fundamental Principles of Relative Dating
age of the Earth.
-^•Six fundamental geologic prin ciples are used in relat ive
Kelvin knew from deep mines that the Earth's tem- '
dating: s uperpositio n, origi nal horizontall y, lateral con-
perature increases with depth, and he reasoned that the
tinuity, cro ss-cuttins relationsh ips, in clusion s, anH fossil
Earth is therefore losing heat from its interior. By know-
s ucce ssion.
ing the melting temperatures of the Earth's rocks, the
The Danish anatomist, Nicolas Steno (1638-1686),
size of the Earth, and the rate of heat loss, Kelvin was
observed that during flooding, streams spread out across
able to calculate the age at which the Earth was entirely
their floodplains and deposit layers of sediment that
molten. From these calculations, he concluded that the
bury organisms dwelling on the floodplain. Subsequent
Earth could not be older than 100 million years or
new layers of sediments that are
flooding events produce
younger than 20 million years. This wide range in age
deposited or superposed over previous deposits. When
reflected uncertainties over average temperature in-
creases with depth and the various melting points of the
'Actually, the Earth's temperature has decreased through time
Earth's constituent materials.
because the original amount of radioactive materials has been
After finally establishing that the Earth was very old,
decreasing and thus is not supplying as much heat. However, the
and showing how present-day processes operating over temperature is decreasing at a rate considerably slower than would
long periods of time can explain geological features, geol- be required to lend any credence to Kelvin's calculations.
Relative Dating Methods 219

-»' FIGURE 9-3 The Grand Canyon of Arizona illustrates
three of the six fundamental principles of relative dating.

The sedimentary rocks of the Grand Canyon were originally
deposited horizontally in a variety of marine and continental
environments (principle of original horizontality). The oldest
rocks are therefore at the bottom of the canyon, and the
youngest rocks are at the top, forming the rim (principle of
superposition). The exposed rock layers extend laterally for
some distance (principle of lateral continuity).
lithified, these layers of sediment become sedimentary

rock. Thus, in an undisturbed succession of sedimentary
rock layers, t he oldest layer is at the bottom and the
youngest layer is at the top T his principle of supe rpo-
.
sition is th e basis for relative age det erminations_ of

s trata a nd their contained fossil s (Fig. 9-3).
Steno also observed that because sedimentary parti-
cles settle from water under the influence of gravity,
sediment deposited in essentially horizontal laye rs,

is
thus illustrating the principle of original horizontality

(Fig. y73)TTherefore, a sequence of sedimentary rock
layers that is steeply inclined from the horizontal must

have been tilte d after deposition and lithificatio n.
Steno's third principle, the pri nciple of lateral con ti-
nuity, states that sediment extends laterally in all dire c-
ons until it thins and pinch es. ""* "r rprminarps against
ti
th e edge of the depositional ba sin (Fig. 9-3).

James Hutton is credited with discove ring the principle
of cross-cutting relationships. Based on his detailed studies
and observations of rock exposures in Scotland, Hutton
recognized that an i pTienii<; intrusion or fault must be
younger than the rocks it intrudes or cut s (Fig. 9-4).
While this principle illustrates that an intrusive igne-
ous structure is younger than the rocks it intrudes, the ^ FIGURE 9-4 The principle of cross-cutting relationships.
association of sedimentary and igneous rocks may cause {a) A
dark-colored dike has been intruded into older
problems in relative dating. Buried lava flows and intru- light-colored granite, north shore of Lake Superior, Ontario,
Canada, (b) A small fault displacing horizontal beds in central
sive igneous bodies such as sills look very similar in a
Texas. (Photo (b) courtesy of David J. Marty.)
sequence of strata (Fig. 9-5). However, a buried lava

'
— FIGURE 9-5 Relative ages of

lava flows, sills, and associated
sedimentary rocks may
be difficult
to determine, (a) A
buried lava flow
(4) baked the underlying bed, and
bed 5 contains inclusions of the lava
flow. The lava flow is younger than
bed 3 and older than beds 5 and 6.
(b) The rock units above and below
the sill (3) have been baked,
indicating that the sill is younger
than beds 2 and 4, but its age
relative to bed 5 cannot be
determined.
flow is older than the rocks above it ( principle of super - ple of faunal and floral succession as it is sometimes
position ), w hile a younger than all the beds below
s ill is called (Fig. 9-7).
it and younger than the be d immediately above it . According to this principle, fossil assemblages suc-
To resolve such relative age problems as these, geol- ceed one another through time in a regular and predict-
ogists look to see if the sedimentary rocks in contact able order. The validity and successful use of this prin-
with the igneous rocks show signs of baking or alter- ciple depend on three points: (1) life has varied thro ugh
ati on by heat_ (see Chapter 8, Contact Metamorphism). time, (2) fossil assemblages are recognizably differe nt
A sedimentary rock showing such effects must be older " from one another, and (3) the re l ative ages of the foss il
than the igneous rock with which it is in contact. In assemblages can be determined. Observations of fossils
Figure 9-5, for example, a produces a zone of baking
sill in older versus younger strata clearly demonstrate that
immediately above and below it because it intruded into life-forms have changed. Because this is true, fossil as-
previously existing sedimentary rocks. A lava flow, on semblages (point 2) are recognizably different. Further-
the other hand, bakes only those rocks below it. more, superposition can also be used to demonstrate the
Another way to dete rmine rela tive ages is by usi ng relative ages of the fossil assemblages.
the principle of inclus ions. This principle holds that in -
clusions7"o~f~lrag ments of one rock contained within a
l ayer of another, are older than the rock lay er itself. For
example, the batholith shown in Figure 9-6a contains "^ FIGURE 9-6 (a) The batholith is younger than the
sandstone because the sandstone has been baked at its
sandstone inciulfi6hs7"and the sandstone unit shows the
contact with the granite and the granite contains sandstone
effects of baking. Accordingly, we conclude that the
inclusions, (b) Granite inclusions in the sandstone indicate
s andstone is ol der^ than the batholi th. In Figure 9-6b, that the batholith was the source of the sandstone and
however, the sandstone contains granite rock fragments, therefore is older.
f
indicating that the batholith was the source rock for the
inclusions
Fossils
and is
have been
therefore older than the sandstone.
known for centuries (see Chap-
ff
ter 7), yet their utility in relative dating and geologic
mapping was not fully appreciated until the early nine-
teenth century. William Smith (1769-1839), an English
civil engineer involved in surveying and building canals
in southern England, independently recognized the prin-
ciple of superposition by reasoning that the fossils at the
bottom of a sequence of strata are older than those at
the top of the sequence. This recognition served as the
^Tiê .
basis for the principle of fossil succession or the princi-

Section
ir FIGURE 9-7 This generalized

diagram shows how William Smith
used fossils to identify strata of the
same age in different areas
(principle of fossil succession). The
composite section on the right
shows the relative ages of all strata
in this area.
have no record of the conversations that were occurring

Unconformities
during this period of time, we have no record of the
Our discussion thus far has been concerned with con- events that occurred during a hiatus.
formable sequences of strata, sequences in which no Three types of unconformitie s are recognized. A dis-
—
,
depositional breaks of any consequence occur. A sharp rnnfnrnyfy k * cn r fcr p rrf erosiorfor non deposition be-
bedding plane (Fig. 7-22) separating strata may repre- . tween younger and older beds that a re parallel with one
sent a depositional break of minutes, hours, years, orjflM another (Fig. 9-9). Unless a well-defined erosional sur-
even tens of years, but it is inconsequential when con- \p face separates the older from the younger parallel beds,
sidered in the context of geologic time. I| <r tha disconformity frequently resembles an ordinary bed-
S urfaces of discontinuity representing significa nt JWBing plane. Accordingly, many disconformities are dif-
a mounts of geologic time are un conformities, anrl anv jy ficult to recognize and must be identified on the basis of
in terva l of g eologic time not represented by strata in a fossil assemblages.
particular area is a hiatus (Fig. 9-8). "T hus, an unconfo r- An angular unconformity is an erosional su rface on
mity is a surface of nondepositi on or erosion that__£cp- tilted or folded st rata over which younger strata"fiave
arates younger strata from older rock s. As such, it rep- / hppp rlppnglfprl (hlg H-\i\) Kr>fK~~y7inngPi-~ qnH n\r\* r
res ents ab reak_Jr^ our j-ecordoi geologic rime. The J
strata may dip, but if their dip angles are different (gen-
famous 12-minutegaplrTthe Watergate tapesof Richard ^pL erally the older strata dip more steep ly), an angu lar un -
Nixon's presidency is somewhat analogous. Just as we, nir conformity is present.
A^
•** FIGURE 9-8 A simplified
diagram showing the development of
an unconformity and a hiatus.
(a) Deposition began 12 million years
ago (M.Y.A.) and continued more or
less uninterrupted until 4 M.Y.A. (b) A
1-million-year episode of erosion
occurred, and during that time strata
representing 2 million years of geologic
time were eroded, (c) A hiatus of 3
million years exists between the older
strata and the strata that formed
during a renewed episode of deposition
that began 3 M.Y.A. {d) The actual
stratigraphic record. The unconformity
is the surface separating the strata and
represents a major break in our record
of geologic time.
The angular unconformity illustrated in Figure 9- 10b nonconformity and an intrusive contact is very impor-
is probably the most famous in the world. It was here at tant since they represent different sequences of events.
Siccar Point, Scotland, that James Hutton realized that
severe up heavals had tilted the lower rocks and formed Applying the Principles of Relative Dating to
mountains that w ere then worn away and covered by the Reconstruction of the Geologic History
younger, flat-lying rocks. The erosional surface between
of an Area
the older tilted rocks and the younger flat-lying strata
meant that therewas a significant gap in the rock We can decipher the geologic history of the area repre-
record. Although Hutton did not use the term uncon- sented by the block diagram in Figure 9-12 by applying
formity, he was the first to understand and explain the the various relative dating principles just discussed. The
significance of such discontinuities in the rock record. methods and logic used in this example are the same as
Th e third type of un conformity is a nonconformity. those applied by nineteenth-century geologists in con-
Here an erosion surface cut into metamorphic or igrie - structing the geologic time scale.
ous rocks isco vered by sedimentary rocks (Fig. 9-11). According to the principles of superposition and origi-
This type of unconformity closely resembles an intrusive nal horizontality, beds A, B, C, D, H, F, jmdjg_wgrg de-
igneous contact with sediment ary rock s. The principle posited horizofiTattyTthen they were either tilted, faulted
of inclusions is helpful in determining whether the rela- (H),and e roded or afte r de position, they were faultedTH),
,
tionship between the underlying igneous rocks and the andtnen eroded (Fig. 9- 13 a, b, and c). Because the
tilted,
overlying sedimentary rocks is the result of an intrusi on fauTTcuts beds A^G, it must be younger than the beds
o r ero sion. I n the case of an imTfusio^the igneous rock s according to the principle of cross-cutting relationships.
are "ymffrger, but in the case of qfosiorT^the sedimentar y Beds J, K, and L were then deposited horizontally
rock? areyounger. Being able to distinguish between a over this erosional surface producing an angular uncon-

Deposition c -•
(a) (b)
•^ FIGURE 9-9 (a) Formation of a disconformity. (b) Disconformiry between

Mississippian and Jurassic strata in Montana. The geologist at the upper left is sitting
on Jurassic strata, and his right foot is resting upon Mississippian rocks.

""*' FIGURE 9-10 (a) Formation of an angular unconformity, (b) Angular
unconformity at Siccar Point, Scotland. (Photo courtesy of Dorothy L. Stout.

/~
.
^ J- or~L<>
K i- U> £L,^
s.vl **)
^CrocL(\ SvMcjuct .O/odM**-^
I lM m^'Vê-.lV.wv cUX
t*tf* T^ 1
^ FIGURE 9-12 A block

diagram of a hypothetical area in
which the various relative dating
principles can be applied to
reconstruct the geologic history.
formity (I) (Fig. 9-13d). Following deposition of these Following the intrusion of dike R, lava S flowed over
three beds, the entire sequence was intruded by a dik e bed Q, followed by the deposition of bed T (Fig. 9-13i
(Ml which, according to the principle of cross-cuttin g
, and j). Although the lava fl ow (S) is not a se djmejitary
must be younger than all the rocks it in-
relationships, unit the principle of superposition still applies beca use
,
trudes (FigT~9-13e). it flowed "on the Earth's su rface, Justus sediments a re
The was then uplifted and eroded: next

e ntire area depositedjjn the Earth's surf a ce
beds P and Q
were deposite d, producing a discon for- Thus, we have established a relative chronology for
mity (N b etween bed s L and P and a nonconformity (O)
)
the rocks and events of this area by using the principles
between the igneous intrusion M
and the sedimentary of_relative dating. Remember, however, that we have no
bed P (Fig. 9-13f~and g). We know that the relationship wayoFTcnowirig how many years ago these events oc-
between igneous intrusion M
and the overlying sed i- curred unless we can obtain radiome tric_ date s for the
m entary bed P is a n onconformity because of the pres- igneous rocks. With these dates we can establish the
ence of inclusions of M
in P (principle of inclusions). range of absolute ages between which the different sed-
At thispoint, there are several possibilities for recon- imentary units~wereTdeposited and also determine how
structing the geologic history of this area. According to much time is represented by the unconformities.
the principle of cross-cutting relationships, dike R must
be younger than bed Q because it intrudes into it. It can
have intruded anytime after bed Q was deposited; how-
ever,
after
we cannot determine whether
right after S, or after T was
R was formed
formed. For pur-
right
^ CORRELATION ^^^
\U<A.cci^> /->M'<JU.,;-K
If geologists are to reconstruct Earth history; they must

\/\A
bed f.
£,
Q,
poses of this history, we will say that it intruded after the demonstrate the time equivalency of rock units in dif-
deposition of bed JD (Fig. 9-13g and h). ferent areas. This process is known as c orrelat ion
J^CU^vp
\OlOL;
Qi
\ ,o)-Cb 'JO i? C T~ Correlation 227
J« //ii/^L -A Lfc-OJ* t rsTX i-CLA>n j.

/£&
with the lowermost equivalent rocks of another area, of time during the geologic past. Fossils that are easily
the history of the entire region can be deciphered. identified, are geographically widespread, and existed for
Although geologists can match up rocks on the basis a rather short geologic time are particularly useful. Such
of similar rock type and stratigraphic position, correla- fossils are called guide fossils or index fossils Fig. 9-16). (
tion of this type can only be done in a limited area where For example, the trilobite Isotelus and the clam Inoce-
beds can be traced from one site to ano ther. In order to ratnus meet all of these criteria and are therefore good
correlate rock units over a large area or to correlate guide fossils. In contrast, the brachiopod Lingula is easily
age-equivalent units ^>f differenPcornpbsition, fossils identified and widespread, but its geologic range of Or-
and the principle of fossil succession must be used. dovician to Recent makes it of little use in correlation.
Fossils are us eful as time in dic ators because they are Because most fossils have fairly long geologic ranges,
the remains of organisms that lived for a certain length geologists constructl assemblage range zones to determine
'*' FIGURE 9-14 Correlation of rock units, (a) In areas of adequate exposures, rock
units can be traced laterally even if (£>) Correlation by similarities
occasional gaps exist.
in rock type and position in a sequence. The sandstone in section 1 is assumed to
intertongue or grade laterally into the shale at section 2. (c) Correlation using a key
bed, a distinctive black limestone.
|.!i
I I
|
I I
i|i|i|
I I
.
I
|i !
I
i|.
I
!
I
.|
I
.
I I
iiiiii
I
|
I
i!
I
.
' 1
!i|i|i
I
|
'I
i| .
I
|i|i|i
I I
!
'''
i
m '
ffig
'
'
PC
Correlation 229
Precambrian Eon
Fm = Formation Ss = Sandstone Ls = Limestone •

Rocks ol Ordovician and Silurian age are not present in the Grand Canyon

"**" FIGURE 9-15 (left) Correlation of rocks within the Atoms, Elements, and Isotopes
Colorado Plateau. By correlating the rocks from various
locations, the history of the entire region can be deciphered. As we discussed in Chapter 3, all matter is made up of
chemical elements, each of which composed of ex-
is
tremely small particles called atoms. The nucleus of an

atom is composed of protons and neutrons with elec-
trons encircling it (Fig. 3-3). The number of protons
th e age of_thc_sedimentary roclcs-contatBiBfr^he^fossils.
defines an element's atomic number and helps determine
Assemblage range zones are established by plotting the
its properties and characteristics. The combined number
overlapping geologic ranges of different species of fossils.
of protons and neutrons in an atom is its atomic mass
The first and last occurrences of two species are used to
number. However, not all atoms of the same element
establish an assemblage zone's boundaries (Fig. 9-17).
have the same number of neutrons in their nuclei. These
Correlation of assemblage zones generally yields cor-
variable forms of the same element are called isotopes.
relation lines that are considered time equivalent. In
other words, the strata encompassed by the correlation
lines arethought to be the same age. Geologists are
aware, however, that such zones are not exactly the
same age everywhere, because no fossil organism ap-
^ FIGURE The geologic ranges of three marine
9-16
invertebrates.The brachiopod Lingula is of little use in
peared and disappeared simultaneously over its entire
correlation because of its long geologic range. The trilobite
geographic range. Even so, first and last appearances do hotelus and the bivalve Inoceramus are good guide fossils
not differ greatly from origins and extinctions in geo- because they are geographically widespread, are easily
logic time; thus, correlation of assemblage zones can identified, and have short geologic ranges.
still be very precise. For example, during the 1840s and

1850s, Albert Oppel was able to subdivide the Jurassic
strata into zones based on the overlapping ranges of Tertiary
fossils called ammonites found in Europe. Most of these

zones are less than a million years in duration (later
by correlation with radiometrically dated beds)

verified
Cretaceous
and can be used to correlate Jurassic rocks accurately
throughout the world.
Inoceramus
^ ABSOLUTE DATING METHODS

Thus far, our discussion has largely concerned the con-
cept of geologic time and the formulation of principles
Permian
used to determine relative ages. It is somewhat ironic
that radioactivity, the very process that invalidated Lord
Pennsylvaman
Kelvin's calculations, now serves as the basis for deter-
mining absolute dates.
Mississippian
Although most of the isotopes of the 91 naturally
occurring elements are stable, some are radioactive and
spontaneously decay to other more stable isotopes of
elements, releasing energy in the process. The discovery,
in 1903 by Pierre and Marie Curie, that radioactive de-
cay produces heat as a by-product meant that geologists
finally had a mechanism for explaining the internal heat Ordovician
of the Earth that did not rely on residual cooling from a
molten origin. Furthermore, geologists and paleontolo-
gists had a powerful tool to date geologic events accu- Cambrian
rately, and thus verify the long time periods postulated
by Hutton, Lyell, and Darwin.
Absolute Dating Methods 231

Perspective 9-1
SUBSURFACE CORRELATION
AND THE SEARCH FOR OIL
AND NATURAL GAS
During the early years of the petroleum industry, which oil and natural gas might be trapped. Surface
geologists relied almost exclusively on surface studies methods are still important in petroleum geology,
in their search for oil and gas. Among other particularly in unexplored regions, but most
techniques, they constructed maps showing rocks and exploration is now done using subsurface methods.
geologic structures such as folds and faults. Subsurface geology is the acquisition and
Interpretation of such maps sometimes revealed interpretation of data regarding geologic features
subsurface structures, such as those in Figure 7-33, in beneath the Earth's surface. Drilling operations have
provided a wealth of data on subsurface geology.
When drilling for oil or natural gas, cores or rock
""" FIGURE Core and (b) rock chips are the two
1 (a) chips called well cuttings are usually recovered from
types of samples recovered from drill holes. (Photos courtesy
the drill hole (Fig.1). These samples are studied under
of Sue Monroe.)
the microscope and reveal such important information
as rock type, porosity (the amount of pore space) and
permeability (the ability to transmit fluids), and the
presence of oil stains. In addition, the samples can
also be processed for microfossils that can aid in
determining the geologic age of the sediments (Fig. 2).
Cores are very useful for correlating rock units

from well to well and locating oil- or gas-producing
zones. Geophysical instruments may be lowered down
a drill hole to record such rock properties as electrical
resistivity, density, and radioactivity, thus providing a
well log of the rocks penetrated (Fig. 3).
(text continued on page 234)
"*"""
FIGURE 2 Microscopic one-celled animals called
foraminifera can be used to determine the age of the rock
they are found in and can be used to correlate rock units
between wells. (Scanning electron micrograph by Dee Breger,
Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory.)

Magnetic
recording
Down hole
logging
tool
(a)
"•^ FIGURE 3 {a) A schematic diagram showing how well logs are made. A logging tool is
lowered down the drill hole. As the tool is withdrawn, data are transmitted to the surface
where they are recorded and printed out as a well log. (b) Electrical logs and correlations of
rocks in two wells in Colorado. The curves labeled SP are plots of self-potential (electrical
potential caused by different conductors in a solution that conducts electricity) with depth,
and the curves labeled R are plots of electrical resistivity with depth.

Energy Satellite
source navigation
system
Hydrophones
/^^
^ FIGURE 4 {a) A diagram showing the use of seismic reflections to detect buried rock
units at sea. Sound waves are generated at the energy source. Some of the energy of these
waves is reflected from various horizons back to the surface where it is detected by
hydrophones. Buried rock units can also be detected on land, but here explosive charges are
detonated as an energy source, (b) Seismic record and depositional sequences defined in the
Beaufort Sea. Boundaries of seismic sequences are shown by solid black lines. The scale on
the right shows seismic wave travel time. Notice the sloping lines indicating faults in the
right part of the seismic record.
have made it possible to work out

Electrical logs between contrasting layers) back to the surface, where
structural problems that could not otherwise have it is recorded (Fig. 4). Seismic stratigraphy is
been solved. Such logs have saved oil companies particularly useful in tracing units in areas such as the
tremendous amounts of money in coring expenses continental shelves where it is very expensive to drill
and, by enabling the companies to determine the holes and other techniques have limited use.
subsurface fluid content, have helped them discover In petroleum exploration, the purpose of most well
additional oil that might otherwise have been missed. correlations is to map the structure to see if it has the
Electrical logs have also been used for very accurate potential for trapping oil and gas. Another important
correlation, particularly over short distances (Fig. 3). use is in predicting where an oil- or gas-producing
Subsurface rock units may also be detected and horizon might occur outside the limits of a known oil
traced by the study of seismic profiles. Energy pulses, field. The choice of subsurface correlation methods
such as those from explosions, travel through rocks at depends on the information geologists are seeking, the
a velocity determined by rock density, and some of general geology of the area, and the cost and time
this energy is reflected from various horizons (contacts available to run different logs.
Most isotopes are stabl e, but s ome are unstable and atomic nucleus of a different element. Three types, of
spontane ously cteca~y~to~a more~itirjIe~rbrm. It is the radioact ive decay are recognized, all of w hichj-esult in a
^dec ay rate of u nstable jsotopes tKatgeologi sts meas ure c hange o f atomic structure (Fig. 9-18). Injdpjia_decay,
j\ o determ ine the absoluteage~oFrocIci^ the nucleus emits two protons and two neutrons with
the result that the atomic number decreases by two and
the atomic mass number decreases by four. B eta decay is
Radioactive Decay and Half-Lives
the emission of a fast-moving electron from a neutron in
Radioactive decayis the process whereby an unstable the nucleus; the neutron is changed to a proton, and
atomic nucleuses spontaneously transformed into an consequently the atomic number is increased by one,

"" FIGURE 9-17 Correlation of two
sections by using assemblage range
zones. These zones are established by
the overlapping ranges of fossils A
through E.
with no resultant atomic mass number change. Electron For example, an element with 1.000,000 parent atoms
capture results when a proton captures an electron from will hav e 500,000 parent atom s and 500,000 daugh ter
an electron shell and is thereby converted to a neutron; atoms after one half-life After two half-lives, it will have
.
as a result, the atomic number decreases by one, but the 250,000 parent atoms (one-half of the previous parent
atomic mass number does not change. atoms "which is equivalent to one-fou rth ot the original
,
Some elements undergo only one decay step in the parent a toms) and 750,000 daughter atoms. After three
conversion from an unstable form to a stable form. For half-lives, it will have 125,000 parent atoms (one-half of
example, rubidium 87 decays to strontium 87 by a sin- the previous parent atoms or one-eighth of the original
gle beta emission, and potassium 40 decays to argon 40 parent atoms) and 875,000 daughter atoms, and so on
by a single electron capture. Other radioactive elements until the number of parent atoms remaining is so few
undergo several decay steps (see Perspective 9-2). Ura- that they cannot be accurately measured by present-day
nium 235 decays to lead 207 by seven alpha and six beta instruments.
steps, while uranium 238 decays to lead 206 by eight By measuring the parent-daughter ratio and knowing
alpha and six beta steps (Fig. 9-19). the half-life of the parent (determined in the laboratory),
When discussing decay .rates, it is convenient to refer geologists can calculate the age of a sample containing
to them in termôLhalf-Jiyes) The half-life of a rad io- the radioactive element. The parent-daughter ratio is
act ive element is the time it takes for one-half of t he usually determined by a mass spectrometer, an instru-
a" toms of the original unstable parent element to deca y ment that meas uresjhe proportions of_eleme_nts_of dif-
to atoms of a new, more stable daughter elemen t. The ferent masses.
halt-lite of a given radioactive element is constant re-
gardless of external conditions and can be precisely

Sources of Uncertainty
measured in the laboratory. Half-lives of various radio-
active elements range from less thanâ-bjllionth of a The most accurate radiometric dates are obtained from
second to 49 billion yea rs- i gneous rock s. As a magma cools and begins to crystal-
Radioac tive decay occurs at a geometric rate rath er lize, radioactive parent atoms are separated from previ-
t han a li negxiatejherefore, a graph of the decay rate ously formed daughter atoms. Because they are the right
produces a curve rather than a straight line (Fig. 9-20). size, some radioactive parent atoms are incorporated

Alpha Changes in atomic number
particle and atomic mass number
Atomic number = -2
Atomic mass number = -4
Alpha decay
Beta
particle
Atomic number = +1
Atomic mass number =
Beta decay
-»- FIGURE 9-18 Three types of

radioactive decay, (a)Alpha decay, Atomic number = -1
in which an unstable parent nucleus Atomic mass number =
emits two protons and rwo
Electron capture
neutrons, (b) Beta decay, in which
an electron is emitted from the
nucleus, (c) Electron capture, in
which a proton captures an electron
and is thereby converted to a
neutron.
Protron Q Neutron # Electron
into the crystal structure of certain minerals. The stable taining radioactive potassium 40, which decays to argon
daughter atoms, however, are a different size than the 40 (Table 9-1). It marine environments
forms in certain
radioactive parent atoms and consequently cannot fit ~a" s~a du r-
result of chemical reactions with clay minerals
into the crystal structure of the same mineral as the ing the convers ion from sediments to sedimentary rock.
parent atoms. Therefore when the magma begins to Thus, it forms when the sedimentary rock forms, and a
crystallize, the mineral will contain radioactive parent radiometric date indicates the time of the sedimentary
atoms but no stable daughter atoms (Fig. 9-21). Thus, rock's origin. However, because the daughter product
the time that is being measured is the time of crystalli- argon is a gas, it can easily escape from a mineral.
zation of the mineral containing the radioactive atoms, Therefore, any date obtained from glauconite, or any
not the time of formation of the radioactive atoms. other mineral containing the potassium 40— argon 40
Exay3t_jnj musual circumstan ces, sedimentary rocks pair, must be c onsidered a minimum ag e.
ca nnot be radiometrically dated, be cause one would be To obtain accurate radiometric dates, geologists must
measuring the age of a particular mineral rather than the be sure that they are dealing with a closed system, mean-
time that it was deposited as a sedimentary particle. One ing that neither parent nor daughter atoms have been
of the few instances in which radiometric dates can be added or removed from the s ystem since crystallization
obtained on sedimentary rocks is when the mineral glau- and that the ratio between them results only from ra-
conite is present. Glauconite is a greenish mineral cbn- dioactive decay. Otherwise, an inaccurate date will re-

Magma
^ FIGURE 9-21 (a) A magma

contains both radioactive and stable
atoms, (b) As the magma cools and
begins to crystallize, some
radioactive atoms are incorporated
into certain minerals because they
are the right size and can fit into the
crystal structure. Therefore, at the
time of crystallization, the mineral
will contain 100% radioactive
parent atoms and 0% stable
daughter atoms, (c) After one
half-life, 50% of the radioactive
parent atoms will have decayed to
stable daughter atoms.
daughter ratio of two different radioactive elements in
the same mineral. For example, naturally occurring ura-
nium consists of both uranium 235 and uranium 238
isotopes. Through various decay steps, uranium 235 de-
cays to lead 207, whereas uranium 238 decays to lead
206 (Fig. 9-19). If the minerals containing both uranium
isotopes have remained closed systems, the ages ob-
tained from each parent-daughter ratio should be in
close agreement and therefore should indicate the time
of crystallization of the magma. If the ages do not
closely agree, other samples must be taken and ratios
measured to see which, if either, date is correct.
Long-Lived Radioactive Isotope Pairs

Table 9-1 shows the five common, long-lived parent-
daughter isotope pairs used in radiometric dating. Long-
lived pairs have half-lives of millions or billions of years.
All of these were present when the Earth formed and are
still present in measurable quantities. Other shorter-lived
radioactive isotope pairs have decayed to the point that
only small quantities near the limit of detection remain.
The most commonly used isotope pairs are the
tranium-lead and thorflimjeji^jienes., > which^ are_used
prmcTpairyto date ancient igneous intrusives, lunar sam -
ples, and some meteorites The r ubidium-strontium pa ir
.
is'also used ~t or very old samples and has been effective

in d ating _thiie_Qidest rocks on E artrTas well as meteorites .
"^ FIGURE 9-22 The effect of metamorphism in driving
out daughter atoms from a mineral that crystallized 700
1 he ggtassium- argor^method is typically used for dating
million years ago (M.Y.A.). The mineral is shown
finegrained v olcanic roc ks from which individual crys- immediately after crystallization (a), then at 400 million
tals cannot be separated; hence the whole rock is ana- years (b), when some of the parent atoms had decayed to
lyzed. However, argon is a gas, so great care must be daughter atoms. Metamorphism at 350 M.Y.A. (c) drives
taken to assure that the sample has not been subjected to the daughter atoms out of the mineral into the surrounding
rock, (d) Assuming the rock has remained a closed chemical
heat, which would allow argon to escape; such a sample
system throughout its history, dating the mineral today
would yield an age that is too young. Other long-lived
yields the time of metamorphism, while dating the rock
radioactive isotope pairs exist, but they are rather rare provides the time of its crystallization, 700 M.Y.A.
and are used only in special situations.
Radiocarbon Dating Methods £"/

?^
,V Carbon is an important el ement in nature and is one o fthe greatly aide d in unraveling the events of the latter por-
^ba sic elements found in all forms of l ife. It has three iso- tion of rh flflîstocene EpocT p
topes; two of these, carbo n 12 and 13, are stable, where as Carbon 14 is constantly formed in the upper atmo-
?n 14 is radioactive. Carbon 14 has a halt-life of sphere by the bombardment of cosmic rays, which are
pears plus or minus 30 years. The carbon 14 dating^, high-energy particles (mostly protons). These high-en-
^techniq ue is based on the ratio of carbon 14 to carbon 12 ergy particles strike the atoms of upper-atmospheric
and is generally used to date once-livin g material. gases, splitting their nuclei into protons and neutrons.
The short half-life of carbon 14 makes this dating^ When a neutron strikes the nucleus of a nitrogen atom
technique pj-gctical only for specimens you nger than (atomic number 7, atomic mass number 14), it may be
abourJZQJDOO years. Consequently, the carbon 14 dating absorbed into the nucleus and a proton emitted. Thus,
method is especially useful in archaeology and has the atomic number of the atom decreases by one,

Perspective 9-2
RADON: THE SILENT KILLER

What is radon, what makes it so dangerous, and how home, however, radon can accumulate to unhealthy
worried should you be about it in your home, school, levels (>4 pCi/L). Continued exposure to these
or business? According to the U.S. National Research elevated levels over several years can greatly increase
Council, approximately 20,000 people die prematurely the risk of lung cancer.
each year from cancers induced by exposure to indoor As one of the natural decay products of uranium
radon. In fact, radon is the second leading cause of 238, radon itself decays into other radioactive
lung cancer in the United States. elements called radon daughters (Fig. 9-19). Every
Your chances of being adversely affected by radon time you breathe, these daughter elements become
depend on numerous interrelated factors such as your trapped in your lungs and eventually break down,
geographic location, the geology of the area, the releasing high-energy alpha and beta decay particles
climate, how the building is constructed, and how (Fig. 9-18) that damage lung tissue and can cause lung
much time you spend in the building. While there are, cancer.
as yet, no federal standards defining unacceptable Concern about the health risks posed by radon first
indoor radon Environmental Protection

levels, the arose during the 1960s when the news media revealed
Agency (EPA) recommends radon levels not exceed that some homes in the West had been built with
four picocuries per liter (pCi/L) of air (a curie is the uranium mine tailings. Since then, geologists have
standard measure of radiation, and a picocurie is found that high indoor radon levels can be caused by
one-trillionth of a curie). natural uranium in minerals of the rock and soil on
Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring
radioactive gas that has a three-day half-life and is
part of the uranium 238—lead 206 radioactive decay

"^" FIGURE 2 Two of the most popular commercially
series (Fig. 9-19). It occurs in any rock or soil that
available radon-testing devices are (a) the charcoal canister
contains uranium 238. Outdoors, radon escapes into and (b) alpha track detectors. Both are left open and
the atmosphere where it is diluted and dissipates to exposed to the air and then sent to a laboratory for analysis.
harmless levels (0.2 pCi/L is the average ambient
outdoor level of radon). In an enclosed area such as a
"^ FIGURE 1 Some of the common entry points where

radon can enter a house.

"'•'FIGURE 3 Areas in the United States where granite, phosphate-bearing rocks,
carbonaceous shales, and uranium occur. These rocks are all potential sources of radon gas.
which buildings are constructed. In response to the track detectors (Fig. 2). Both devices are left open and
high cost of energy during the 1970s and 1980s, old exposed to the air in your house and then sent to a
buildings were insulated, and new buildings were laboratory for analysis.
constructed to be as energy efficient and airtight as radon readings are above the recommended EPA
If
possible. Ironically, these energy-saving measures also levels of4 pCi/L, several remedial measures can be
sealed in radon. taken to reduce your risk. These include sealing up all
Radon enters buildings through dirt floors, cracks cracks in the foundation, pouring a concrete slab over
in the floor or walls, joints between floors and walls, a dirt floor, increasing the circulation of air
floor drains,sumps, and utility pipes as well as any throughout the house, especially in the basement and
cracks or pores in hollow-block walls (Fig. 1). Radon crawl space, providing filters for drains and other
can also be released into a building whenever the utility openings, and limiting the time spent in areas
water is turned on if the water comes from a private with higher concentrations of radon.
well. Municipal water is generally safe because it has It is important to remember that although the radon
usually been aerated before ityour home.
gets to hazard covers most of the country, some areas
To find out if your home has a radon problem, you are more likely to have higher natural concentrations of
must test for it with commercially available, relatively radon than others (Fig. 3). For example, such rocks as
inexpensive, simple home testing devices. The two uranium-bearing granites, metamorphic rocks of granitic
most popular are the charcoal canister and alpha (continued on next page)

composition, and black shales (high carbon content) concrete slabs. In a recent study of 3,000 homes in
are quite likely to cause indoor radon problems. Other Atlanta, Georgia, Linda Gunderson of the U.S.
rocks such as marine quartz sandstone, Geological Survey found that homes with a basement
noncarbonaceous shales and siltstones, most volcanic had average radon levels two to three times higher
rocks, and igneous and metamorphic rocks rich in than homes built on a concrete slab. Furthermore,
iron and magnesium typically do not cause radon homes that had cracks in their basement walls or that
problems. The permeability of the soil overlying the were constructed with hollow-block walls (such blocks
rock can also affect the indoor levels of radon gas. are very gas permeable) had higher radon readings
Some soils are more permeable than others and allow than those with solid, poured concrete walls.
more radon to escape into the overlying structures. While research continues into the sources of indoor
The climate and type of construction affect not only radon and ways of controlling it, the most important
how much radon gets into a structure, but how much thing people can do is to test their home, school, or
escapes. Concentrations of radon are highest during the business for radon. In this way more data will be
winter in northern climates because houses are sealed as available for analysis, some preventive measures can
tightly as possible. Homes with basements are more be taken, and a solution to this major problem will be
likely to have higher radon levels than those built on found sooner.
while the atomic mass number stays the same. Because Tree- ring datingjsâ usefujjriethod forjd atingjecent
the atomicnumber has changed, a new element, carbon even ts. The age of a tree can be determined by counting
14 (atomic number 6, atomic mass number 14), is the growth rings in the lower part of the trunk. Each
formed. The newly formed carbon 14 is rapidly assim- ring represents one year's growth, and the pattern of
ilated into the carbon cycle and, along with carbon 12 wide and narrow rings can be compared among trees to
and 13, is absorbed in a nearly constant ratio by all establish the exact year in which the rings were formed.
living organisms (Fig. 9-23). When an organism dies, The procedure of matching ring patterns from numer-
however, carbon 14 is not replenished, and the ratio of ous trees and wood fragments in a given area is referred
carbon 14 to carbon 12 decreases as carbon 14 decays to as cross-dating. By correlating distinctive tree-ring
back to nitrogen by a single beta decay step (Fig. 9-23). sequences from living to nearby dead trees, a time scale
The ratio of carbon 14 to carbon 12 is remarkably has been constructed extending back to about 14,000
constant in both the atmosphere and living organisms, years ago (Fig. 9-25). By matching ring patterns to the
and geologists assume that it has also been constant for composite ring scale, wood samples whose ages are not
the past 100,000 years. Comparing ages established by known can be accurately dated.
carbon 14 dating of wood samples with ages obtained The applicability of tree-ring dating is somewhat lim-
by counting annual tree rings in the same samples yields ited because it can only be used where continuous tree
slight differences (Fig. 9-24). It appears that the produc- records are found. It is therefore most useful in arid
tion of carbon 14 and hence the ratio of carbon 14 to regions, particularly the southwestern United States.
carbon 12 has varied slightly over the past several thou- Fissi on track dating is a useful techn ique that can be
sand years, in part, because the amount of C0 2 has applied in dating samples ranging in age from only a tew
varied.As a result, corrections in carbon 14 ages have hundred to hundreds of millions of years. It is most
been made to account for such variations in the past. usetul tor dating samples between about 40,000 and one
million years ago, a period for which other dating tech-
niques are not particularly effective.
Tree-Ring and Fission Track Dating Methods
When a uranium isotope in a mineral emits an alpha
In addition to radiometric dating, various other meth- decay particle, the heavy, rapidly moving alpha particle
ods can yield accurate absolute dates. Two of the most damages the crystal structure. The damage appears as
common include tree-ring and fission track dating. small linear tracks that are visible only under a high-

"^ FIGURE 9-23 (right) The carbon cycle showing the
formation, dispersal, and decay of carbon 14.
powered microscope and only after etching the mineral

with hydrofluoric acid. The age of the sample is deter-
mined by the number of fission tracks present and the
amount of uranium the sample contains. The older the
Cosmic
sample, the greater the number of tracks (Fig. 9-26).
radiation
One of the problems in fission track dating occurs
when the rocks have been subjected to high tempera-
Neutron capture
tures. If this happens, the damaged crystal structures are Nitrogen 14 Carbon 14
"repaired" by annealing, and consequently, the tracks

disappear. In such instances, the calculated age will be
\
C 14 is absorbed
younger than the actual age.
y along with
13
C 12 and
C into the tissue
^ THE DEVELOPMENT OF of living

in a fairly
organisms
constant
THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE ratio.
The geologic time scale is a hierarchical scale in which

the 4.6-billion-year history of the Earth is divided into
time units of varying duration (Fig. 9-2). The geologic
time scale was not developed by any one individual, but
rather evolved, primarily during the nineteenth century,
through the efforts of many people. By applying relative
dating methods to rock outcrops, geologists in England
and western Europe defined the major geologic time
units without the benefit of radiometric dating tech-
niques (Fig. 9-27). Using the principles of superposition When an organism dies, C 14 converts
and fossil succession, they were able to correlate the back to N 14 by beta decay.
various exposures and piece together a composite geo-
Beta decay
Nitrogen 14
Beta*v
particle
"^ FIGURE 9-24 (below) Discrepancies exist between
carbon 14 dates and those obtained by counting annual tree
• Proton
rings. Back to about 600 B.C., carbon 14 dates are too old,
and those from about 600 b.c to about 5,000 b.c are too
young. Consequently, corrections must be made to the
carbon 14 dates for this time period.
2.000 1 ,000 1 ,000 2,000 3,000 4,000

Tree-ring dates

H Guest Essay MICHAEL L. McKINNEY
TTTfTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTI
PALEONTOLOGY
LIFE THROUGH TIME
being interested in rocks and
:
on
TRACING
for a Ph.D. After receiving my
Even as a child, I recall degree, I joined the
fossils. I know now that I was them for
attracted to faculty at the University of Tennessee where I teach
the same reasons that I still enjoy teaching and doing undergraduate and graduate courses. I'm glad I made
research in historical geology. For one thing, rocks this choice because it allows me to carry out research
and fossils are a constant reminder that time did not projects of my own choosing. I am helped by a
begin with my knowledge leads to a

existence. This number of graduate students who work in my
more relaxed view of what I— and the human species laboratory, doing research in their own particular
for that matter— am doing here. One's self-importance areas. For instance, one is making highly sophisticated
is continually diminished when you work with fossils measurements of fossil shapes by using a television
that are millions of years old. camera connected to a computer. Much of this work
A bigger part of my motivation, however, comes is supported by grants from agencies such as the
from the "detective" work involved in historical geology. National Science Foundation. Funding from these
Like a police detective, the historical geologist trys to agencies is very competitive, and the grants usually
reconstruct past events from fragmentary evidence. last only a couple of years. Therefore, scientists must
Whether as a sedimentologist trying to determine when often spend a significant amount of time writing and
an oil basin formed, or a paleontologist trying to find submitting grant applications if their research is costly.
the ancestors of modern mammals, the challenge is to Some of my own favorite research is currently
use whatever limited information is available. This can aimed at finding information on the many extinctions
be frustrating, but as with many puzzles, the moment seen in the fossil record. This research has much
when "come together" is very satisfying.
ideas relevance today, when species are becoming extinct at
Furthermore, new evidence is always being found so an alarming rate. Since over 99% of all species that
new puzzles always arise and old answers often prove have ever existed have died out, the fossil record
inadequate. Most satisfying of all is the knowledge that contains a vast amount of useful data about
the work is more than idle amusementr you are extinctions. For instance, we have already learned that
contributing to our understanding of how the Earth and some species of animals (such as mammals) are
its life came to be what they are today. generally more likely to become extinct than others
Besides being fun, the study of fossils and (such as clams). We have also discovered that habitat
sedimentary rocks has many practical applications. Our destruction has been the main cause of extinction
society ison ores and energy (such as fossil fuels)
built throughout geologic time, just as it is today. The only
that come from the Earth. By studying the history of the difference is that today humans destroy the habitats,
Earth, we learn how and, more importantly, where these whereas in the past changes in climate, meteorite
materials formed. For example, many paleontologists impacts, and other natural phenomena caused the
work for oil companies, examining microfossils in rock destruction. A
cores brought up by drilling rigs. Historical geologists
specializing in sedimentology and stratigraphy are also
employed in the search for oil and minerals; they
examine the physical characteristics of the rock cores IVLichael L. McKinney is an
and correlate rock layers. Environmental firms are associate professor in the
currently the major employers of geologists, and Geology and Ecology Programs
at the University of Tennessee,
environmental careers are among the fastest growing
Knoxville. He has published
fields in the United States.
three books and many technical
I have never worked in industry although I was articles on evolution,
offered jobs by two oil companies when I completed paleontology, and environmental
my master's degree in geology. Instead, I chose to go topics.
iiAiiAHiiilititliliilti iilii t iiAil i

C. This beam came VV^^î 11
from an old house ll 1
^ This date obtained by counting back

from bark of A through B
Specimens taken from ruins,

when matched and overlapped as
indicated, progressively extend
the dating back into prehistoric
times.
"^ FIGURE 9-25 In the cross-dating method, tree-ring patterns from different woods
are matched against each other to establish a ring-width chronology backward in time.
logic section. This composite section is, in effect, a rel- •^ FIGURE 9-26 Each fission track (about 16 p. in
ative time scale because the rocks are arranged in their length) in this apatite crystal is the result of the radioactive
correct sequential order. decay of a uranium atom. In order to make the fission
tracks visible, the apatite crystal has been etched with
Geologists also recognized that the different fossil as-
hydrofluoric acid. This apatite crystal comes from one of the
semblages, representing distinct time periods in the past, dikes of Shiprock, New Mexico, and indicates a calculated
could be used to correlate rock units elsewhere even if age of 27 million years. (Photo courtesy of Charles W. -
the rock types were different. The names of these time Naeser, U.S. Geological Survey.)
periods were thus based on the areas in which the rock

units were originally described. For example, the Cam-
brian Period is taken from the Roman word for Wales
(Cambria), whereas the Ordovician and Silurian periods

are named after the Silures and Ordovices, tribes that
lived inWales during the Roman conquest (Fig. 9-27).
By the beginning of the twentieth century, geologists
had developed a relative geologic time scale, but did not
yet have any absolute dates for the various time unit
boundaries. Following the discovery of radioactivity
near the end of the last century, radiometric dates were
added to the relative geologic time scale (Fig. 9-2).
Because sedimentary rocks, with rare exceptions,
cannot be radiometrically dated, geologists have had to

Carboniferous ,'
Cambrian (Coneybeare and Phillips, 1822)

(Sedgwick, 1835)
Ordovician
(Lapworth, 1879)
Silurian
(Murchison, 1835)
^ FIGURE 9-27 The names of the

time periods of the geologic time scale
were based on areas in England and
Europe where the rock units were
originally described. Note that the
Carboniferous, which is recognized in
Europe, is represented by two systems in
North America, the Mississippian and
Pennsylvanian.
"*•* FIGURE 9-28 Absolute ages of sedimentary rocks can

be determined by dating associated igneous rocks. In {a) and
(b), sedimentary rocks are bracketed by rock bodies for
which absolute ages have been determined.
Nonconformity
150 M.Y.
> 600 to <675

M.Y.
—
(a)
bQ^°rs^Q°v^R°:
~" •Lava flow (600 M.Y.)
-Sill (675 M.Y.)

675-750
M.Y.
- - Sedimentary rocks
regionally
metamorphosed
(750 M.Y.)

"*»- FIGURE 9-29 (right) Ash falls and lava flows can be
used to correlate sections and determine the absolute ages
(in millions of years) of the intervening sedimentary rocks.
rely on interbedded volcanic rocks and igneous intru-

sions to applyâbsolute dates to the bo undanesTof the
-
various subdivisions of the geologic time scale (Fig.
9-28). An ash fall or lava flow provides an excellent
marker bed that is a time-equivalent surface, supplying
a minimum age for the sedimentary rocks below and a
maximum age for the rocks above. Ash falls are partic-
ularly useful because they may fall over both marine and
nonmarine sedimentary environments and can provide a
connection between these different environments. Mul- Ash fall
tiple ash falls, lava flows, or a combination of b oth in a

n Lava flow
roc k sequence are particularly useful in determining a b-

so lute ages of s edimentary rocks and their c ontained
fossilsJFig. 9l$).
Thousands of absolute ages are now known for sed-
imentary rocks of known relative ages, and these abso-
lute dates have been added to the relative time scale. In
this way, geologists have been able to determine the ab-
solute ages of the various geologic periods and to deter-
mine their durations (Fig. 9-2).
^m. -
^^%-%^m.^^ ^x^^.^^.xyg^^^î.^.TLi m.x » ^ ^ ->l ^m % i 1
,
. . .-«. . .
^ CHAPTER SUMMARY 5. Inaddit ion to uniformitari anisnu_rhe prinriples-of

superposition, original horizontality, lateral
1. Relative dat ing involves placing geologic events in a continuity, cros s-cutting relation ships, inclusions,
sequential order as determined from their position in andTossil succe ssion_a_re basic fo r determining
theT ock record . A bsolute da tingr esults in sp ecific relative geologic ages and for interpreting the
dates for events, expressed in years before the g eologic history of the Eart h.
present. 6. Surfaces of discontinuity that encompass significant
2. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, amounts of geologic time are common in the geologic
attempts were made to determine the age of the record. Such surfaces are unconformities and result
Earth based on scientific evidence rather than from times of nondeposition, erosion, or both.
revelation. While some attempts were quite 7. Correlation is the stratigraphic practice of
ingenious, they yielded a variety of ages that now demonstrating equivalency of units in different areas.
are known to be much too young. Time equivalence is most commonly demonstrated
3. James Hutton believed that present-day processes by correlating strata containing similar fossils.
operating over long periods of time could explain all 8. Radioactivity was discovered during the late
the geologic features of his native Scotland. His nineteenth century, and soon thereafter radiometric
observations were instrumental in establishing the dating technique s allowed geologists to determin e
basis for the principle of uniformitarianism. ah solute ages jor_g eologic events .
4. Uniformitarianism as articulated by Charles Lyell,

. 9. Absolute age dates for rock samples are usually
soon becarnet he guiding principle of geology. It obtained by determining how many half-lives o f a
holds that~tRelaws of nature have been constant radioactive parent elerrienTrrave~elapsed since t he
through time and that the same processes operating sa mple originally crys tallised. A halt-life is the tim e
today have operated in the past, although not it takes for one-half of the radioactive jjargpt
necessarily at the same rates. element to decay to a stable daughter element.
Chapter Summary 247

10. The most accurate radiometric dates are obtained date will be obtained. This date will be the
from long-lived radioactive isotope pairs in igneous actual date.
rocks. The most reliable dates are those obtained by *&) younger than; b. older than; c. the
using at least two different radioactive decay series same as; d. it cannot be determined; e. none
in the same rock. of these.
11. Carbonl4_daiirig_can be applied only-oruofganic 4. Which of the following methods can be used to
matter such as wood
and shells and is
, bones., demonstrate age equivalency of rock units?
effective back to about 70,000_years ago. Carbon 14 a lateral tracing; b. radiometric dating;
ages are determined by the ratio of radio active c. guide fossils; d. position in a sequence;
carbon 14 to stable carbon_12. ® all of these.
12. Through theefforts of many geologists applying the 5. Which fundamental geologic principle states that the
principles of relative dating, a relative geologic time oldest layer on the bottom of a vertical succession
is
scale was established. of sedimentary rocks and the youngest is on top?

13. Most absolute ages of sedimentary rocks and their ff. lateral continuity; b. fossil succession;
contained obtained indirectly by dating
fossils are c. original horizontality; d. superposition;
associated metamorphic or igneous rocks. e. cross-cutting relationships.
6. Inwhich type of radioactive decay are two protons
and two neutrons emitted from the nucleus?
alpha;
IMPORTANT TERMS a.
(0f fission track; e.

b. beta; c. electron capture;
radiocarbon.
7. The author of Principles of Geology and the
absolute dating correlation
principal advocate and interpreter of
alpha decay daughter element
uniformitarianism was:
angular unconformity disconformity
a Hutton; b Steno; c. Lyell;
assemblage range zone electron capture
beta decay fission track dating
d. Smith; & Playfair.
8. The era younger than the Mesozoic is the:
carbon 14 dating guide fossil
4> Proterozoic; b Archean; c. Paleozoic;
technique half-life
d. Phanerozoic; e. Cenozoic.
hiatus principle of original
9. Which of the following is not a long-lived
key bed horizontality
radioactive isotope pair?
nonconformity principle of superposition
a uranium-lead; b. thorium-lead;
parent element principle of
c potassium-argon; Sk carbon-nitrogen;
principle of cross-cutting uniformitarianism
e. none of these.
relationships radioactive decay
10. What is being measured in radiometric dating?
principle of fossil relative dating
a. the time when the radioactive isotope formed;
succession tree-ring dating
$)>. the time of crystallization of a mineral
principle of inclusions unconformity
containing an isotope; c. the amount of the
principle of lateral
parent isotope only; d. when the dated mineral
continuity
became part of a sedimentary rock; e. when the
stable daughter isotope was formed.
11. If a radioactive element has a half-life of 4 million
^ REVIEW QUESTIONS years, theamount of parent material remaining after
12 million years of decay will be what fraction of
1. In which type of unconformity are the beds parallel the original amount?
to each other? a b
'/3 2 Vie;
; Vs; d %; e Vi.
a. nonconformity; b. angular unconformity; 12. In carbon 14 dating, which ratio is being measured?
^ disconformity; d. hiatus; e. none of a. the parent to daughter isotope;
these. b C 14/N 14 c C 12/C 13 ; d
; C 12/N 14 ;
2. Placing geologic events in sequential order as <£ C 12/C 14
determined by their position in the rock record is 13. How many half-lives are required to yield a mineral
238 206
called: with 625 atoms of U and 19,375 atoms of Pb ?
a. absolute dating; b. uniformitarianism; a 4; £ 5; c 6; d 8; e 10.

relative dating; d. correlation; 14. What is the difference between relative and absolute
e. historical dating. dating of geologic events?
3. If a rockheated during metamorphism and the
is 15. What are the six fundamental principles used in
daughter atoms migrate out of a mineral that is relative age dating? Why are they so important in
subsequently radiometrically dated, an inaccurate deciphering Earth history?

16. Describe the contributions to the development of
geology made by each of the following men: James
Hutton, Lord Kelvin, Charles Lyell, and Nicolas
Steno.
17. Define the three types of unconformities. Why are
unconformities important in relative age dating?
18. Explain how a geologist would determine the
relative ages of a granite batholith and an overlying
sandstone formation.
19. Why is the principle of uniformitarianism important
to geologists?
20. Are volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and storm
deposits geologic events encompassed by
uniformitarianism?
21. What is radon, and why is it so dangerous to Unconformity
humans? "^ Fault
22. What are assemblage range zones? How can such
zones be used to demonstrate time equivalency of
strata in widely separated areas?
23 If you wanted to calculate the absolute age of an
intrusive body, what information would you need? ^ ADDITIONAL READINGS

24 Assume a hypothetical radioactive isotope with an
Albritton, C. C, Jr. 1980. The abyss of time. San Francisco,
atomic number of 150 and an atomic mass number
Calif.: Freeman, Cooper and Co.
of 300 emits five alpha decay particles and three 1984. Geologic time. Journal of Geological Education
beta decay particles and undergoes two electron 32, no. 1: 29-37.
capture steps. What are the atomic number and Berry, W. B. N. 1987. Growth of a prehistoric time scale. 2d ed.
atomic mass number of the resulting stable daughter Palo Alto, Calif.: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
product? Boslough, J. 1990. The enigma of time. National Geographic
25. What are some of the potential sources of error in 177, no. 3: 109-32.
radiometric dating? Geyh, M. A., and H. Schleicher. 1990. Absolute age
26. How can geologists be sure that the absolute age determination. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Gould, S. J. 1987. Time's arrow, time's cycle. Cambridge,
dates they obtain from igneous rocks are accurate?
Mass.: Harvard University Press.
27. Whyis it difficult to date sedimentary and
Harland, W. B., R. L. Armstrong, A. V. Cox, L. E. Craig,
metamorphic rocks radiometrically? A. G. Smith, and D. G. Smith. 1990. A geologic time scale
28. How does the carbon 14 dating technique differ
1989. New York: Cambridge University Press.
from uranium-lead dating methods? Ramsey, N. F. 1988. Precise measurement of time. American
29. How did the geologic time scale evolve? Scientist 76, no. 1: 42-49.
30. Using the principles of relative dating, give the Wetherill, G. W. 1982. Dating very old objects. Natural History
geologic history for the diagram at top right. 91, no. 9: 14-20.

CHAPTER 10
*<iL-î -^l. *c «*: «c lOH, <%* % m. "w"** yr,yi- "y
EARTHQUAKES
* OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY
SEISMOLOGY
THE FREQUENCY AND DISTRIBUTION
OF EARTHQUAKES
""" Guest Essay: Geology Meets Public Policy
SEISMIC WAVES
Body Waves
Surface Waves
LOCATING AN EARTHQUAKE
MEASURING EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY
AND MAGNITUDE
Intensity
Magnitude
THE DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF
EARTHQUAKES
Ground Shaking
"w Perspective 10-1: Designing
Earthquake-Resistant Structures
Fire
Tsunami
Ground Failure
EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION
Earthquake Precursors
Dilatancy Model
Earthquake Prediction Programs
EARTHQUAKE CONTROL
"y Perspective 10-2: A Predicted Earthquake
That Didn't Occur
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Serpentine Fence west of Yellowstone

National Park along Highway 287. This
fence was bent when seismic waves passed
through the ground during the August 17,
1959 earthquake (magnitude 7.1) at Hebgen
Lake, Montana.
PROLOGUE Interstate 880 freeway in Oakland sent it crashing
down, killing 42 unfortunate motorists (Fig. 10-lc).
The shaking from this earthquake lasted less than 15
^^Jf^î In the early evening of October 17, seconds but resulted in 63 deaths, 3,800 injuries, at least
^™-- -^S 1989, millions of baseball fans around 12,000 people left homeless, and property damage
the country turned on their television sets expecting to totaling almost $6 billion. Approximately 28,000
see the third game
of the World Series between the buildings were damaged or destroyed, and utility,
Oakland and the San Francisco Giants.
Athletics transportation, and communication networks in Santa
Instead of the baseball game, viewers witnessed the Cruz and the San Francisco Bay Area suffered major
results of another, far more important event that was disruptions. Despite the damage, most observers believe
taking place 100 km south of San Francisco's San Francisco fared quite well. If the shaking had lasted
Candlestick Park. At a few minutes past 5 p.m., near even a few seconds longer, it is very likely that many
Loma peak in the Santa Cruz Mountains, a
Prieta more would have
buildings and freeways failed, and the
40 km long segment of the San Andreas fault ruptured losses from property damage and human suffering
beneath the Earth's surface, triggering a major would have been much higher.
earthquake (Fig. 10-1). The energy released by the Although the Loma Prieta earthquake was a major
sudden movement between the North American and one in terms of energy released and damage done, it was
Pacific plates was felt by people within a 1 million not the "Big One" that Californians have long been
km 2 area that included most of California, western expecting. That is not to say, however, that it was totally
Nevada, and southern Oregon. unexpected. There are sections along the San Andreas
Within seconds of the break, southward-moving fault that have not experienced any significant
shock waves demolished the downtown area of Santa movement for many years and can be thought of as
Cruz. The shock waves also damaged or destroyed "locked." When a portion of a fault is locked, instead of
much of the town of Watsonville (Fig. 10-le) as well slipping and releasing energy by small earthquakes, the
as damaging several other nearby communities. fault essentially sticks. Potential energy builds up in the
The northward-racing shock waves shattered homes rocks adjacent to the fault until it finally snaps, releasing
and businesses in Los Gatos. They shook San Jose, the energy as a major earthquake.
Palo Alto, and Menlo Park, although most of the Several segments of the San Andreas fault are
structures in these cities survived intact. As 50 million currently locked and have the potential of producing
stunned viewers watched on television, Candlestick the Big One. A 1988 study by the U.S. National
Park and 62,000 fans shook and swayed when the Earthquake Prediction Evaluation Council estimated
seismic waves passed beneath it (Fig. 10-ld). that there was a 50% probability that a major
Fortunately, the stadium was built on solid bedrock, earthquake of magnitude 7.0 or greater would occur
and thus the shaking was short and sharp, resulting in in the Bay Area within 30 years. Despite the 1989
only minor damage. Loma Prieta earthquake, the council, in January 1990,
Those districts of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay revised its estimate of a major earthquake occurring in
Area that were built on artificial fill or reclaimed bay the Bay Area within the next 30 years to a probability
mud were not so fortunate, however. Even though the of 60 to 65%.
earthquake waves had by then traveled nearly 100 km In anticipation of such an earthquake, what lessons
and were losing energy, the soft fill amplified the can be learned from the Loma Prieta earthquake? As
shaking effects of the waves with devastating results. was so dramatically demonstrated, the underlying
In the Marina district of San Francisco, numerous geology and type of building construction are
buildings were destroyed, and a fire, fed by broken probably the two most important factors determining
gas lines, lit up the night sky (Fig. 10-lb). A 15 m the amount of damage that can occur. Furthermore,
section of the upper deck of the San Francisco- the importance of careful planning and preparation in
Oakland Bay Bridge collapsed when bolts holding it in earthquake-prone areas was strongly reinforced. For
place snapped because of the swaying. The failure of instance, none of the structures in San Francisco that
the columns supporting a portion of the two-tiered were constructed in compliance with current building
Prologue 251
252 Chapter 10 Earthquakes
codes collapsed. in preparation for just such an emergency. Certainly,
Within hours after the earthquake, shelters were more can be done One.
to prepare for the Big
open and emergency relief services were in place and However, Loma demonstrated that California
Prieta is
operating smoothly. This was due, in part, to the putting into practice what has been learned from a
numerous rehearsals that various agencies conducted long history of dealing with earthquakes.
^ INTRODUCTION from the ceiling and walls, and there will be loud creak-
ing and groaning noises as the building sways.
Earthquakes are violent and usually unpredictable; typ- In most cases the shaking will stop almost as sud-
ically, they produce a feeling of helplessness. As one of denly as it began, and you will realize that you have
nature'smost frightening and destructive phenomena, survived one of nature's most terrifying natural disas-
they have always aroused a sense of fear. Even when an ters. What seemed like eternity was probably only tens
earthquake begins, there is no way to tell how strong the of seconds or less. Depending on the circumstances, you
shaking will be or how long it will last. also may experience a gentle rolling motion as the slow-
It is estimated that more than 13 million people have est of the four types of earthquake waves pass below
died as a result of earthquakes during the past 4,000 you. You also may feel numerous aftershocks, which
years, and approximately 1 million of these deaths oc- typically are not as strong as the main shock.
curred during the last century (Table 10-1). The two Having described what it is like to experience an
most destructive earthquakes in history in terms of loss earthquake, we should ask, how do geologists define an
of life China. The worst took place on Jan-
occurred in earthquake? An earthquake is the vibration of the Earth
uary 23, 1556, near the city of Xian in Shanxi province, caused by the~sudden release of energy, usually as a
with a death toll estimated at 830,000. The second result of displacement of rocks along fractures, or fault-
struck Tangshan (160 km east of Beijing) on July 28, ing, beneath the Earth's surface.
1976. The city and its environs are one of the most Early humans and cultures had much more imagina-
densely populated areas in China, and this density cer- tive and colorful explanations of earthquakes than this
tainly contributed to the high death toll, which was of- scientific explanation. For example, many cultures be-
ficially announced at 242,000 by the Chinese govern- lieved that the Earth rested on some type of organism
ment; however, others estimated that as many as whose movements caused the Earth to shake. In Japan,
700,000 people may have died. it was a giant catfish (Fig. 10-2); in Mongolia, a giant
If you have never experienced an earthquake, try to frog; in China, an ox; in India, a giant mole; in parts of
imagine that as you are reading this book, the ground
suddenly and without any warning starts shaking and
everything around you begins to sway. If the shock "'•*'
FIGURE 10-2 This painting from the Edo period
waves are severe enough, you might be knocked down shows people trying to subdue a giant catfish. According to
and have trouble standing up. The first thought that Japanese legend, earthquakes are caused by the movement
of a giant catfish.
would probably go through your mind is, "how long is
the shaking going to last and is it going to get any stron-
ger?" You want to do something, but you don't know
exactly what to do. If the shaking is severe, windows
may break, and if you are in a building, objects will fall
"*•' FIGURE 10-1 (left) (a) An outline map of the area

affected by the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, (b) Marina
district fire caused by broken gas lines, (c) Aerial view
looking west at part of the collapsed two-tiered Interstate
880 in Oakland. Only 1 of the 51 double-deck spans did
not collapse, (d) Candlestick Park was filled with 62,000
fans awaiting the start of the third game of the World Series
when the earthquake struck, (e) Damage to buildings along
Main and Second Street in downtown Watsonville.
Introduction 253
^ TABLE 10-1
Rupture and release of energy
(a)
"**" FIGURE 10-3 (a) According to the elastic rebound theory, when rocks are
deformed, they store energy and bend. When the inherent strength of the rocks is
exceeded, they rupture, releasing the energy in the form of earthquake waves that
radiate outward in all directions. Upon rupture, the rocks rebound to their former
undeformed shape, (b) During the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, this fence in Marin
County was displaced 2.5 m.
site sides of the fault had moved 3.2 m

during the 50- their original undeformed shape, releasing the energy
year period prior to breakage in 1906, with the west side that had been internally stored.
moving northward (Fig. 10-3). The energy stored in rocks undergoing elastic defor-
According to Reid, rocks on opposite sides of the San mation is analogous to the ene rgy stored in a watgTT
-
Andreas fault had been storin g energy and bendi ng spring that is tightly wound. The tighter the spring is
slightly for at least 50 year s Before the 1906 earthquake. wound, the more energy is~stored, and thus, the more
Any straight line such as a fence or road that crossed the energy is available for release. If the spring is wound so
San Andreas fault would gradually be bent, as rocks on tightly that it breaks, then the stored energy is released
one side of the fault moved relative to rocks on the other as the spring rapidly unwinds and partially regains its
side (Fig. 10-3). Eventually, the strength of the rocks was original shape.
exceeded, and rupture occurred. When this happened,
the rocks on opposite sides of the fault rebounded or
undeformed shape, and
to their former
=*= SEISMOLOGY
"snapped back"
the energy stored was released as earthquake waves ra- Seismology, the study of earthquakes, began emerging as
diating outward from the break (Fig. 10-3). aTrugjgjence around 1 88U with the development of in-
Additional field and laboratory studies conducted by struments that effectively recorded earthquake waves.
Reid and ot hers have confirmed tha^^srir-reboTrncT is) Much of what we know about the interior of the Earth
the mechanism by which earthquakes are generated. In comes from the study of natural and artificially generated
laboratory studies, rocks subjected to forces equivalent earthquake waves (see Chapter 11). The data from seis-
to those occurring in the Earth's crust initially change mology have led to many important discoveries about the
their shape. However, as more force is applied, they Earth and are an integral part of plate tectonic theory.
deformation until their internal strength is
resist further The earliest earthquake detector was invented by the
exceeded. At that point, they break and snap back to Chinese scholar Chang Heng sometime around a.d. 132
Seismology 255
vibrations produced by an earthquake (Fig. 10-5).The
record made by a seismograph is a seismogram. Al-
though modern seismographs are very sophisticated in-
struments that electronically record the motion onto a
seismogram or enter it directly into a computer, they still
follow the basic principles of operation that were used

in the earliest seismographs.
To construct a seismograph that measures horizontal
movement, a heavy mass is suspended by a supporting
cable and attached at one end by a tapering arm to a
frame secured in the bedrock (Fig. 10-5b). At the other
end of the mass is a marker resting on paper wrapped
around a rotating drum that is also attached to the
frame. During an earthquake, the heavy mass remains
stationary because of its inertia, while the frame and
rotating drum move with the ground. Because the
marker is attached to the heavy mass, it also remains
stationary and records the ground movement on the ro-
"^" FIGURE The world's first earthquake detector
10-4 tating drum. If the movement of the ground is parallel to
was invented by Chang Heng sometime around a.d. 132.
the length of the frame, the rod will cause the heavy
Movement of the vase dislodged a ball from a dragon's
mouth into the waiting mouth of a frog below. mass to move as well. Therefore a second seismograph,
oriented perpendicular to the first one, is needed to en-
sure that earthquake waves from all directions will be
(Fig. 10-4). The instrument was a large hollow jar with recorded. To record vertical ground movement, the
eight dragon heads evenly spaced around it; each drag- mass must be suspended from a spring hanging from the
on's mouth contained a metal ball. Underneath each frame (Fig. 10-5c).
dragon's head was a frog with its head tilted back and When an earthquake occurs, energy in the form of
its mouth open. Earthquake waves passing beneath the seismic waves radiates outward in all dTre^tionsTrom
instrument would shake it causing some of the balls to the point of release. These seismic waves are analogous
fall into the mouths of the frogs below. In this way the to the ripples that result when a stone is thrown into a
general direction of the earthquake could be deter- quiet body of water; the ripples move outward in con-
mined. For example, if the balls from the dragons on the centric circles from the point of the stone's impact.
east and west sides of the jar were dislodged, then the Most earthquakes_rejujt_when^:ocks in^ the Earth's
earthquake waves must have come from either the east crust rupture along a fault because of the buildup of
or the west. Although what was inside the jar is not excessive pressure, which is usually caused by plate
known, it is believed that there must have been some movement. Once it moves along the
a rupture begins,
type of pendulum that would swing when the earth fault at a velocity of severalkm/sec for as long as con-
moved, thus knocking balls from the dragons' mouths. ditions for failure exist. The length of the fault along
A story is told that one day Chang Heng's instrument which rupture occurs can range from a few meters to
indicated that there had been an earthquake, but no one several hundred kilometers. The longer the rupture, the
in the area had felt a tremor. Most people regarded his more time it takes for all of the stored energy in the
experiment as a failure. However, a few days later, a rocks to be released, and therefore the longer the ground
rider arrived with the news of an earthquake that had will shake. In a small earthquake, the rupturing is usu-
occurred in a distant province in the direction indicated allycompleted within a few seconds. For a large earth-
by Chang's instrument. quake, however, it will take much longer. For example,
Over the succeeding centuries, other instruments during the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, the San An-
were invented to study earthquakes, but it was not until dreas fault took over a minute to rupture more than 400
the late nineteenth century that the first effective seis- km along its length.
mograph was developed. A seismograph is an instru- The location within the crust where rupture initiates,
ment that detects, records, and measures the various and thus where the energy is released, is referred to as

"^ FIGURE 10-5 (a) Modern seismographs record
earthquake waves electronically. A geophysicist points to the
trace of an earthquake recorded by a seismograph at the
National Earthquake Information Service, Golden, Colorado.
(b) A horizontal-motion seismograph. Because of its inertia,
the heavy mass that contains the marker will remain stationary
while the rest of the structure moves along with the ground
during an earthquake. As long as the length of the arm is not
ground movement, the marker will
parallel to the direction of
record the earthquake waves on the rotating drum, (c) A
vertical-motion seismograph. This seismograph operates on the
same principle as a horizontal-motion instrument and records
vertical ground movement.
the iocus orjry pocenter . The point on the Earth's sur-

face vertically above the focus is which is
the epicenter
the location that is news reports on
usually given in
earthquakes (Fig. 10-6). The depth from the epicenter to
the focus can range from a few kilometers to several
hundred kilometers; the depth usually relates to the Support
plate tectonic setting in which the earthquake occurred
(discussed later in this chapter).
Seismologists recognize three categories of earth-
quakes based on the depth of their foci. Shallow-focus
earthquakes have a focal depth of less than 70Tcm. Base anchored
Earthquakes with foci between 70 and 300 km are re- into bedrock and
ferred to as intermediate focus, and those with foci moves with it
greater than 300 km arecaTIed de ep focus Earthquakes

.
are not evenly distributed among these three categories.

Approximately 90% of all earthquake foci occur at a
depth of less than 100 km.
.Shallnw-fnriispartJTqi^gkeSJirp, with few evrppHnns,
the most destructive. All of the known large earthquakes
in California have been shallow focus, and most have
originated within the upper 10 km of the Earth's crust.
The 1964 Alaska earthquake, the strongest yet recorded
in the United States, had a focal depth near 30 km.
There is an interesting relationship between earth-
quake foci and plate margins. Earthquakes generated
along divergent or transform plate boundaries are al-
ways shallow focus, while almost all intermediate- and
deep-focus earthquakes occur within the circum-Pacific
belt along convergent margins (Fig. 10-7). Furthermore,
a pattern emerges when the focal depths of earthquakes
near island arcs and their adjacent ocean trenches are
plotted. Notice in Figure 10-8 that the focal depth in-
creases beneath the Tonga Trench in a narrow, well-
defined zone that dips approximately 45°. Dipping seis-
mic zones, called Benioff zones, are a feature common

to island arcs and deep ocean trenches. Such zones in-
dicate the angle of plate descent along a convergent
Seismology 257
'"' FIGURE 10-6 The focus of an earthquake is the
location where rupture begins and energy is released. The
place on the Earth's surface vertically above the focus is the
epicenter.
plate boundary, and that angle varies greatly ( from 20°

to 90°) depending on subduction conditions.
^ THE FREQUENCY AND

DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
While earthquakes occur all over the world, their dis-
tribution is certainly not haphazard. Most earthquakes
(almost 95%) occur in seismic belts that correspond to
plate boundaries where stresses develop as plates con-
verge, diverge, and slide past each other. Earthquake
activity distant from plate margins is minimal, but can
~**" FIGURE 10-7 The relationship between the distribution of earthquake epicenters
and plate boundaries. Approximately80% of earthquakes occur within the
circum-Pacific belt, 15% within the Mediterranean-Asiatic belt, and the remaining 5%
within the interiors of plates or along oceanic spreading ridge systems. Each dot
represents a single earthquake epicenter.

be devastating when it occurs. The relationship between January 23 and February 7, 1812. These three earth-
plate margins and the distribution of earthquakes is quakes killed approximately 20 people (the region had a
readily apparent when the locations of earthquake epi- very small population at the time) and nearly destroyed
centers are superimposed on a map showing the bound- the town of New Madrid. So strong were these earth-
aries of the Earth's plates (Fig. 10-7). quakes that they were felt from the Rocky Mountains to
The majority of all earthquakes (approximately the Atlantic Ocean and from the Canadian border to the
80%) occur in the c ircum-Pac ific belt, a zone of seism ic Gulf of Mexico. In addition, the earthquake caused
activity that encircles the Pacific Ocean basin. Most of church bells to ring as far away as Boston, Massachu-
these earthquakes are a resul t of conver gence along setts (1,600 km). Within the immediate area, numerous
plate margins. Some of the world's most devastating buildings were destroyed and forests were flattened; the
earTrrqaakes, resulting in billions of dollars of property land sank several meters in some areas, causing flood-
damage and more than 500,000 deaths, have occurred ing; and the Mississippi River is said to have reversed its
within this belt (Table 10-1). flow during the shaking and changed its course slightly.
The second major seismic bel t is the Mediterranean- Another major intraplate earthquake struck Charles-
Asiatic belt where approximately 15% of all earth- ton, South Carolina, on August 31, 1886, killing 60
quakes occur. This belt extends westerly from Indonesia people and causing $23 million in property damage (Fig.
through the Himalayas, across Iran and Turkey, and 10-9). Most recently, another large intraplate earth-
westerly through the Mediterranean region of Europe. quake struck near Tennant Creek in Australia's North-
The devastating earthquake that struck Soviet Armenia ern Territory in December 1988.
in 1988 killing 25,000 people and the 1990 earthquake The cause of intraplate earthquakes is not well un-
in Iran that killed 40,000 are recent examples of the derstood, but geologists~beheve they arise trom localized
destructive earthquakes that strike this region. stesses caused by the compression that most plates ex-
The remaining 5% of earthquakes occur mostly in perience along their margins. The release of these stresses
the interiors of plates and along oceanic spreadingxidge and hence the resulting intraplate earthquakes are due to
system s. Tflost oFthese earthquakes are not very strong local factors. Interestingly, many intraplate earthquakes
although there have been several major intraplate earth- are associated with very ancient and presumed inactive
quakes that are worthy of mention, especially the 1811 faults that are reactivated at various intervals.
and 1812 earthquakes near New Madrid, Missouri. More than 150,000 earthquakes that are strong
The Missouri earthquake was actually three major enough to be felt by someone are recorded every year by
shocks that occurred on December 16, 1811, and on the worldwide network of seismograph stations. Some
Tonga ^ FIGURE 10-8 Focal depth

volcanic Tonga increases in a well-defined zone that
Trench dips approximately 45° beneath the
Tonga volcanic arc in the South
Dipping seismic zones are
Pacific.
common features of island arcs and
deep ocean basins.
0-
Magma
q 400- Earthquake
focus^
The Frequency and Distribution of Earthquakes 259

Guest Essay DANIEL SAREWITZ
GEOLOGY MEETS PUBLIC POLICY

I had always assumed that I would be a novelist, so Others suggested that political rifts within the
naturally I started college intending to major in English. Department of Interior, which administers the USGS,
During my freshman year, it occurred to me that I could led to the requested cuts. But, regardless of why the
read and write fiction regardless of my profession, but decision was made, it illustrates that federal science
that I would never understand the origins of mountains policy is commonly based not on science, but on
and oceans unless I spent some time learning about politics and fiscal concerns.
geology. At some point during my education, I realized At times, the quality of congressional debate over
that my vague aspirations to write fiction were scientific issues is astonishingly ill-informed. But even
overshadowed by the fact that I had become— without if elected officials were well versed in science,
ever planning to do so— a geologist. legitimate trade-offswould still have to be made

As time passed, I began to consider my future between political and scientific considerations. For
options. One possibility was to become a professor, but example, a member of Congress from a state whose
I doubted that I was suited to academic life. The economy depends on high-sulfur coal production may
obvious alternative was to work for an oil or mineral feel obliged to vote against regulations that prohibit
company. This set of options— academia or using such coal to generate electricity, even though he
industry— seemed unacceptably circumscribed, but when or she understands that burning this coal contributes
I looked for examples of geologists who had gone on to to acid rain. All the same, to make wise decisions,
nontraditional careers, I couldn't find any. members of Congress must be able to weigh the
As an alternative, I came to Washington, D.C., as part relative importance of political pressures and scientific
of a fellowship program that places about 25 scientists a data. They cannot do so without the advice of staff
year in congressional staff positions. Although most fellows who are scientifically literate.
return to academia after their year in Washington, some In the coming years, Congress will be increasingly
choose to stay on, as I have done. faced with complex decisions that are intimately
I began working as a fellow the week before the related to the geosciences. Globalwarming, energy
October 1989 earthquake in Loma Prieta, California, policy,water supply, nuclear and solid waste disposal,
and spent a good part of the next year attempting to and federal funding of academic research facilities are
transform the publicity generated by the earthquake a few of the issues that will be on the national
into a renewed federal commitment to research on agenda. Only two members of the House of
earthquake hazard reduction. Much of my work was Representatives have degrees in science or engineering.
educational: congressional staff and members of Few congressional staff members have scientific
Congress alike needed to understand that bigger, more backgrounds.

damaging earthquakes were inevitable in the future; Thus, the geoscience community should recognize
that earthquakes occurred throughout the United that it can make an important contribution to the
States, not just in California; and that federal funding formulation of public policy and that careers in public
for earthquake research could save lives and money. policy represent a legitimate— and growing— area of
Congressional action often comes only on the heels professional opportunity. A
of a crisis. With no major U.S. earthquakes in almost
20 years, funding for the federal earthquake program Uaniel Sarewitz is a science
had declined significantly. In the wake of the Loma policy analyst for theCommittee
Prieta event, however, Congress voted to more than on Science, Space, and
double funding over a period of four years. Technology of the U.S. House of
This victory was short-lived. One year after the Representatives. He earned his
Ph.D. in geological sciences from
earthquake, the president asked Congress to cut
Cornell University in 1985 and
earthquake research funding at the U.S. Geological
served as a Geological Society of
Survey (USGS) back to pre— Loma Prieta levels. Some America Congressional Science
said this request was simply part of the attempt to Fellow from September 1989 to
reduce federal spending and balance the budget. August 1990.
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

"^ FIGURE 10-9 Damage done
to Charleston, South Carolina, by
the earthquake of August 31, 1886
This earthquake is the largest
reported in the eastern United
States.
of these, such as the examples we have already given, are same waves themselves are moving
direction that the
major earthquakes that cause tremendous damage and (Fig. 10-10b). Thus, material through which
the
loss of life. In addition, it has been estimated that about P-waves travel is expanded and compressed as the wave
900,000 earthquakes occur annually that are recorded moves through it and returns to its original size and
by seismographs, but are too small to be individually shape after the wave passes by. In fact, some P-waves
cataloged. These small earthquakes result from the en- emerging from within the Earth are transmitted into the
ergy released as continual adjustments between the atmosphere as sound waves that can be heard by hu-
Earth's various plates occur. mans and animals at certain frequencies.
S -waves or secondary waves a re some whatd gwer
than P-waves and c an only travel through Sahjjs^
^ SEISMIC WAVES S-waves are shear waves because they move the material
perpendicular to the direction of travel, thereby produc-
The shaking and destruction resulting from earthquakes
ing shear stresses in the material they move through
are caused by two different types of seismic waves: body
(Fig. 10-10c). Because liquids (as well as gases) are not
waves, which travel through the Earth and are some-
rigid, they have no shear strength and S-waves cannot be
what like sound waves; and surface waves, which travel
transmitted through them.
only along the ground surface and are analogous to
The and S-waves are determined by
velocities of P-
ocean waves.
the density and through which
elasticity of the materials
they travel. For example, seismic waves travel more
slowly through rocks of greater density, but more rap-
Bo dy Wave s
idly through rocks with greater elasticity. Elast icity is_a
An earthquake generates two types of body wav es: property of solids T _such as rocks, jmd means~that once
P-wayesand S-waves. P-waves or prvmary_uMU.es anTthe t hey hav e been deformed by an applied force, they re-
fastest sejsmicjKaves. and can travel through sohdsjjiq- t urn to their ori gina l shape when the force is no longer
uids. and gases. P-waves are compressional, or push- present. Because P-wave velocity is greaterlhan S-wave
pull, waves and are similar to sound waves in that they velocity in all materials, however, P-waves always arrive
move material forward and backward along a line in the at seismic stations first.
Seismic Waves 261

"*""
FIGURE 10-10 Seismic waves.
(a) Undisturbed material.
(b) Primary waves (P-waves)
compress and expand material in
thesame direction as the wave
movement, (c) Secondary waves
(S-waves) move material
perpendicular to the direction of (a) Undisturbed material
wave movement, (d) Rayleigh waves
(R-waves) move material in an
elliptical path within a vertical
plane oriented parallel to the
direction of wave movement.
(e) Love waves (L-waves) move
material back and forth in a

horizontal plane perpendicular to
the direction of wave movement.
Surface Waves As Figure 10-11 waves
illustrates, the different seismic
produce seismogram patterns. The first waves

distinctive
Surface waves travel along the surface of the ground, or
to arrive, and thus the fastest, are the P-waves, which travel
just below and are slower than body waves. Unlike
it,
at nearly twice the velocity of the S-waves that follow. Both
the sharp jolting and shaking that body waves cause,
the P- and S-waves travel directly from the focus to the
surface waves generally produce a rolling or swaying
seismograph through the interior of the Earth. The last
motion, much like the experience of being on a boat.
waves to arrive are the L- and R-waves, which are the
Surface waves can be divided into several different
slowest and also travel the longest route along the Earth's
types of waves. The two most important are Rayjeigh
surface (Fig. 10-11).
waves (R-waves) and Love waves (L-waves), named af-
Because the Earth is not homogeneous, the speeds of
ter the BrTtisTrsîeTrmts^whtrdtscovered them, Lord Ray-
the different seismic waves vary, depending on the mate-
leigh and A. E. H. Love. Rayleigh waves are generally
rials through which they move. Thus, the farther a seis-
the slower of the two and behave like water waves in
mograph is from an earthquake's focus, the more likely it
that they move forward while the individual particles of
is that the velocity of the seismic waves is not constant.
material move in an elliptical path within a vertical plane
By accumulating a tremendous amount of data over
oriented in the direction of wave movement (Fig. 10-10d).
the years, seismologists have determined the average
The motion of a Love wave is similar to that of an
travel times of P- and S-waves for any specific distance.
S-wave, but the individual particles of the material only
These P- and S-wave travel times are published as time-
move back and forth in a horizontal plane perpendicu-
distance graphs and illustrate that the difference be-
lar to the direction of wave travel (Fig. 10-10e). This
tween the arrival times of the P- and S-waves is a func-
type of lateral motion can be particularly damaging to
tion of the distance of the seismograph from the focus;
building foundations.
that is, the farther the waves travel, the greater the time
between arrivals of P- and S-waves (Fig. 10-12).
» LOCATING AN EARTHQUAKE As Figure 10-13 demonstrates, the epicenter of any

earthquake can be determined by using a time-distance
The various seismic waves travel at different speeds and graph and know ing the arrival times of the F^lind
thus arrive at a seismograph at different times. The ex- S-waves at any three seismograph locations. Subtracting
act arrival time of each seismic wave can be determined the arrival time of the first P-wave from the arrival time
by a time scale on the seismogram. of the first S-wave gives the time interval between the
"^" FIGURE 10-11 A schematic seismogram showing the arrival order and pattern
produced by P-, S-, and L-waves. When an earthquake occurs, body and surface
waves radiate outward from the focus at the same time. Because P-waves are the
fastest, they arrive at a seismograph first, followed by S-waves, and then by surface
waves, which are the slowest waves. The difference between the arrival times of the
P- and the S-waves is the P-S time interval; it is a function of the distance of the
seismograph station from the focus.
Body waves Surface waves
Arrival of Arrival of
P-wave S-wave
—>\ P-S time interval [«—
Locating an Earthquake 263

^ MEASURING EARTHQUAKE
INTENSITY AND MAGNITUDE
Geologists measure the^strength of an earthquake in two
is annalirative as-
different ways. Thj^first, in tensity ,
sessment of the kinds ofdamage done by anelrthquake.
The secondzjnagnitudejjs ajmantitative measurem ent
of the amoun t of en ergy_ released by an earthq uake.
Each methocTprovidesgeologists with important data
about earthquakes and their effects. This information
can then be used to prepare for future earthquakes.
Intensity
I ntensity is a subjective measure of the kind of damage

done by an earthquake as well as people's reactiorTtcTit.
Since the mid-nineteenth century, geologists have used
intensity as a rough approximation of the size and
strength of an earthquake. The most common intensity
scale used in the United States is the Modified Mercalli
Intensity Scal e, which has values ranging from I txTXlI
(Table 10-2). This scale was originally developed by the
2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12.000 Italian seismologist Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902 and was
later modified for use in the United States by H. O.
Distance from focus (km)
"^ FIGURE 10-12 A time-distance graph showing the Wood and F. Neumann of the California Institute of
average travel times for P- and S-waves. The farther away a Technology Seismological Laboratory in 1931.
seismograph station is from the focus of an earthquake, the After an assessment of the earthquake damage is
longer the interval between the arrivals of the P- and made, isoseismal lines (lines of equal intensity) are
S-waves, and hence the greater the distance between the
drawn on a map, dividing the affected region into var-
curves on the time-distance graph as indicated by the P-S
ious intensity zones. The intensity value given for each
time interval.
zone is the maximum intensity that the earthquake pro-
duced for that zone. Even though intensity maps are not
precise because of the subjective nature of the measure-
ments, they do provide geologists with a rough approx-
two waves for each seismograph location.
arrivals of the imation of the location of the earthquake, the kind and
Each time interval is then plotted on the time-distance extent of the damage done, and the effects of local ge-
graph, and a line is drawn straight down to the distance ology and types of building construction (Fig. 10-14). In
axis of the graph, thus indicating how away each
far fact, because intensity is a measure of the kind of dam-
station is from the focus of the earthquake. Then a circle age done by an earthquake, insurance companies still
whose radius equals the distance shown on the time- classify earthquakes on the basis of intensity.
distance graph from each of the three seismograph lo- While it is generally true that a large earthquake will
cations is drawn on a map (Fig. 10-13). The intersection produce greater intensity values than a small earth-
of the three circles is the location of the earthquake's quake, many other factors besides the amount of energy
epicenter. A minimum of three locations is needed be- released by an earthquake affect its intensity. These in-
cause two locations will provide two possible epicenters clude the distance from the epicenter, the focal depth of
and one location will provide an infinite number of pos- the earthquake, the population density and local geol-
sible epicenters. It should be noted that computers are ogy of the area, the type of building construction em-
now used to determine the epicenter of an earthquake, ployed, and the duration of shaking.
and many seismic stations are used for redundancy and A comparison of the intensity map for the 1906 San
to determine the most accurate location. Francisco earthquake and a geologic map of the area

"^ FIGURE 10-13 Three seismograph stations are needed to locate the epicenter of
an earthquake. The P-S time interval is plotted on a time-distance graph for each
seismograph station to determine the distance that station is from the epicenter. A circle
with that radius is drawn from each station, and the intersection of the three circles is
the epicenter of the earthquake.
shows a strong correlation between the amount of dam- terials, whereas damage was rather low in areas of solid
age done and the underlying rock and soil conditions bedrock. The correlation between the geology and the
(Fig. 10-15). Damage was greatest in those areas under- amount of damage done by an earthquake was further
lainby poorly consolidated material or artificial fill be- reinforced by the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake when
cause the effects of shaking are amplified in these ma- many of the same areas that were extensively damaged
Measuring Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude 265

^ TABLE 10-2 Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable circumstances.
Felt only by a few people at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings.

Felt quite noticeably indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings, but many people do not recognize it as an
earthquake. Standing automobiles may rock slightly.
During the day felt indoors by many, outdoors by few. At night some awakened. Sensation like heavy truck striking
building, standing automobiles rocked noticeably.
Felt by nearly everyone, many awakened. Some dishes, windows, etc. broken, a few instances of cracked plaster.
Disturbance of trees, poles, and other tall objects sometimes noticed.
VI Felt by all, many frightened and run outdoors. Some heavy furniture moved, a few instances of fallen plaster or
damaged chimneys. Damage slight.
VII Everybody runs outdoors. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight to moderate in
well-built ordinary structures; considerable in poorly built or badly designed structures; some chimneys broken.
Noticed by people driving automobiles.
VIII Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable in normally constructed buildings with possible partial
collapse; great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture overturned. Sand
and mud ejected in small amounts.
IX Damage considerable in specially designed structures. Buildings shifted off foundations. Ground noticeably cracked.
Underground pipes broken.
Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures with foundations destroyed;
ground badly cracked. Rails bent. Landslides considerable from river banks and steep slopes. Water splashed over
river banks.
XI Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Broad fissures in ground. Underground
pipelines completely out of service.
XII Damage total. Waves seen on ground surfaces. Objects thrown upward into the air.
SOURCE: United States Geological Survey.
in the 1906 earthquake were once again heavily dam- 100 kmfrom the epicenter would be the standard dis-
aged (see the Prologue). tance at which the amplitude of the seismic waves would
be measured. Amplitude heights for other distances are
thus converted to what they would be if the seismograph
Magnitude
were located 100 km from the epicenter (Fig. 10-16).
iLe arthquakes are to be compared q uantitatiyely. we Since Richter was dealing only with shallow-focus
must use a scale that measures the amount of energy earthquakes, the distance from the epicenter and the
released and is independent of intensity. Such a scale was distance from the focus were almost the same. Other
developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter, a seismologist conversions must be made for intermediate- and deep-
at the California Institute of Technology. The Richter focus earthquakes.
Magnitude Scale measures earthquake magnitude, Richter also realized that different types of seismo-
which is the total amount of energy released by an earth- graphs can provide somewhat different maximum wave
quake at its source. It is an open-ended scale with values amplitudes even if they are at the same location.He
beginning at 1. The largest magnitude recorded has been therefore established the Wood-Anderson seismograph
8.6, and though values greater than 9 are theoretically as the standard instrument to be used in measuring wave
possible, they are highly improbable because rocks are amplitudes. If other types of seismographs are used,
not able to withstand the buildup of pressure required to their amplitudes must be converted to what they would
release that much energy. be on a Wood-Anderson seismograph.
The mag nitude of an earthquakejs determined by Finally, to avoid large numbers, Richter used a con-
measuring the amplitude of the largest seismic wave as ventional base-10 logarithmic scale to convert the am-
recordethorfir seismogram (Fig. 10-16). However, be- wave to a numer-
plitude of the largest recorded seismic
cause the amplitude of seismic waves decreases with dis- ical magnitude value (Fig. 10-16). Therefore, each
tance from the epicenter, Richter decided arbitrarily that integer increase in magnitude represents a 10-fold in-

San
'Francisco
Limits of
felt area
California
I — IV
Pacific
Bay mud (in places covered
by artificial fill as of 1906)
~\ Alluvium (>30 m thick)
Alluvium (<30 m thick)
Bedrock
H Very violent
H Violent
|
Very strong
]] Strong
|
Weak
"^ FIGURE 10-15 A comparison between {a) the general geology of the San
Francisco peninsula and (b) a Modified Mercalli Intensity map of the same area for the
1906 San Francisco earthquake. Notice the close correlation between the geology and
the intensity. Areas of bedrock correspond to the lowest intensity values, while areas of
poorly consolidated material (alluvium) or bay mud have the highest intensity values.

Perspective 10-1
DESIGNING
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT
STRUCTURES
One way damage, injuries, and loss
to reduce property during moderate to major earthquakes than those
of life is and build structures as
to design built before its implementation.
earthquake-resistant as possible. While no society can The major objective in designing earthquake-
spend unlimited monies on making all structures resistant structures is minimizing the loss of life,
completely safe during an earthquake, many things and damage. To achieve this goal, engineers
injuries,
can be done to improve the safety of current must understand the dynamics and mechanics of
structures and of new buildings as well. earthquakes including the type and duration of the
California has a Uniform Building Code that sets ground motion that occurs and how rapidly the
minimum standards for building earthquake-resistant ground accelerates during an earthquake. An
structures and is used as a model around the world. The understanding of the area's geology is also very
California code more stringent than federal
is far important because certain ground materials such as
earthquake building codes and requires that structures water-saturated sediments or landfill can lose their
be able to withstand a 25-second main shock. strength and cohesiveness during an earthquake. Such
Unfortunately, many earthquakes are of far longer materials should be avoided if at all possible. Finally,
duration. For example, the main shock of the 1964 engineers must be aware of how different structures
Alaskan earthquake lasted approximately three minutes behave under different earthquake conditions.
and was followed by numerous aftershocks. While many With the level of technology currently available, a
of the extensively damaged buildings in this earthquake well-designed, properly constructed building should be
had been built according to the California code, they able to withstand small, short-duration earthquakes of
were not designed to withstand shaking of such long lessthan 5.5 magnitude with little or no damage. In
duration (Fig. 1). Nevertheless, in California and moderate earthquakes (5.5 to 7.0 magnitude), the
elsewhere in the world, structures built since the damage suffered should not be serious and should be
California code went into effect have fared much better repairable. In a major earthquake of greater than 7.0
magnitude, the building should not collapse, although
it may later have to be demolished.
Many
^ FIGURE 1 Damage done to structures in Anchorage,
factors enter into the design of an
earthquake-resistant structure, but the most important
Alaska, as a result of ground shaking during the 1964
is that the building be tied together; that is, the
earthquake. Close-up of Government Hill School.
foundation, walls, floors, and roof should all be joined
together to create a structure that can withstand both
horizontal and vertical shaking caused by an
earthquake (Fig. 2). Structural continuity can be
assured by requiring that the walls of a building be
securely anchored to the foundation and that the
beam and joist supports of the walls, floors, and roof
be securely joined to each other. Almost all of the
structural failures that have resulted from earthquake
ground movement have occurred at weak connections,
where the various parts of a structure were not
securely tied together (Fig. 3).
The size and shape of a building can also affect its
resistance to earthquakes. Rectangular box-shaped

buildings are inherently stronger than those of

"
. •
'
' :" '••-:
Secure
vent
^ FIGURE 2 This diagram shows some of the things a homeowner can do to reduce the
potential damage to a building because of ground shaking during an earthquake.
irregular size or shape because different parts of an -^- FIGURE 3 During the 1971 San Fernando, California
may sway earthquake, the Olive View Hospital's stair tower broke
irregular building at different rates,
away from the main building. The hospital was built to
increasing the stress and likelihood of structural
federal earthquake standards, but still suffered major
failure (Fig. 4b). Buildings with open or unsupported damage.
first stories are particularly susceptible to damage.
Some reinforcement must be done or collapse is a

distinct possibility.
Tall buildings, such as skyscrapers, must be
designed so that a certain amount of swaying or
flexing can occur, but not so much that they touch
neighboring buildings during swaying (Fig. 4d). If a
building is brittle and does not give, it will crack and
fail. In addition to designed flexibility, engineers must
make sure that a building does not resonate at the
same frequency as the ground does during an
earthquake. When that happens, the force applied by
the seismic waves at ground level is multiplied several
times by the time they reach the top of the building
(continued on next page)
The Destructive Effects of Earthquakes 271

-+ FIGURE 4 The effects of ground
shaking on various tall buildings of
differing shapes, (a) Damage will
occur if two wings of a building
are joined at right angles and
experience different motions.
(b) Buildings of different heights
will sway differently leading to
damage at the point of connection.
(c) Shaking increases with height
and is greatest at the top of a

building, (d) Closely spaced
buildings may crash into each
other due to swaying, (e) A
building whose long axis is parallel
to the direction of the seismic
waves sway less than a
will
building whose axis is
perpendicular, (f) Two buildings of
different design will behave
differently even when subjected to
the same shaking conditions.
Building A sways as a unit and
remains standing while building B
whose first story is composed of
only tall columns collapses because

most of the swaying takes place in Direction of
the "soft" first story. seismic wave
(Fig. 4c). This condition is particularly troublesome in ""•* FIGURE 5 This 15-story reinforced concrete building
areas of poorly consolidated sediment (Fig. 5). collapsed due to the ground shaking that occurred during
Fortunately, buildings can be designed so that they the 1985 Mexico City earthquake. The soft lake bed
sediments on which Mexico City is built enhanced the
will sway at a different frequency from the ground.
seismic waves as they passed through.
What about structures built many years ago? Almost
every city and town has older single and multistory
structures, constructed of unreinforced brick masonry,
poor-quality concrete, and rotting or decaying wood.
Just as in new most important thing that
buildings, the
can be done to increase the and safety of older
stability
structures is to tie the different components of each

building together. This can be done by adding a steel
frame to unreinforced parts of a building such as a
garage, bolting the walls to the foundation, adding
reinforced beams to the exterior, and using beam and
joist connectors whenever possible. Although such
modifications are expensive, they are usually cheaper
than having to replace a building that was destroyed by
an earthquake.

^ FIGURE 10-17 The
amplitude, duration, and period of
seismic waves vary in different types
of materials. The amplitude and
duration of the waves generally
increase as they pass from bedrock
to poorly consolidated or
water-saturated material. Thus,
Bedrock Well- Poorly Bay mud structures built on weaker material
consolidated consolidated (water typically suffer greater damage than
sediments sediments saturated) similar structures built on bedrock.
S-wave amplitude than those on bedrock. In addition to earthquakes results from the collapse of buildings that
greater shaking, fill and water-saturated sediments tend were not designed to withstand earthquakes. Adobe and
to liquefy, or behave as a fluid, a process known as mud-walled structures are the weakest of all and almost
liquefaction. When shaken, the individual grains lose always collapse during an earthquake. Unreinforced
cohesion and the ground flows. This phenomenon has brick structures and poorly built concrete structures are
been well documented in many major earthquakes. also particularly susceptible to collapse. For example,
In addition to the magnitude of an earthquake and thousands of people were killed by collapsing structures
the underlying geology, the material used and the type of during the 1988 Soviet Armenian earthquake. The 1976
construction also affect the amount of damage done (see earthquake in Tangshan, China, completely leveled the
Perspective 10-1). The tremendous loss of life in many city because almost none of the structures were built to
resist seismic forces. In fact, most of them had unrein-
forced brick walls, which have no flexibility, and conse-
^ FIGURE 10-18 Many of the approximately 242,000

quently they collapsed during the shaking
During the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, 10% of the
(Fig. 10-18).
people who died in the 1976 earthquake in Tangshan,

China, were killed by collapsing structures. Many of the buildings were destroyed as a direct result of ground
buildings were constructed from unreinforced brick, which shaking. Many of the buildings in San Francisco at the
has no flexibility, and quickly fell down during the time were constructed of brick and were not designed to
earthquake. A few tents and temporary shelters can be seen withstand the violent shaking unleashed by an earth-
in this oblique aerial view of a part of Tangshan.
quake (Fig. 10-19).
Fire
Inmany earthquakes, particularly in urban areas, fire is

amajor hazard. Almost 90% of the damage done in the
1906 San Francisco earthquake was caused by fire. The
shaking severed many of the electrical and gas lines,
which touched off flames and started numerous fires all
over the city. Because water mains were ruptured by the
earthquake, there was no effective way to fight the fires.
Hence, they raged out of control for three days, destroy-
ing much of the city. During the 1989 Loma Prieta
earthquake, a fire broke out in the Marina district of San
Francisco (Fig. 10-lb) but was contained within a small

along the banks of the Sumida River to escape the raging
fires. Suddenly, a firestorm swept over the area, killing
more than 38,000 people. The fires from this earthquake
were so devastating because most of the buildings were
constructed of wood; many fires were started by chemicals
and fanned by 20 km/hr winds.
S eismic sea waves or t sunami are destructive sea wave s

that are usually produced byâlrtEquakes but can also
be caused by submarine landslides or volcanic eruptions
(see the Prologue to Chapter 1). Tsunami are popularly
called tidal waves, although they have nothing to do
with tides. from the sudden
Instead, tsunami result
movement of the sea floor, which sets up waves within
^ FIGURE 10-19 Approximately 10% of the total the water that travel outward, much like the ripples that
destruction during the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was form when a stone is thrown into a pond.
the direct result ofground shaking. Very few buildings were Tsunami travel at speeds of several hundred km/hr
designed to withstand the violent shaking that took place.
and are commonly not felt in the open ocean because
Many buildings were constructed of brick or masonry and
quickly collapsed. The City Hall dome remained standing their wave height is usually less than 1 m and the dis-
because it was supported by a steel framework, but the tance between wave crests is typically several hundred
walls and rest of the building collapsed. kilometers. However, when tsunami approach shore-
lines, the waves slow down and water piles up to heights
of up to 65 m (Fig. 10-20).
The tsunami that resulted from the Chilean earth-
area. In contrast to 1906, San Francisco in 1989 had a quake of May 22, 1960, caused extensive death and
system of valves throughout its water and gas pipeline damage, not only in Chile, but also in Hawaii, the Philip-
system so that lines could be isolated from breaks. pines, Okinawa, and Japan. Twenty-two hours later and
During the September 1, 1923, earthquake in Japan, 17,000 km from the epicenter, the tsunami hit the coasts of
fires destroyed 71% of the houses in Tokyo and practically Honshu and Hokkaido, Japan, killing more than 180 peo-
all the houses in Yokohama. In all, a total of 576,262 ple and causing extensive property damage (Fig. 10-21).
houses were completely destroyed by fire, and 143,000 Following a 1946 tsunami that killed 159 people and
people died, many as a result of the fire. A horrible exam- caused $25 million in property damage in Hawaii, the
ple occurred in Tokyo where thousands of people gathered U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey established a Tsunami
"^ FIGURE 10-20 A tsunami destroying the

pier at Hilo, Hawaii, in 1946. This tsunami
was generated by an earthquake in the
Aleutian Islands. The man in the path of the
waves was never seen again.

Early Warning System in Honolulu, Hawaii, in an at-
tempt to minimize tsunami devastation. This system
combines seismographs and instruments that can detect
earthquake-generated waves. Whenever a strong earth-
quake occurs anywhere within the Pacific basin, its lo-
cation is determined, and instruments are checked to see
if a tsunami has been generated. If it has, a warning is
sent out to evacuate people from low-lying areas that

may be affected (Fig. 10-22). Since its inception, the
Tsunami Early Warning System has saved many lives.
Ground Failure
Landslides and liquefaction are the two most common

types of ground failure resulting from earthquakes.
Landslides are particularly dangerous in mountainous "^ FIGURE 10-21 A tsunami generated by an earthquake
regions and have been responsible for tremendous that occurred on May 22, 1960, off the coast of Chile
amounts of damage and many deaths. For example, the traveled approximately 17,000 km before striking the coast
1959 earthquake in Madison Canyon, Montana, gener- of Japan. The force of the tsunami tossed this fishing boat
on top of a house.
ated a major rock slide (Fig. 10-23), while the 1970 Peru
FIGURE 10-22 Tsumani travel times within the Pacific Ocean basin to Honolulu, Hawaii.
USSR
NEW ZEALAND
• Reporting tidal stations

"•" FIGURE 10-23 On August 17, 1959, an earthquake ""•" FIGURE 10-24 The effects of ground shaking on
Madison River in
started a landslide that blocked the water-saturated soil are dramatically illustrated by the
Montana and created Earthquake Lake. The slide began on collapse of these buildings in Niigata, Japan, during a 1964
one side of the valley, demolished a campsite at the valley earthquake. The buildings were designed to be
bottom, killing approximately 26 people, completely filled earthquake-resistant and fell over on their sides intact.
the river forming an earthen dam, and continued up the
opposite valley slope. This view shows the slide in the
background and Earthquake Lake in the foreground.
One method of long-range earthquake forecasting is
based on the distribution and intensity of previous
earthquakes. From an analysis of historic records and
earthquake caused an avalanche that completely de- the distribution of known faultsêismic risk map s can
stroyed the town of Yungay (see the Prologue to Chapter be constructed that indicate the likelihood and potential
15). Most of the 100,000 deaths from the 1920 earth- severity of future earthquakes based on the intensity of
quake in Gansu, China, resulted when cliffs composed past earthquakes (Fig. 10-25). Although such maps cannot
of loess (wind-deposited silt) collapsed. More than predict when the next major earthquake will occur, they
20,000 people were killed when two-thirds of the town are useful in helping people plan for future earthquakes.
of Port Royal, Jamaica, slid into the sea following an
earthquake on June 7, 1692.
Earthquake Precursors
Liquefaction can also be a problem in earthquake-
active areas. Dramatic examples in addition to San Fran- Studies conducted over the past several decades indicate
cisco include Niigata, Japan, where large apartment build- thatmost earthquakes are preceded by both short-term
ings were tipped to their sides after the water-saturated soil and long-term changes within the Earth. Such changes
of the hillside collapsed (Fig. 10-24), and Turnagain are called precurs ors.
Heights, Alaska, where many homes were destroyed when One long-range prediction technique used in seismi-
the Bootlegger Cove Clay lost all of its strength when cally active areas involves plotting the location of major
shaken by the 1964 earthquake (Fig. 15-21). earthquakes and their aftershocks to detect areas that
have had major earthquakes in the past but are currently
^ EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION inactive. Such regions are locked and not releasing en-
ergy. Nevertheless, pressure is continuing to accumulate
Can earthquakes be predicted? A successful prediction in these regions due to plate motions, so_th£se-seismic
must include a time frame for the occurrence of the gaps are prime locations for future earthquakes. Several
earthquake, its location, and its strength. In spite of the seismic gaps along the San Andreas fault have the po-
tremendous amount—of information geologists have tential for future major earthquakes (Fig. 10-26). A ma-
gathered about the cause of earthquakes, successful pre- jor earthquake that damaged Mexico City in 1985 oc-
dictions are still quite rare. Nevertheless, if reliable pre- curred along a seismic gap in the convergence zone
dictions can be made, they can greatly reduce the num- along the west coast of Mexico (see the Prologue to
ber of deaths and injuries. Chapter 13).

I I No damage
Intensities I to IV
I I Minor damage
Intensities V and VI
I I Moderate damage
Intensity VII
I I Major damage
Intensities VIII and greater
(a)
<%>
^ FIGURE 10-26 Three seismic
gaps are evident in this cross section
along the San Andreas fault from
north of San Francisco to south of
Parkfield. The first is between San
Francisco and Portola Valley, the
second near Loma Prieta Mountain,
and the third southeast of Parkfield.
The top section shows the
epicenters of earthquakes between
January 1969 and July 1989. The
bottom section shows the southern
Santa Cruz Mountains gap after it
was filled by the October 17, 1989,
Loma Prieta earthquake (open
circle) and its aftershocks.
measure tilting of the ground surface that is believed to had a magnitude of 7.3 and destroyed hundreds of build-
result from increasing pressure in the rocks. Data from ings but claimed very few lives because most people had
measurements in central California indicate significant been evacuated from the buildings and were outdoors
tilting occurred immediately preceding small earth- when it occurred. While this was not the first successful
quakes. Furthermore, extensive tiltmeter work per- earthquake prediction, it was the first to predict a major
formed in Japan prior to the 1964 Niigata earthquake earthquake and thus saved thousands of lives.
clearlyshowed a relationship between increased tilting Another possible earthquake precursor was discov-
and the main shock. While more research is needed, ered following the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Elec-
such changes appear to be useful in making short-term trical engineers at Stanford University, California, no-
earthquake predictions. ticed that the amplitude of ultra-low frequency radio
Other earthquake precursors include fluctuations in waves increased about three hours before the earth-
the water level of wells and changes in the Earth's mag- quake. Furthermore, they noticed that the background
netic field and the electrical resistance of the ground. radio noise for all frequencies abruptly increased 12
These fluctuations are believed to result from changes in days before the earthquake and then suddenly decreased
the amount of pore space in rocks due to increasing one day before the tremor hit. At this time it is not
pressure. A change in animal behavior prior to an earth- known why such a change should occur, but it is hoped
quake also is frequently mentioned. It may be that ani- that it may prove useful in short-term prediction of fu-
mals are sensing small and subtle changes in the Earth ture earthquakes.
prior to a quake that humans simply do not sense.
Dilatancy Model
The Chinese used all of the precursors just mentioned,
except seismic gaps, to successfully predict a large earth- Many of the precursors just discussed can be related to
quake in Haicheng on February 4, 1975. The earthquake the dilatancy model, which is based on changes occurring

in rocks subjected to very high^pressures^Laboratory-ex- laboratory and field studies of the behavior of rocks before,
periments have shown that rocks undergo an increase in during, and after major earthquakes as well as monitoring
volume, known as dilatancy, just before rupturing.As activity along major active faults.
pressure builds in rocks along faults, numerous small Most earthquake prediction work in the United
cracks are produced that alter the physical properties of States done by the United States Geological Survey
is
the rocks. Water enters the cracks and increases the fluid (USGS) and involves a variety of research into all aspects
pressure; this further increases the volume of the rocks of earthquake-related phenomena. One of the more am-
and decreases their inherent strength until failure even- bitious programs undertaken by the USGS is the Park-
tually occurs, producing an earthquake. field earthquake prediction experiment. Over the past
The dilatancy model is consistent with many earthquake 130 years, moderate-sized earthquakes have occurred
precursors (Fig. 10-27). Although additional research is on an average of every 21 to 22 years along a 24 km
needed, it appears that this model has the potential for pre- segment of the San Andreas fault at Parkfield, Califor-
dicting earthquakes under certain circumstances. nia. Based on the regularity of these earthquakes and the
fact they have all been very similar, the USGS forecast
that another moderate-sized earthquake would occur in
Earthquake Prediction Programs At the time
this region in 1988, plus or minus five years.
Currently, only four nations— the United States, Japan, the of this writing (1991), the predicted moderate-sized
Soviet Union, and China— have government-sponsored earthquake has not yet occurred. During the mid-1980s,
earthquake prediction programs. These programs include the USGS set up a variety of instruments to monitor
"*•"
FIGURE 10-27 The
relationship between dilatancy and
various other earthquake
precursors.
Earthquake Prediction 279

TABLE 10-4 What You Can Do to Prepare for an Earthquake
Anyone who lives in an area that is subject to earthquakes or who will be visiting or moving to such an area can take
certain precautions to reduce the risks and losses resulting from an earthquake.
Before an earthquake:
1. Become familiar with the geologic hazards of the area where you live and work.
2. Make sure your house is securely attached to the foundation by anchor bolts and that the walls, floors, and roof are
all firmly connected together.
3. Heavy furniture such as bookcases should be bolted to the walls; semiflexible natural gas lines should be used so that
they can give without breaking; water heaters and furnaces should be strapped and the straps bolted to wall studs to
prevent gas-line rupture and fire. Brick chimneys should have a bracket or brace that can be anchored to the roof.
4. Maintain a several-day supply of fresh water and canned foods, and keep a fresh supply of flashlight and radio
batteries as well as a fire extinguisher.
5. Maintain a basic first-aid kit, and have a working knowledge of first-aid procedures.
6. Learn how to turn off the various utilities at your house.
7. Above all, have a course of action planned for when an earthquake strikes.
During an earthquake:
1. Act calmly and avoid panic.
2. If you are indoors, get under a desk or table if possible, or stand in an interior doorway or room corner as these are
the structurally strongest parts of a room; avoid windows and falling debris.
3. In a tall building, do not rush for the stairwells or elevators.
4. In an unreinforced or other hazardous building, it may be better to get out of the building rather than stay in it. Be
on the alert for fallen power lines and the possibility of falling debris.
5. If you are outside, get to an open area away from buildings if possible.
6. If you are in an automobile, stay in the car, and avoid tall buildings, overpasses, and bridges if possible.
After an earthquake:
1. Ifyou are uninjured, remain calm and assess the situation.
2. Help anyone who is injured.
3. Make sure there are no fires or fire hazards.
4. Check for damage to utilities and turn off gas valves if you smell gas.
5. Use your telephone only for emergencies.
6. Do not go sightseeing or move around the streets unnecessarily.
7. Avoid landslide and beach areas.
8. Be prepared for aftershocks.
conditions along this segment of the San Andreas fault the devastating 1976 Tangshan earthquake that killed at
in order to study earthquake precursors and to assess least 242,000 people.
the possibility of short-term predictions of moderate- Great strides are being made toward dependable, ac-
sized earthquakes. curate earthquake predictions, and studies are under-
The Chinese have perhaps one of the most ambitious way to assess public reactions to long-, medium-, and
earthquake prediction programs anywhere in the world, short-term earthquake warnings. However, unless
which is understandable considering their long history of short-term warnings are actually followed by an earth-
destructive earthquakes. The Chinese program on earthquake, most people will probably ignore the warnings as
quake prediction was initiated soon after two large earth- they frequently do now for hurricanes, tornadoes, and
quakes occurred at Xingtai (300 km southwest of Bei- tsunami (see Perspective 10-2). Perhaps the best we can
jing) in 1966. The Chinese program includes extensive hope for is that people will take measures to minimize
study and monitoring of all possible earthquake precur- their risk from the next major earthquake (Table 10-4).
sors. In addition, the Chinese also emphasize changes in
phenomena that can be observed by seeing and hearing
without the use of sophisticated instruments. The Chi-
^ EARTHQUAKE CONTROL
nese have had remarkable success in predicting earth- If earthquake prediction is still in the future, can any-
quakes, particularly in the short term, such as the 1975 thing be done to control earthquakes? Because of the
Haicheng earthquake. They failed, however, to predict tremendous forces involved, humans are certainly not

Perspective 10-2
A PREDICTED EARTHQUAKE
THAT DID N'T OCCUR
December 3, 1990, passed without incident when a
major earthquake that had been predicted publicly for
a portion of the Midwest failed to materialize. For St. Louis
months, a five-state region overlying the New Madrid
fault zone braced for a potentially devastating
earthquake (Fig. 1).
MISSOURI
During the months leading up to December 3,
insurance salespeople did a brisk business selling
earthquake insurance to homeowners and businesses; KENTUCKY
entrepreneurs cashed in on the sale of such
earthquake-related items as T-shirts, survival kits, and
gas-line shutoff safety devices; seminars on earthquake

preparedness and survival drew large crowds; and New Madrid
public officials reviewed disaster plans and fault zone
coordinated emergency relief efforts, while schools
practiced earthquake So great was the concern
drills.
that an earthquake would occur as predicted, many

5* Memphis
school districts canceled classes and numerous
businesses closed for several days.
The reason for such massive preparation and media
attentionwas a prediction made by Iben Browning, a
T FIGURE 1 A devastating earthquake was predicted to
occur on December 3, 1990, somewhere within the five-state
72-year-old New Mexico scientist. Browning, who has region that overlies the New Madrid fault zone. Luckily, the
a Ph.D. in physiology, genetics, and bacteriology and earthquake did not happen.
was previously best known for his work on climates,
claims to have correctly predicted the dates of several

major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. He also is
said to have predicted, within a day of its occurrence, a straight line, they exert greater than normal
the devastating 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake (see the gravitational forces (although the forces are still
Prologue) as well as the 1971 San Fernando Valley, weak) that some believe could trigger fault
relatively
California, and the 1972 Nicaragua earthquakes. movement. Such a hypothesis is not new. Whenever -
Based on the apparent accuracy of his previous the various planets are aligned as a result of their
predictions, Browning's New Madrid prediction was natural orbits around the Sun, doomsayers are always
taken very seriously by many people and received predicting some type of natural disaster will occur,
wide media coverage. Browning predicted that there and it never does. Earthquakes are the result of
was a 50% chance of a magnitude 6.5 to 7.5 complex interactions within the Earth and occur
earthquake occurring somewhere within the New under varied geologic conditions. Consequently, no
Madrid fault zone on December 3, 1990 (plus or one factor can be used to predict when and where an
minus a day). He also predicted for the same time that earthquake will occur.
there was a lesser chance of a similar earthquake Seismologists do admit that based on past
occurring along California's San Andreas or Hayward earthquake activity in the New Madrid fault zone
faults and an even greater chance of an 8.2 magnitude area, there is a high probability of another major
earthquake striking Tokyo. However, none of the earthquake in the area within the foreseeable future.
predicted earthquakes occurred. Yet exactly when that will be, no geoscientist is
All of Browning's predictions are based on tidal willing to predict because far too many complex
forces. When the Earth, Moon, and Sun are aligned in variables are involved.
Earthquake Control 281

going to be able to prevent earthquakes. However, there that the earthquakes in Denver were directly related to
may be ways to dissipate the destructive energy of major the injection of contaminated waste water into a dis-
earthquakes by releasing it in small amounts that will posal well 3,674 m deep at the Rocky Mountain Arse-
not cause extensive damage. nal, northeast of Denver.The U.S. Army initially denied
During the early to mid-1960s, Denver experienced that there was any connection, but a USGS study con-
numerous small earthquakes. This was surprising be- cluded that the pumping of waste fluids into the disposal
cause Denver had not been prone to earthquakes in the well was the cause of the earthquakes.
past. In 1962, David M. Evans, a geologist, suggested Figure 10-28 shows the relationship between the av-
•** FIGURE 10-28 (a) A block

diagram of the Rocky Mountain
Arsenal well and the underlying Rocky Mountain
geology, (b) A graph showing the Arsenal well
relationship between the amount of
waste injected into the well per
month and the average number of
Denver earthquakes per month.
Average gallons of waste injected per month in arsenal disposal well

P 7
ro 6
£ 5
o
1 4
oi
3
W Maximum injection Maximur
2 pressure 550 lbs. injectior
1 No waste Injected by pi
I 1
injected gravity flow 10501b';

i i i i i i i
5<5tt<$OZO™£s<2-3-?<otOZO™i£5<2t^<$OZO™i£2<2t-3<</>OZQ
1962 1963 1964 1965
(b)

erage number of earthquakes in Denver per month and the fluids were pumped out. What the geologists were
the average amount of contaminated waste fluids in- doing was starting and stopping earthquakes at will,
jected into the disposal well per month. Obviously, a and the relationship between pore-water pressures and
high degree of correlation between the two exists, and earthquakes was established.
the correlation is particularly convincing considering Based upon these results, some geologists have pro-
that during the time when no waste fluids were injected, posed that fluids be pumped into the locked segments of
earthquake activity decreased dramatically. The geology active faults to cause small- to moderate-sized earth-
of the area consists of highly fractured gneiss overlain by quakes. They believe that this would relieve the pressure
sedimentary rocks. When water was pumped into these on the and prevent a major earthquake from oc-
fault
fractures, it decreased the friction on opposite sides of curring. While this plan is intriguing, it also has many
the fractures and, in essence, lubricated them so that potential problems. For instance, there is no guarantee
movement occurred, causing the earthquakes that Den- that only a small earthquake might result. Instead a ma-
ver experienced. jor earthquake might occur, causing tremendous prop-
Experiments conducted in 1969 at an abandoned oil erty damage and loss of life. Who would be responsible?
fieldnear Rangely, Colorado, confirmed the arsensal hy- Certainly, a great deal more research is needed before
pothesis. Water was pumped in and out of abandoned such an experiment is performed, even in an area of low
oil wells,the pore-water pressure in these wells was population density.
measured, and seismographs were installed in the area It appears that until such time as earthquakes can be
to measure any seismic activity. Monitoring showed that accurately predicted or controlled, the best means of
small earthquakes were occurring in the area when fluid defense is careful planning and preparation.
was injected and that earthquake activity declined when
^ CHAPTER SUMMARY and Love waves. Rayleigh waves behave like water
waves, and Love waves are similar to S-waves, but
1. Earthquakes are vibrations of the Earth caused by are directed horizontally.
the sudden release of energy, usually along a fault. 8. The epicenter of an earthquake can be located by
2. The elastic rebound theory states that pressure the use of a time-distance graph of the P- and
builds in rocks on opposite sides of a fault until the S-waves from any given distance. Three
inherent strength of the rocks is exceeded and seismographs are needed to locate the epicenter of
rupture occurs. When the rocks rupture, stored an earthquake.
energy is released as they snap back to their original 9. Intensity is a measure of the kind of damage done
position. by an earthquake and is expressed by values from I
3. Seismology is the study of earthquakes. Earthquakes to XII in the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale.
are recorded on seismographs, and the record of an 10. Magnitude measures the amount of energy released
earthquake is a seismogram. by an earthquake and is expressed in the Richter -
4. The focus of an earthquake is the point where Magnitude Scale. Each increase in the magnitude
energy is released. Vertically above the focus on the number represents about a 30-fold increase in energy
Earth's surface is the epicenter. released.
5. Most earthquakes occur within seismic belts. 11. Ground shaking is the most destructive of all
Approximately 80% of all earthquakes occur in the earthquake hazards. The amount of damage done by
circum-Pacific belt, 15% within the an earthquake depends upon the geology of the area,
Mediterranean- Asiatic belt, and the remaining 5% the type of building construction, the magnitude of
mostly in the interior of plates or along oceanic the earthquake, and the duration of shaking.
spreading ridge systems. 12. Tsunami are seismic sea waves that are usually
6. The two types of body waves are P-waves and produced by earthquakes. They can do a
S-waves. Both travel through the Earth, although tremendous amount of damage to coastlines, even
S-waves do not travel through liquids. P-waves are thousands of kilometers away from the earthquake
the fastest waves and are compressional, while epicenter.
S-waves are shear. 13. Seismic risk maps are helpful in making long-term
7. Surface waves travel along or just below the Earth's predictions about the severity of earthquakes based
surface. The two types of surface waves are Rayleigh on past occurrences.
Chapter Summary 283

14. Earthquake precursors are any changes preceding an The vast majority of all earthquake foci occur at a
earthquake that can be used to predict when an depth of less than kilometers.
earthquake will occur. Precursors include seismic a 20; b 40; c 60; d 80;
gaps, changes in surface elevation, tilting, e 100.
fluctuations in water well levels, and anomalous With few exceptions, the most destructive
animal behavior. earthquakes are:
15. A variety of earthquake research programs are a. shallow focus; b. intermediate focus;
underway in the United States, Japan, the Soviet c. deep focus; d. answers (a) and (b);
Union, and China. However, studies indicate that e. answers (b) and (c).
most people would probably not heed a short-term The majority of all earthquakes occur in the:
earthquake warning. a. Mediterranean-Asiatic belt; b. interior of
16. Fluid injection into locked segments of an active plates; c. circum-Atlantic belt; d. circum-
fault holds great promise as a means of possible Pacific belt; e. along spreading ridges.
earthquake control. Body waves are:
a. P-waves; b. S-waves; c. Rayleigh
waves; d. answers (b) and (c); e answers (a)
IMPORTANT TERMS and (b).
The fastest of the four seismic waves are:
Benioff zone precursor a. P; b S; c. Rayleigh; d Love;
dilatancy model P-wave e. tsunami.
earthquake Rayleigh wave An epicenter is:
elastic rebound theory Richter Magnitude Scale a. the location where rupture begins; b. the
elasticity seismic gap point on the Earth's surface vertically above the
epicenter seismic risk map focus; c. the same as the hypocenter; d. the
focus seismogram location where energy is released; e. none of
intensity seismograph these.
liquefaction seismology 10. What is the minimum number of seismographs
Love wave S-wave needed to determine an earthquake's epicenter?

magnitude time-distance graph a 1; b 2; c 3; d 4; e 5.
Modified Mercalli tsunami 11, A qualitative assessment of the kinds of damage
Intensity Scale done by an earthquake is expressed by:
a. seismicity; b. dilatancy: c. magnitude;
d. intensity; e. none of these.
^ REVIEW QUESTIONS 12. How much more energy is released by a magnitude
5 earthquake than by one of magnitude 2?
1. According to the elastic rebound theory: a. 2.5 times: b. 3 times; c. 30 times;
a. earthquakes originate deep within the Earth; d 1,000 times; e 27,000 times.
b. earthquakes originate in the asthenosphere 13. Which of the following usually causes the greatest
where rocks are plastic; c. earthquakes occur amount of damage and loss of life?
where the strength of the rock is exceeded; a. fire; b. tsunami; c. ground shaking;
d. rocks are elastic and do not rebound to their d. liquefaction; e. landslides.
former position; e. none of these. 14. A tsunami is a:
2. A seismogram is: a. measure of the energy released by an
a. an instrument that records earthquake waves; earthquake; b. seismic sea wave;
b. the record made by a seismograph; c. the c. precursor to an earthquake; d. locked
slowest of the seismic waves; d. a unit of energy portion of a fault; e. seismic gap.
released by an earthquake; e. none of these. Define an earthquake.
3. To ensure that earthquake waves from all directions How does the elastic rebound theory explain how
will be recorded, one needs a minimum of energy is released during an earthquake?
.seismographs that are not oriented parallel Describe how a seismograph works.
to each other, What is the difference between body waves and
a 2; b. .3; c. 4;d. 5;e 6. surface waves?

19. How do P-waves differ from S-waves?
Rayleigh waves differ from Love waves?
How do ^ ADDITIONAL READINGS
20 What is the difference between the focus and the Bolt, B. A. 1988. Earthquakes. New
York: W. H. Freeman
epicenter of an earthquake? and Co.
Canby, T. Y. 1990. California earthquake— prelude to the big
21 How is the epicenter of an earthquake determined?
one? National Geographic 177, no. 5: 76-105.
22. What is the relationship between plate boundaries
Evans, D. M. 1966. Man-made earthquakes in Denver.
and earthquakes? Geotimes 10, no. 11-18.
9:
23. What is the relationship between plate boundaries Frohlich, C. 1989. Deep earthquakes. Scientific American 260,
and focal depth? no. 1: 48-55.
24. Explain the difference between intensity and Gere, J. M., and H. C. Shah. 1984. Terra non firma. New York:
magnitude and between the Modified Mercalli W. H. Freeman and Co.
Intensity Scale and the Richter Magnitude Scale. Hanks, T. C. 1985. National earthquake hazard reduction
25 Why is ground shaking so destructive during an program: Scientific status. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin
1659.
earthquake?
why Johnston, A. C, and L. R. Kanter. 1990. Earthquakes in stable
26 Explain how tsunami are produced and they
continental crust. Scientific American 262, no. 3: 68-75.
are so destructive.
Penick, J. L., Jr. 1981. The New Madrid earthquakes. 2d ed.
27. Why are seismic risk maps useful to planners?
Columbia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press.
28. How can earthquake precursors be used to predict Stein, R. S., and R. S. Yeats. 1989. Hidden earthquakes.
earthquakes? Scientific American 260, no. 6: 48-59.
29 What is the dilatancy model? How does it help Wesson, R. L., and R. E. Wallace. 1985. Predicting the next
explain how earthquake precursors are related? great earthquake in California. Scientific American 252, no.
30 Explain how fluid injection may be useful in 2: 35-43.
controlling earthquakes.

CHAPTER 11
THE INTERIOR
OF THE EARTH
* OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
SEISMIC WAVES
THE DISCOVERY OF THE EARTH'S
CORE
Density and Composition of the Core
^ Guest Essay: Geology: An Unexpected
But Rewarding Career
THE MANTLE
Structure and Composition of the Mantle
THE EARTH'S CRUST
THE EARTH'S INTERNAL HEAT
"^"Perspective 11-1: Kimberlite
Pipes— Windows to the Mantle
Heat Flow
"^" Perspective 11-2: Seismic Tomography
MEASURING GRAVITY
THE PRINCIPLE OF ISOSTASY
THE EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD
Inclination and Declination of the Magnetic
Field
Magnetic Anomalies
Magnetic Reversals
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Probing the Earth's interior. The world's

deepest hole, more than 12 km deep, is on
the Kola Peninsula in the northwestern Soviet
Union. The 30-story building in this image
houses the drill rig.
PROLOGUE
(jgâj^M The Earth's interior has always been
an inaccessible, mysterious realm.
During most of historic time, it was perceived as an
underground world of vast caverns, heat, and sulfur
gases, populated by demons (Fig. 11-1). By the 1800s,
scientists had some sketchy ideas about the Earth's
structure, but outside scientific circles, all kinds of
bizarre ideas were proposed. In 1869, for example,
Cyrus Reed Teed claimed that the Earth was hollow
and that humans lived on the inside. As recently as
1913, Marshall B. Gardner held that the Earth is a
large sphere with a 1,300-km-thick outer shell
surrounding a central sun.
Although making no claim to present a reliable
picture of the Earth's interior, Jules Verne's 1864 "»" FIGURE 11-1 In 1678, Athanasius Kircher
novel A
Journey to the Center of the Earth described (1602-1680) published Mundus Subterraneus, which
the adventures of Professor Hardwigg, his nephew, contained this drawing showing what he believed was the
"ideal system of subterranean fire cells from which volcanic
and an Icelandic guide as they descended into the
mountains arise, as it were, like vents."
Earth through the crater of Mount Sneffels in Iceland.
During their travels, they followed a labyrinth of
passageways until they finally arrived 140 km below
the surface. Here, they encountered a vast cavern
containing "the central sea" illuminated by some distance to the Earth's center. Indeed, if the Earth
electrical phenomenon related to the northern lights. were the size of an apple, this drill hole would be
Along the margins of the sea, they saw forests of roughly equivalent to a pinprick penetrating less than
and palms and a herd of mastodons
prehistoric ferns halfway through the skin of the apple! In short, mines
complete with a gigantic human shepherd. Dwelling in and wells have barely penetrated the Earth's surface.
the central sea were Mesozoic-aged marine reptiles Because the Earth's interior is hidden from direct
and gigantic turtles. Their adventure ended when they observation, it is more inaccessible than the surfaces of
were carried upward to the surface on a raft by a the Moon and Mars. Nevertheless, scientists have a -
rising plume of water. reasonably good idea of the Earth's internal structure
Scientists in 1864 knew what the average density of and composition. No vast openings or passageways exist
the Earth was and that pressure and temperature as in Jules Verne's story; the deepest known caverns
increase with depth. They also knew that the fabled extend to depths of less than 1,500 m. Even at the
passageways followed by Professor Hardwigg could modest depths to which Professor Hardwigg and his
not exist, but little else was known, even though companions are supposed to have descended, the
humans had probed the Earth through mines and pressure and temperature are so great that rock actually
wells for centuries. Even the deepest mines (the gold flows even though it remains solid. In deep mines the
mines in South Africa) penetrate only about 3 km rock is under such tremendous pressure that rock bursts
below the surface. The deepest drill hole is currently and popping are constant problems (see Perspective 6-1).
about 12 km deep, although when completed, it will In short, the behavior of solids at depth where the
reach a depth of about 15 km. A drill hole 12 km temperature and pressure are great is very different from
deep is impressive, but it is less than 0.2% of the their brittle behavior at the surface.
Prologue 287
^ INTRODUCTION
greater than that of surface rocks,
from 2.5 to 3.0
3
most of which range
g/cm Thus, in order for the average
.
3
The Earth's interior is so inaccessible that most people density to be 5.5 g/cm much of the interior must con-
,
think about it. One can appreciate the stunning

little sist of materials with a density greater than the Earth's
beauty of the northern lights and yet be completely un- average density.
aware that they exist because of the interaction between The Earth is generally depicted as consisting of con-
the magnetic field that is generated within the Earth and centric layers that differ in composition and density that
the solar wind, a continuous stream of electrically are separated from adjacent layers by rather distinct
charged particles emanating from the Sun. Much of the boundaries (Fig. 11-2). Recall that the outermost layer,
Earth's geologic activity including volcanism, earth- or the crust, is the very thin skin of the Earth. Below the
quakes, the movements of plates, and the origin of moun- crust and extending about halfway to the Earth's center
tains is caused by internal heat. A continual slow exis which comprises more than 80% of the
the mantle,
change of material occurs as magma rises from within the Earth's volume (Table 11-1). The central part of the
Earth, and solid Earth materials are subducted and re- Earth consists of a core, which is divided into a solid
turned to the interior. inner core and a liquid outer part (Fig. 11-2).
Scientists have known for more than 200 years that Because no direct observations of the Earth's interior
the Earth's interior is not homogeneous. Sir Isaac New- can be made, this model of the Earth's internal structure
ton (1642-1727) noted in a study of the planets that the is based on indirect evidence, mostly from the study of
3
Earth's average density is 5.0 to 6.0 g/cm (water has a seismic waves. Nevertheless, the model is widely ac-
3
density of 1 g/cm ). In 1797, Henry Cavendish calcu- cepted by scientists and is becoming increasingly refined
lated a density value very close to the 5.5 g/cm 3 now as more sophisticated methods of probing what some
accepted. The Earth's average density is considerably call "inner space" are developed.
'"" FIGURE 11-2 The internal structure of the Earth.
288 Chapter 1 1 The Interior of the Earth

^ TABLE 11-1 " th
Data on the Eart!
Mass
Volume Percentage (trillions of Percentage
(thousands of km 3 of the Total metric tons) of the Total
Inner core 7,512,800 0.70% ]_

19,000,000,000 31.79%
Outer core 169,490,000 15.68
J~
Mantle 896,990,000 83.02 40,500,000,000 67.77
Continental crust
Oceanic crust
4,760,800
1,747,200
0.44
o.i6
1
r
— 250,000,000 0.42
Atmosphere, water, ice 14,351,000 0.02
^ SEISMIC WAVES rays, which are lines

of small parts of wave fronts
showing the direction of movement
(Fig. 11-3). The behavior
Several aspects of seismic waves were discussed in Chap- and and S-waves within the Earth
travel times of P-
ter 10 (see Fig. 10-10). They are caused by any distur- provide geologists with much information about its in-
bance such as a passing train or construction equipment, ternal structure.
but only those generated by large earthquakes, explosive As we noted in Chapter 10, the velocities of P- and
volcanism, asteroid impacts, and nuclear explosions can S-waves are determined by the density and elasticity of
travel completely through the Earth. Seismic waves the materials through which they travel. Both the den-
travel outward as wave fronts from their source areas, sity and elasticity of rocks increase with depth, but elas-
although it is most convenient to depict them as wave ticity increases faster than density, resulting in a general
*^ FIGURE 11-3
r
Seismic wave fronts move
outward in all directions from their source, the
focus of an earthquake in this example. Wave rays
are linesdrawn perpendicular to wave fronts.
Seismic Waves 289

a depth of about 2,900 km (Fig. 11-6). Such marked
~2*
changes in the velocity of seismic waves indicate a
boundary called a discontinuity âcross which g_g|gnifi-
ca nt change in Earth m at erials or their pro pertigsôc-
cursûch discontinuities are the basis for subdividing
the Earth's interior into concentric layers.
The contribution of seismology to the study of the
(a) (b) Earth's interior cannot be overstated. Beginning in the
"^ FIGURE 11-4 {a) If the Earth had the same early 1900s, scientists recognized the utility of seismic
composition and density throughout, seismic wave rays wave studies and, between 1906 and 1936, largely
would follow straight paths, (b) Because density increases worked out the internal structure of the Earth on the
with depth, wave rays are continually refracted so that their
basis of these studies.
paths are curved.
» THE DISCOVERY OF
increase in the velocity of seismic waves. P-waves travel THE EARTH'S CORE
faster than S-waves through all materials. However, un- In 1906, R. D. Oldham of the Geological Survey of
like P-waves, S-waves cannot be transmitted through a India discovered that seismic waves arrived later than
liquid because liquids have no shear strength (rigidity) — expected at seismic stations more than 130° from an
they simply flow in response to a shear stress. earthquake focus. He postulated the existence of a core
If the Earth were a homogeneous body, P- and that transmits seismic waves at a slower rate than shal-
S-waves would travel in straight paths as shown in Fig- lower Earth materials. We now know that P-wave ve-
ure ll-4a. However, as a seismic wave travels from one locity decreases markedly at a depth of 2,900 km, thus
material into another of different density and elasticity, indicating a major discontinuity now recognized as the
its velocitvand jjirection of travel chan ge. Thatis^-the core-mantle boundary (Fig. 11-6).
wayjL_is bent, a phenomenon known—as—refraction The sudden decrease in P-wave velocity at the core-
(Fig. 1 l-4b). Since seismic waves pass through materials mantle boundary causes P-waves entering the core to be
of differing density and elasticity, they are continually refracted in such a way that very little P-wave energy
refracted so that their paths are curved; the only excep- reaches the Earth's surface in the area between 103° and
tion is that wave rays are not refracted if their direction
of travel is perpendicular to a boundary (Fig. 11-5). In
that case they travel in a straight line.
In addition to refraction, seismic 'rays are also ~^ FIGURE 11-5 Refraction and reflection of P-waves.
reflected, much as light is reflected from a mirror. Seis- When seismic waves pass through a boundary separating
mic rays that encounter-aôundary separating materials Earth materials of different density or elasticity, they are
of different density or elasticity within the Earth are
refracted, and some of their energy is reflected back to the
surface.
refracted as they pass through the boundary, and some
of their energy back to the Earth's surface
is reflected Reflected waves
(Fig. 11-5). If we know
wave velocity and the time
the
required for it to travel from its source to the boundary
and back to the surface, we can calculate the depth of
the reflecting boundary. Such information is useful in Focus
determining not only the depths of the various layers
within the Earth, but also the depths of sedimentary
rocks that may contain petroleum. Seismic reflection is a
common tool used in petroleum exploration (see Per-
spective 9-1).
Although changes in seismic wave velocity occur con-
tinuously with depth, P-wave velocity increases sud-
denly at the base of the crust and decreases abruptly at Outer core

Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
14-
12 -
Solid
inner
core
^FIGURE 11-8
(a) Inge Lehmann, the
Danish seismologist who
in 1936 postulated that
the Earth has a solid
inner core, (b) Lehmann P-wave
proposed that reflection shadow
from an inner core could zone
explain the arrival of
weak P-wave energy in
the P-wave shadow zone. (b)
and nickel alloys (see Fig. 2-7), may represent the dif- be dense enough to yield an average density of 5.5 g/cm 3
ferentiated interiors of large asteroids and approximate for the Earth. Both the outer and inner core are thought
the density and composition of the Earth's core. The to be composed largely of iron, but pure iron is too
3
density of the outer core varies from 9.9 to 12.2 g/cm ,
dense to be the sole constituent of the outer core. Thus,
and that of the inner core ranges from 12.6 to 13.0 it must be "diluted" with elements of lesser density. Lab-
3
g/cm (Table 11-2). At the Earth's center, the pressure is oratory experiments and comparisons with iron mete-
equivalent to about 3.5 million times normal atmo- orites indicate that perhaps 12% of the outer core con-
spheric pressure. sists of sulfur, one of the few elements sufficiently
The core cannot be composed of the minerals most abundant to account for the estimated density. In addi-
common at the Earth's surface, because even under the tion, some silicon and small amounts of nickel and po-
tremendous pressures at great depth they would still not tassium are also probably present (Table 11-2).
In contrast, pure iron is not dense enough to account
for the estimated density of the inner core. Most geol-
""" FIGURE 11-9 The presence of an S-wave shadow zone ogists think that perhaps 10 to 20% of the inner core
indicates that S-waves are being blocked within the Earth. also consists of nickel. These metals form an iron-nickel
alloy that under the pressure at that depth is thought to
be sufficiently dense to account for the density of the
inner core.
Any model of the core's composition and physical
state must explain not only the variations in density, but
also why the outer core is liquid while the inner core is
solid, and how the magnetic field is generated within the

core (discussed later in this chapter). When the core
formed during early Earth history, it was probably com-
pletely molten and has since cooled to the point that its
interior has crystallized. The temperature at the core-
mantle boundary is estimated at 3,500° to 5,000°C, yet
the high pressure within the inner core prevents melting.
In contrast, the outer core is subject to less pressure.
Even more important than the differences in pressure,
however, are the compositional differences between the
fe shadow zC inner and outer core. The sulfur content of the outer

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TABLE 11-2 Composition and Density of the Earth
Density
3
Composition (g/cm )
Inner core Iron with 10 to 20% nickel 12.6-13.0

Outer core Iron with perhaps 12% sulfur; also silicon and small amounts of nickel and 9.9-12.2
potassium
Mantle Peridotite (composed mostly of ferrogmagnesian silicates) 3.3-5.7
Oceanic crust Upper part basalt, lower part gabbro —3.0
Continental crust Average composition of granodiorite ~2.7
core helps depress its melting temperature. An iron- from Balkan earthquakes, Mohorovicic noticed that
sulfur mixture melts at a lower temperature than does P-waves arrived sooner at seismic stations more than
pure iron, or an iron-nickel alloy, so despite the high 200 km from an earthquake's epicenter than at stations
pressure, the outer core is molten. closer than 200 km (Fig. 11-10).
From his observations Mohorovicic concluded that a
* THE MANTLE sharp boundary separating rocks with different proper-
ties exists at a depth of about 30 km. He postulated that
Another significant discovery about the Earth's interior P-waves below this boundary travel at 8 km/sec,
was made 1909 when the Yugoslavian seismologist
in whereas those above the boundary travel at 6.75 km/sec.
Andrija Mohorovicic detected a discontinuity at a depth Thus, when an earthquake occurs, some waves travel
of about 30 km. While studying arrival times of P-waves directly from the focus to the seismic station, while oth-
^ FIGURE 11-10 Andrija

Mohorovicic studied seismic waves
and detected a seismic discontinuity Direct wave
at a depth of about 30 km. (a) At a
seismic station less than 200 km Epicenter
from an earthquake's epicenter, the
waves traveling through the crust
arrive first, even though the deeper
waves travel faster. (£>) At distances
greater than 200 km, the deeper,
faster seismic waves arrive at
seismic stations first, even though
they travel farther.

East Pacific Peru-Chile South Mid-Atlantic
Rise Trench America Ridge
Oceanic Oceanic
crust crust
•^ FIGURE 11-11 The Moho is
present everywhere except beneath

spreading ridges such as the East
Pacific Rise and the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge. However, the depth of the
Moho varies considerably.
ers travel through the deeper layer and some of their averages 35 km, but ranges from 20 to 90 km; beneath
energy isrefracted back to the surface (Fig. 11-10). the sea floor it is 5 to 10 km deep (Fig. 11-11).
Waves traveling through the deeper layer travel farther

to a seismic station but they do so more rapidly than
Structure and Composition of the Mantle
those in the shallower layer. The boundary identified by
Mohorovicic sepa ratejjh e crust from the mantle and is Although seismic wave velocity in the mantle generally
now called the Mohorovici c discontinuity, or simpl y the increases with depth, several discontinuities also exist. Be-
Nloho. IFTsTpr esent everywhere except beneath spread- tween depths of 100 and 250 km, both P- and S-wave
ing ridges, but its depth varies: beneath the continents it velocities decrease markedly (Fig. 11-12). This layer be-
"^ FIGURE 11-12 Variations in

P-wave velocity in the upper mantle
and transition zone.
7^
The Mantle 295

rween 100 and 250 km deep is the low-velocity zone; it low-velocity zone is not. In fact, the low-velocity zone
corresponds closely to the asthenosphere, a layer in which appears to be poorly defined or even absent beneath the
the rocks are close to their melting point and thus are less ancient shields of continents.
elastic; this decrease in elasticity accounts for the observed Other discontinuities have been detected at deeper lev-
decrease in seismic wave The asthenosphere is an
velocity. elswithin the mantle. However, unlike those between the
important zone because it may be where some magmas are crust and mantle or between the mantle and core, these
generated. Furthermore, it lacks strength and flows plas- probably represent structural changes in minerals rather
tically and is thought to be the layer over which the plates than compositional changes. In other words, geologists
of the outer, rigid lithosphere move. believe the mantle is composed of the same material
Even though the low-velocity zone and the astheno- throughout, but the structural states of minerals such as
sphere closely correspond, they are still distinct. The olivine change with depth (Fig. 11-13). At a depth of 400
asthenosphere appears to be present worldwide, but the km, seismic wave velocity increases slightly as a conse-
'•' FIGURE 11-13 (a) Seismic Oceanic Mid-oceanic Continental

wave discontinuities in the mantle crust ridge crust
are thought to be caused by

structural changes in minerals with -i
depth, (b) In olivine, the dominant

mineral in peridotite, a silicon atom
is surrounded by four oxygen
atoms, (c) At greater depth, the

olivine structure is rearranged into
the denser structure of spinel, which
also has four oxygen atoms
surrounding a silicon atom, {d) At a
depth of about 700 km, another
change occurs, and the spinel
structure is converted to that of
perovskite, which has a silicon atom
surrounded by six oxygen atoms.
quence of such changes in mineral structure (Fig. 11-12). iron ore deposits, most rocks have densities of 2.0 to 3.0
3
Another velocity increase occurs at 640 to 720 km where g/cm and the overall density is about 2.70 g/cm 3 (Table
,
the minerals break down into metal oxides, such as FeO 11-2). P-wave velocity in the continental crust is about
(iron oxide) and MgO (magnesium oxide), and silicon 6.75 km/sec; at the base of the crust, P-wave velocity
dioxide (Si0 2 ) (Fig. 11-13). A third discontinuity exists abruptly increases to about 8 km/sec.
at about 1,050 km where P-waves once again increase in The continental crust varies considerably in thick-
velocity. These three discontinuities are within what is ness. It averages about 35 km thick, but is much thinner
called a transition zone separating the upper mantle from in such areas as the Rift Valleys of East Africa and a
the lower mantle (Fig. 11-12). large area called the Basin and Range Province in the
Although the mantle's density, which varies from 3.3 western United States. The crust in these areas is being
3
to 5.7g/cm can be inferred rather accurately from seis-
, stretched and thinned in what appear to be the early
mic waves, its composition is less certain. The igneous stages of rifting. In contrast, continental crust beneath
rock peridotite is considered the most likely component. mountain ranges is much and projects deep into
thicker
Peridotite contains mostly ferromagnesian minerals the mantle. For example, beneath the Himalayas of
(60% olivine and 30% pyroxene) with about 10% feld- Asia, the continental crust is as much as 90 km thick.
spars (see Fig. 5-13). Peridotite is considered the most Crustal thickening beneath mountain ranges is an im-
likely candidate for three reasons. First, laboratory ex- portant point that will be discussed in "The Principle of
periments indicate that it possesses physical properties Isostasy" later in the chapter.
that would account for the mantle's density and ob- Although variations also occur in oceanic crust, they
served rates of seismic wave transmissions. Second, peri- are not as distinct as those for the continental crust. For
dotite forms the lower parts of igneous rock sequences example, oceanic crust varies from 5 to 10 km thick,
believed to be fragments of the oceanic crust and upper being thinnest at spreading ridges. It is denser than con-
3
mantle emplaced on land (see Chapter 12). And third, tinental crust, averaging about 3.0 g/cm , and it trans-
peridotite occurs as inclusions in volcanic rock bodies mits P-waves at about 7 km/sec. Just as beneath the
such as kimberlite pipes that are known to have come continental crust, however, P-wave velocity increases at
from great depths. These inclusions are thought to be the Moho. The P-wave velocity of oceanic crust is what
pieces of the mantle (see Perspective 11-1). one would expect if it were composed of basalt. Direct
observations of oceanic crust from submersibles and
^ THE EARTH'S CRUST deep-sea drilling confirm that its upper part is indeed
composed of basalt. The lower part of the oceanic crust
The Earth's crust is the most accessible and best studied is composed of gabbro, the intrusive equivalent of basalt
of its concentric layers, but it is also the most complex (see Chapter 12 for a more detailed description of the
both chemically and physically. Whereas the core and oceanic crust).
mantle seem to vary mostly in a vertical dimension, the
crust shows considerable vertical and lateral variation.
(More lateral variation exists in the mantle than was once
^ THE EARTH'S INTERNAL HEAT
believed, however.) The crust along with that part of the During the nineteenth century, scientists realized that the
upper mantle above the low-velocity zone constitutes the Earth's temperature in deep mines increases with depth.
lithosphere of plate tectonic theory. Indeed, very deep mines must be air conditioned so that
Two types of crust are recognized — continental crust the miners can survive. More recently, the same trend has
and oceanic crust— both of which are less dense than the been observed in deep drill holes, but even in these we can
underlying mantle. Continental crust more com-is the measure temperatures directly down to a depth of only
plex, consisting of a wide variety of igneous, sedimen- a few kilometers. The temperature increase with depth,
tary, and metamorphic rocks. It is generally described as or geothermal gradient, near the surface is about
"granitic," meaning that its overall composition is sim- 25°C/km, although it varies from area to area. For ex-
ilar to that of granitic rocks. Specifically, its overall com- ample, in areas of active or recently active volcanism, the
position corresponds closely to that of granodiorite, an geothermal gradient is greater than in adjacent nonvol-
igneous rock having a chemical composition between canic areas, and temperature rises faster beneath spread-
granite and diorite (see Figure 5-13). ing ridges than elsewhere beneath the sea floor.
Continental crust varies in density depending on rock Unfortunately, the geothermal gradient is not useful for
type, but with the exception of metal-rich rocks, such as estimating temperatures deep in the Earth. If we were sim-
The Earth's Internal Heat 297

Perspective 11-1
KIMBERLITE PIPES-WINDOWS
TO THE MANTLE
Diamonds have been economically important
throughout history, yet prior to 1870, they had been
found only in river gravels, where they occur as the
result of weathering, transport, and deposition. In
1870, however, the source of diamonds in South
Africa was traced to cone-shaped igneous bodies
called kimberlite pipes found near the town of
Kimberly (Fig. 1). Kimberlite pipes are the source
A
rocks for most diamonds.
The greatest concentrations of kimberlite pipes are
in southern Africa and Siberia, but they occur in many
other areas as well. In North America they have been
found in the Canadian Arctic, Colorado, Wyoming,
Missouri, Montana, Michigan, and Virginia, and one
at Murfreesboro, Arkansas, was briefly worked for
diamonds. Diamonds discovered in glacial deposits in
some midwestern states indicate that kimberlite pipes
o
are present farther north. The precise source of these
sea J
diamonds has not been determined, although some °
kimberlite pipes have recently been identified in A o
northern Michigan.
Kimberlite pipes are composed of dark gray or blue
igneous rock called kimberlite, which contains olivine, a
potassium- and magnesium-rich mica, serpentines, and
and Some of these rocks contain inclusions
calcite silica.
of peridotite that are thought to represent pieces of the

l^^JMMBM
mantle brought to the surface during the explosive Tfr FIGURE 1 Generalized cross section of a kimberlite
volcanic eruptions that form kimberlite pipes.

pipe. Most kimberlite pipes measure less than 500 m in
diameter at the surface.
If peridotite inclusions are, in fact, pieces of the
mantle, they indicate that the magma in kimberlite
pipes originated at a depth of at least 30 km. Indeed, the magma. Diamond and graphite are different
the presence of diamonds and the structural form of crystallineforms of carbon (see Fig. 3-6), but diamond
the silica in the kimberlite can be used to establish forms only under high-pressure, high-temperature
both minimum and maximum depths for the origin of conditions. The presence of diamond and the absence
ply to extrapolate from the surface downward, the tem- be expected. Furthermore, fragments of mantle rock in
perature at 100 km would be so high that in spite of the kimberlite pipes (see Perspective 11-1), thought to have
great pressure, all known rocks would melt. Yet except come from depths of about 100 to 300 km, appear to
for pockets of magma, it appears that the mantle is solid have reached equilibrium at these depths and at a tem-
rather than liquid because it transmits S-waves. Accord- perature of about 1,200°C. At the core-mantle bound-
ingly, the geothermal gradient must decrease markedly. ary, the temperature is probably between 3,500° and
Current estimates of the temperature at the base of 5,000°C; the wide spread of values indicates the uncer-
the crust are 800° to 1,200°C. The latter figure seems to tainties of such estimates. If these figures are reasonably
be an upper limit: if it were any higher, melting would accurate, however, the geothermal gradient in the man-

Temperature (°C)
600 800 1,000 1,200 1 ,400 1 ,600
^- FIGURE 2 The forms of carbon

and silica in kimberlite pipes provide
information on the depth at which the
magma formed. The presence of
diamond and coesite in kimberlite
indicates that the magma probably
formed between 100 and 300 km as
shown by the intersection of the
calculated continental geotherm with
the graphite-diamond and
coesite-stishovite inversion curves.
of graphite in kimberlite indicate that such conditions found in kimberlite, on the other hand, is a form that
existed where the magma originated. indicates a maximum depth of about 300 km. Quartz
The calculated geothermal gradient and the is the form of silica found under low-pressure,
pressure increase with depth beneath the continents low-temperature conditions. Under great pressure,
are shown in Figure 2. Laboratory experiments have however, the crystal structure of quartz changes to its
established a diamond-graphite inversion curve high-pressure equivalent called coesite, and at even
showing the pressure-temperature conditions at which greater pressure it changes to stishovite.* Kimberlite
graphite is favored over diamond (Fig. 2). According pipes contain coesite but no stishovite, indicating that
to the data in Figure 2, the intersection of the the kimberlite magma must have come from a depth
diamond-graphite inversion curve with the geothermal of less than 300 km as indicated by the intersection of
gradient indicates that kimberlite magma came from a the coesite-stishovite inversion curve with the
minimum depth of about 100 km. geothermal gradient (Fig. 2).
Diamond can establish only a minimum depth for

kimberlite because it is stable at any pressure greater * Coesite and stishovite are also known from other high-pressure
than that occuring at a depth of 100 km. The silica environments such as meteorite impact sites.
tie is only about l°C/km. Recently, considerable temper- posed mostly of iron. Notice that the melting point
ature variation has been inferred within the mantle by a curve is above the temperature estimates until the outer
rather new technique called seismic tomography (see core is reached. Recall from earlier discussions that the
Perspective 11-2). S-wave shadow zone indicates that the outer core is liq-
Considering that the core is so remote and so many uid, whereas P-wave velocities indicate that the inner
uncertainties exist regarding its composition, only very core is solid. Therefore, the postulated melting curve
general estimates of its temperature can be made (Fig. remains within the field of temperature estimates until
11-14). The dashed line in Figure 11-14 is an admittedly the depth corresponding to the outer core— inner core
speculative melting point curve for Earth materials com- boundary is reached. According to these considerations,
The Earrh's Internal Heat 299

E 3,000
Mantle Outer core

— FIGURE 11-14 Temperature
estimates for the Earth's interior.
The range of estimates increases
with depth indicating greater
uncertainties. The dashed line is a
speculative melting curve for iron. Depth (km)
the maximum temperature at the center of the core is 11-15). Higher values are also recorded in areas of con-
6,500°C, very close to the estimated temperature for the tinental volcanism, such as in Yellowstone National
surface of the Sun! Park in Wyoming, Lassen National Park in California,
and near Mount St. Washington. Any area

Helens in
possessing higher than average heat flow values is a po-
Heat Flow tential area for the development of geothermal energy
Even though rocks are poor conductors of heat, detect- (see Chapter 17).
able amounts of heat from the Earth's interior escape at Most of the Earth's internal heat is generated by ra-
the surface by heat flow. The amount of heat lost from dioactive decay. Recall from Chapter 3 that isotopes of
within the Earth is small and can be detected only by some elements spontaneously decay to a more stable
sensitive instruments.Heavy, cylindrical probes are state and, in doing so, generate heat. One surprising
dropped into soft sea-floor sediments, and temperatures result of heat flow studies is that, discounting local vari-
are measured at various depths along the cylinder. On ations, the average values for the continents and sea
the continents, temperature measurements are made at floor are about the same. This is surprising because con-
various depths indrill holes and mines. tinental crust contains more radioactive elements than
As one would expect, heat flow is greater in areas of oceanic crust. Thus, one would expect the continents to
active or recently active volcanism. For example, greater have higher heat flow values. Geologists postulate that
heat flow occurs at spreading ridges, and lower than convection cells and mantle plumes of hot mantle rock
average values are recorded at subduction zones (Fig. beneath the oceanic crust account for the oceanic crust's

Perspective 11-2
SEISMIC TOMOGRAPHY
The model of the Earth's interior consisting of an
iron-rich core and a rocky mantle is probably accurate Seismometer
but is also rather imprecise. Recently, however,
geophysicists have developed a new technique called
seismic tomography that allows them to develop
three-dimensional models of the Earth's interior. In
seismic tomography numerous crossing seismic waves
are analyzed in much the same way radiologists
analyze CAT (computerized axial tomography) scans.
In CAT scans, X-rays penetrate the body, and a
two-dimensional image of the inside of a patient is
formed. Repeated CAT scans, each from a slightly
different angle, are computer analyzed and stacked to
produce a three-dimensional picture.
In a similar fashion geophysicists use seismic waves
to probe the interior of the Earth. From its time of
arrival and distance traveled, the velocity of a seismic
ray is computed at a seismic station. Only average
Earthquake
velocity is determined, however, rather than variations
tomography numerous wave
in velocity. In seismic
rays are analyzed so that "slow" and "fast" areas of "^ FIGURE 1 Numerous earthquake waves are analyzed
wave travel can be detected (Fig. 1). Recall that to detect areas within the Earth that transmit seismic waves
seismic wave velocity is controlled partly by elasticity; faster or slower than adjacent areas. Areas of fast wave
cold rocks have greater elasticity and therefore travel correspond to "cold" regions (blue), whereas "hot"
transmit seismic waves faster than hot rocks. regions (red) transmit seismic waves more slowly.
Using this technique, geophysicists have detected

areas within the mantle at a depth of about 150 km
where seismic velocities are slower than expected.
These anomalously hot regions lie beneath volcanic several kilometers into the mantle. Of course, the base
areas and beneath the mid-oceanic ridges, where of the mantle possesses the same features in reverse;
convection cells of rising hot mantle rock are thought geophysicists have termed these features
to exist. In contrast, beneath the older interior parts "anticontinents" and "antimountains." It appears tbat
of continents, where tectonic activity ceased hundreds the surface of the core is continually deformed by
of millions or billions of years ago, anomalously cold sinking and rising masses of mantle material.
spots are recognized. In effect, tomographic maps and As a result of seismic tomography, a much clearer
three-dimensional diagrams show heat variations picture of the Earth's interior is emerging. It has
within the Earth. already given us a better understanding of complex
Seismic tomography has also yielded additional and convection within the mantle, including upwelling
sometimes surprising information about the core. For convection currents thought to be responsible for the
example, the core-mantle boundary is not a smooth movement of the Earth's lithospheric plates (see
surface, but has broad depressions and rises extending Chapter 13).
The Earth's Internal Heat 301

Oceanic ridge (spreading ridge)
3-
CD p
X
— FIGURE 11-16 (a) The
gravitational attraction of the Earth
pulls all objects toward its center of
mass. Objects 1 and 2 are the same
distance from the Earth's center of
mass, but the gravitational
attraction on one is greater because
it ismore massive. Objects 2 and 3
have the same mass, but the
gravitational attraction on 3 is four
times less than on 2 because it is
twice as far from the Earth's center
of mass, (b) The Earth's rotation
generates a centrifugal force that
partly counteracts the force of
gravity. Centrifugal force is zero at
the poles and maximum at the
equator.
a mass deficiency exists over the unconsolidated sediment

because the force of gravity is less than the expected av-
^ THE PRINCIPLE OF ISOSTASY
erage (Fig. 11-18). Large negative gravity anomalies also More than 150 years ago, British surveyors in India
exist over salt domes (Fig. 11-19) and at subduction detected a discrepancy of 177 m when they compared
zones, indicating that the crust is not in equilibrium. the results of two measurements between points 600 km
— " FIGURE 11-17 The mass suspended "" FIGURE 11-18 A negative -»- FIGURE 11-19 Rock salt is
from a spring in the gravimeter,shown gravity anomaly over a buried lessdense than most other types of
diagrammatically, is pulled downward structure. rocks. A gravity survey over a salt
more over the dense body of ore than it dome shows a negative gravity
is in adjacent areas, indicating a positive anomaly.
gravity anomaly.
The Principle of Isostasy 303

"^ FIGURE 1-20 A plumb normally
N. ^^ Expected deflection
1 (a) line is
pointing to the Earth's center of gravity. Near a mountain

vertical,
\^ plumb
of line
range, one would expect the plumb line to be deflected as
shown if the mountains were simply thicker, low-density
Himalayas material resting on denser material, (b) The actual deflection
of the plumb line during the survey in India was less than
expected. It was explained by postulating that the
Himalayas have a low-density root.
suspended weight) of their surveying instruments from

the vertical, thus accounting for the error. Calculations
revealed, however, that if the Himalayas were simply
thicker crust piled on denser material, the error should
have been greater than that observed (Fig. 11-20).
In 1865, SirGeorge Airy proposed that in addition to
projecting high above sea level, the Himalayas— and
other mountains as well — also project far below the sur-
face and thus have a low-density root (Fig. 11-20). In
effect, he was saying that mountains float on denser
rock at depth. Their excess mass above sea level is com-
pensated for by a mass deficiency at depth, which would
account for the observed deflection of the plumb line
during the British survey (Fig. 11-20).
Gravity studies have revealed that mountains do in-
deed have a low-density "root" projecting deep into the
mantle. If it were not for this low-density root, a gravity
survey across a mountainous area would reveal a huge
The fact that no such anomaly
positive gravity anomaly.
exists indicates that amass excess is not present, so
apart. Even though this discrepancy was small, it was an some of the dense mantle at depth must be displaced by
unacceptably large error. The surveyors realized that the lighter crustal rocks as shown in Figure 11-21. (Seismic
gravitational attraction of the nearby Himalaya Moun- wave studies also confirm the existence of low-density
tains probably deflected the plumb line (a cord with a roots beneath mountains.)
^ FIGURE 11-21 (a) Gravity Positive

measurements along the line shown gravity
would indicate a positive gravity s~>^ anomaly
anomaly over the excess mass of the
mountains if the mountains were
simply thicker crust resting on
denser material below, (b) An actual
gravity survey across a mountain
region shows no departure from the
expected and thus no gravity
anomaly. Such data indicate that the
mass of the mountains above the
surface must be compensated for at
depth by low-density material
displacing denser material.
— FIGURE 11-22 An iceberg
sinks to an equilibrium position
with about 10% of its mass above
water level. The larger iceberg sinks
farther below and rises higher above
the water surface than does the
smaller one. If some of the ice
above water level should melt, the
icebergs will rise to maintain the
same proportion of ice above and
below water level. The Earth's crust
floating in more dense material
below is analogous to this example.
Airy's proposal is now called the principle of isostasy. ice. The crust also responds isostatically to widespread
According to this principle, the Earth's crust is in float- erosion and sediment deposition (Fig. 11-24).
ing equilibrium with the more dense mantle below. This Unloading of the Earth's crust causes it to respond by
phenomenon is easy to understand by an analogy to an upward until equilibrium is again attained. This
rising
iceberg (Fig. 11-22). Ice is slightly less dense than water, phenomenon, known as isostatic rebound, occurs in ar-
and thus it However, according to Archimedes'*
floats. eas that are deeply eroded and in areas that were for-
principle of buoyancy, an iceberg will sink in the water merly glaciated. Scandinavia, for example, which was
until it displaces a volume of water that equals its total covered by a vast ice sheet until about 10,000 years ago,
weight. When the iceberg has sunk to an equilibrium po- is still rebounding isostatically at a rate of up to 1 m per
sition, only about 10% of its volume is above water level. century (Fig. ll-25a). Coastal cities in Scandinavia have
If some of the ice above water level should melt, the ice- been uplifted sufficiently rapidly that docks constructed
berg will rise in order to maintain the same proportion of several centuries ago are now far from shore. Isostatic
ice above and below water (Fig. 11-22). rebound has also occurred in eastern Canada where the
The Earth's crust is similar to the iceberg, or a ship, land has risen as much as 100 m during the last 6,000
in that it sinks into the mantle to its equilibrium level. years (Fig. 11 -25 b).
Where the crust is thickest, as beneath mountain ranges, If the principle of isostasy is correct, it implies that
it sinks further down into the mantle but also rises the mantle behaves as a liquid. In preceding discussions,
higher above the equilibrium surface (Fig. 11-21). Con- however, we said that the mantle must be solid because
tinental crust being thickerand less dense than oceanic it transmits S-waves, which will not move through a
crust stands higher than the ocean basins. Should the liquid. How can this apparent paradox be resolved?
crust be loaded, as where widespread glaciers accumu- When considered in terms of the short time necessary
late, it responds by sinking further into the mantle to for S-waves to pass through it, the mantle is indeed
maintain equilibrium (Fig. 11-23). In Greenland and solid. However, when subjected to stress over long pe-
Antarctica, for example, the surface of the crust has riods of time, it will yield by flowage and thus at these
been depressed below sea level by the weight of glacial time scales can be considered a viscous liquid. A familiar
The Principle of Isostasy 305

Crust
Continental
crust
(d)
"^ FIGURE 11-23 A diagrammatic representation of the

response of the Earth's crust to the added weight of glacial
ice. (a) The crust and mantle before glaciation. (b) The
weight of glacial ice depresses the crust into the mantle.

(c) When the glacier melts, isostatic rebound begins, and the ~^ FIGURE 11-24 A diagrammatic representation
crust rises to its former position, (d) Isostatic rebound is showing the response of the crust to erosion
isostatic
complete. (unloading) and widespread deposition (loading).
substance that has the properties of a solid or a liquid magnetic shown in Figure 11-26 is dipolar, mean-
field
depending on how rapidly deforming forces are applied ing that it two unlike magnetic poles referred
possesses
is silly putty. It will flow under its own weight if given to as the north and south poles. The Earth possesses a
sufficient time, but shatters as a brittle solid if struck a dipolar magnetic field that resembles, on a large scale,
sharp blow. that of a bar magnet (Fig. 11-27).
What is the source of this magnetic field? A number

^ THE EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD of naturally occurring minerals are magnetic, with mag-
netite being the most common and most magnetic. It is
A simple bar magnet has a magnetic field, an area in very unlikely, however, that the Earth's magnetic field is
which magnetic substances are affected by lines of mag- generated by a body of buried magnetite because mag-
netic force radiating from the magnet (Fig. 11-26). The netic substances lose their magnetic properties when

Germany Poland
(a) lb)
""' FIGURE 11-25 (a) Isostatic rebound in Scandinavia. The lines show rates of uplift
in centimeters per century, (b) Isostatic rebound in eastern Canada in meters during the
last 6,000 years.
heated above a temperature called the Curie point. The Inclination and Declination
Curie point for magnetite is 580°C, which is far below
of the Magnetic Field
its melting temperature. At a depth of 80 to 100 km
within the Earth, the temperature is high enough that Notice in Figure 11-27 that the lines of magnetic force
magnetic substances lose their magnetism. The fact that around the Earth parallel the Earth's surface only near
the locations of the magnetic poles vary through time the equator. As the lines of force approach the poles,
also indicates that buried magnetite is not the source of they are oriented at increasingly large angles with re-
the Earth's magnetic field. spect to the surface, and the strength of the magnetic
Instead, the magnetic field is generated within the field increases; it is at the equator and strongest
weakest
Earth by electrical currents (an electrical current is a at the poles. Accordingly, a compass needle mounted so
flow of electrons that always generates a magnetic field). that it can rotate both horizontally and vertically not
These currents are generated by the different rotation only points north, but is also inclined with respect to the
speeds of the outer core and mantle. The electrically Earth's surface, except at the magnetic equator. The de-
conducting liquid outer core rotates more slowly than gree of inclination depends on the needle's location
the surrounding mantle, and this differential rotation along a line of magnetic force (Fig. 11-28).
around the Earth's axis generates the electrical currents This deviation o f the magnetic field from the hori-
that create the magnetic field. zontal is called magnetic inclination. To compensate for

"* FIGURE 11-26 Iron filings align themselves along the
lines of magnetic force radiating from a magnet.
this, compasses used in the Northern Hemisphere have a

small weight on the south end of the needle. This prop- "^ FIGURE 11-27 The magnetic field of the Earth has
erty of the Earth's magnetic field is important in deter- lines of force just like those of a bar magnet.
mining the ancient geographic positions of tectonic

plates (see Chapter 13).
Another important aspect of the magnetic field is that (rotational) poles. At present, an IIV2 angle exists be-
the magnetic poles, where the lines of force leave and tween the two (Fig. 11-29). Studies of the Earth's mag-
enter the Earth, do not coincide with the geographic netic field show that the locations of the magnetic poles
— FIGURE 11-28 Magnetic

inclination. The strength of the
magnetic field changes uniformly
from the magnetic equator to the
magnetic poles. This change in
strength causes a dip needle to
parallel the Earth's surface only at
the magnetic equator, whereas its
inclination with respect to the

surface increases to 90° at the
magnetic poles.

vary slightly over time, but they still correspond closely
on the average with the locations of the geographic Magnetic Geographic
north pole north pole
poles. A compass points to the north magnetic pole in
the Canadian Arctic islands, some 1,290 km away from
the geographic pole (true north); only along the line
shown in Figure 11-29 will a compass needle point to
both the magnetic and geographic north poles. From
any other location, an angle called magnemrdeclination
exis t s be t we e n tinesdrawn fromThe iuinpa ss pusi i iorr to
the magnetic pole~aTRLthe~geographic pole (Fig. 11-29).
Magnetic declination must be taken into account during
surveying and navigation because, for most places on
Earth, compass needles point east or west of true north.
Magnetic Anomalies
Variations in the strength of the Earth's magnetic field
occur on both regional and local scales. Such variations

from the normal are called magnetic anomalies. Re-
gional variations are probably related to the complexi-
ties of convection within the outer core where the mag- ""•"
FIGURE 11-29 Magnetic declination. A compass
netic field is generated. Local variations can be
needle points to the magnetic north pole rather than the
accounted for by lateral or vertical variations in rock geographic pole (true north). The angle formed by the lines
types within the crust. from the compass position to the two poles is the magnetic
An instrument called a magnetometer can detect declination.
slight variations in the strength of the magnetic field,
and deviations from the normal are characterized as

positive or negative. For example, a positive magnetic
anomaly exists in areas where the rocks contain more underlain by basalt lava flows, such as the Columbia
iron-bearing minerals than elsewhere. In the Great River basalts of the northwestern United States (Fig.
Lakes region of the United States and Canada, huge iron 4-25), possess positive magnetic anomalies, whereas an
ore deposits containing hematite and magnetite add adjacent area underlain by sedimentary rocks shows a
their magnetism to that of the Earth's magnetic field; the negative magnetic anomaly (Fig. 11-30).
result is a positive magnetic anomaly (Fig. 11-30). Pos- Geologists have used magnetometers for magnetic sur-
itive magnetic anomalies also exist where extensive ba- veys for decades because iron-bearing rocks can be easily
saltic volcanism has occurred because basalt contains detected by a positive magnetic anomaly even if they are
appreciable quantities of iron-bearing minerals. Areas deeply buried. In addition, magnetometers can defect a
Positive
magnetic
anomaly
Negative
magnetic
anomaly
Positive
magnetic
anomaly
"^ FIGURE 11-32 Magnetic reversals recorded in a

succession of lava flows areshown diagrammatically by red
arrows, whereas the record of normal polarity events is
shown by black arrows. The lava flows containing a record
"""'
FIGURE 11-31 A negative magnetic anomaly over a of such magnetic-polarity events can be radiometrically
salt dome. dated so that a magnetic time scale as in Figure 11-33 can
be constructed.
domes,
variety of buried geologic structures, such as salt located roughly at the north and south geographic
which show negative magnetic anomalies (Fig. 11-31); poles. However, as early as 1906, rocks were discov-
these can be detected by gravity surveys as well. ered that showed reversed magnetism. Paleomagnetic
studies initially conducted on continental lava flows
have clearly shown that the Earth's magnetic field has
Magnetic Reversals
completely reversed itself numerous times during the
When a magma cools through the Curie point, its iron- geologic past (Fig. 11-32). When these magneti c rever-
bearing minerals gain their magnetization and align sals occur, the Earth's magnetic polarity is reversed, so
themselves with the Earth's magnetic field, recording that the north~arrow on a compass would poinFsouth
both its direction and strength. As long as the rock is not rather than north.
subsequently heated above the Curie point, it will pre- Rocks that have a record of magnetism the same as the
serve that magnetism. However, if the rock is heated present magnetic field are describedas jiaving norm al po-
above the Curie point, the original magnetism is lost, larity ,_whe reas rocks with magnetism have
"th e_opposite
and when the rock subsequently cools, the iron-bearing reversed polarity. The ages ofthlTnormal aricTreversed
minerals will align with the current magnetic field. polarity events for the past several million years have been
The iron-bearing minerals of some sedimentary rocks determined by applying absolute dating techniques to con-
(especially those thatformed on the deep sea floor) are and have been used to construct a mag-
tinental lava flows
also oriented parallel to the Earth's magnetic field as the These same patterns
netic reversal time scale (Fig 11-33).
sediments are deposited. These rocks also preserve a of normal and reversed polarity were soon discovered in
record of the Earth's magnetic field at the time of their the oceanic crust (see Chapter 13).
formation. Such information preserved in lava flows and The cause of magnetic reversals is not completely
some sedimentary rocks can be used to determine the known, although they appear to be related to changes in
directions to the Earth's magnetic poles and the latitude the intensity of the Earth's magnetic field. Calculations
of the rock when it was formed. indicate that the magnetic field has weakened about 5%
Paleomagnetism is simply the remanent magnetism in during the last century. If this trend continues, there will
ancient rocks that records the direction and strength of be a period during the next few thousand years when the
the Earth's magnetic field at the time of their formation. magnetic field will be nonexistent and then will reverse.
Geologists refer to the Earth's present magnetic field as After the reversal occurs, the magnetic field will rebuild
normal, that is, with the north and south magnetic poles itself with opposite polarity.
310 Chapter 11 The Interior of the Earth

^ FIGURE 11-33 (a) Normal
(black) and reversed polarity events
for the last 66 million years.
(b) Rocks in northern Pakistan
correlated with the
magnetic-polarity time scale.
XXX = Volcanic ash
xxxxxxxx xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx«xxxxxxxx
I
(b)
1
60'

^ CHAPTER SUMMARY 12. The
by
Earth's magnetic field is
electrical currents in the outer core.

thought to be generated
1. The Earth is concentrically layered into an iron-rich 13. The Earth is surrounded by lines of magnetic force
core with a solid inner core and a liquid outer part, similar to those of a bar magnet. The lines of magnetic
a rocky mantle, and an oceanic crust and continental force are inclined with respect to the Earth's surface,
crust. except at the equator, thus accounting for the
2. Much of the information about the Earth's interior phenomenon of magnetic inclination.
has been derived from studies of P- and S-waves that 14. Although the magnetic poles are close to the
travel through the Earth. Laboratory experiments, geographic poles, they do not coincide exactly. For
comparisons with meteorites, and studies of most places on Earth, an angle called magnetic
inclusions in volcanic rocks provide additional drawn from a
declination exists between lines
information. compass location to the magnetic and geographic
3. The Earth's interior is subdivided into concentric north poles.
layers on the basis of changes in seismic wave 15. A magnetometer can detect departures from the
velocities at discontinuities. normal magnetic field, which can be either positive
4. Density and elasticity of Earth materials determine or negative.
the velocity of seismic waves. Seismic waves are 16. Although the cause of magnetic reversal is not fully
refracted when their direction of travel changes. understood, it is clear that the polarity of the
Wave reflection occurs at boundaries across which magnetic field has completely reversed itself many
the properties of rocks change. times during the past.
5. The behavior of P- and S-waves within the Earth and
the presence of P- and S-wave
geologists to estimate the density
shadow zones allow
and composition of ^ IMPORTANT TERMS
the Earth's interiorand to estimate the size and
asthenosphere magnetic field
depth of the core and mantle.
continental crust magnetic inclination
6. The Earth's inner core is thought to be composed of
core magnetic reversal
iron and nickel, whereas the outer core is probably
crust mantle
composed mostly of iron with 10 to 20% sulfur and
Curie point Mohorovicic
other substances in lesser quantities. Peridotite is the
discontinuity discontinuity (Moho)
most likely component of the mantle.
geothermal gradient normal polarity
7. The oceanic and continental and
crusts are basaltic
gravityanomaly (positive oceanic crust
granitic in composition, respectively. The boundary
and negative) paleomagnetism
between the crust and the mantle is the Mohorovicic
heat flow peridotite
discontinuity.
isostatic rebound principle of isostasy
8. The geothermal gradient of 25°C/km cannot
lithosphere P-wave shadow zone
continue to great depths, otherwise most of the
low-velocity zone reflection
Earth would be molten. The geothermal gradient for
magnetic anomaly refraction
the mantle and core is probably about l°C/km. The
(positive and negative) reversed polarity
temperature at the Earth's center is estimated to be
magnetic declination S-wave shadow zone
6,500°C.
9. Detectable amounts of heat escape at the Earth's
surface by heat flow. Most of the Earth's internal REVIEW QUESTIONS
heat generated by radioactive decay.
is
3
10. According to the principle of isostasy, the Earth's 1. The average density of the Earth is - g/cm .
crust is floating in equilibrium with the denser a 12.0; b 5.5; c 6.75; d. 1.0;
mantle below. Continental crust stands higher than e 2.5.

oceanic crust because it is thicker and less dense. 2. A line showing the direction of movement of a small
11. Positive and negative gravity anomalies can be part of a wave front is a:
detected where excesses and deficiencies of mass a seismic discontinuity; b. P-wave reflection;
occur, respectively. Gravity surveys are useful in c. wave ray; d particle beam; e. seismic
exploration for minerals and hydrocarbons. gradient.
312 Chapter 11 The Interior of the Earth

3. When seismic waves travel through materials having 14. Iron-bearing minerals in a magma gain their
different properties, their direction of travel changes. magnetism and align themselves with the magnetic
This phenomenon is wave: field when they cool through the:
a. elasticity; b. energy dissipation; a. negative magnetic anomaly; b. Curie
c. refraction; d. deflection; e. reflection. point; c. isostasy curve; d. magnetic-polarity
4. A major seismic discontinuity at a depth of 2,900 field; e. magnetic declination.
km is the: 15. Whatdetermines the velocity of P- and S-waves?
a. core-mantle boundary; b. oceanic 16. Explain how seismic waves are refracted and
crust-continental crust boundary; c. Moho; reflected.
d. inner core-outer core boundary; 17. What is the significance of the S-wave shadow zone?
e. lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary. 18. Why is the inner core thought to be composed of
5. The Earth's core is probably composed mostly of: iron and nickel whereas the outer core is probably
a. sulfur; b. silica; c. nickel; composed of iron and sulfur?
d. potassium; e. iron. 19. Several seismic discontinuities exist within the
6. Which of the following provides evidence for the mantle. What accounts for these discontinuities?
composition of the core? 20. Explain the reasoning used by Mohorovicic to
a. inclusions in volcanic rocks; b. diamonds; determine that a discontinuity, now called the Moho,
c. meteorites; d. peridotite; e. S-wave between the crust and the mantle.
exists
shadow zone. 21. How do oceanic and continental crust differ in
7. The seismic discontinuity at the base of the crust is the: composition and thickness?
a. magnetic anomaly; b. Moho; 22. What is the geothermal gradient? Why must it
c geothermal gradient; d. high-velocity decrease within the Earth?

zone; e. transition zone. 23. How do geologists account for the fact that heat
8. Continental crust has an overall composition flow about the same through oceanic crust and
is
corresponding closely to that of: continental crust even though

it should be greater
a. basalt; b. sandstone; c. granodiorite; through the latter?

d. iron-nickel alloy; e. gabbro. 24. Ifthe continental crust is deeply eroded in one area
9. Oceanic crust is: and loaded by widespread, thick sedimentary
a 20 to 90 km thick; b. thinnest at deposits in another, how will it respond isostatically
spreading ridges; c. granitic in composition; at each location?
d. less dense than continental crust; e. the 25. What is meant by positive and negative gravity
primary source of magma. anomalies? Give examples of where each type of

10 Most of the Earth's internal heat is generated by: anomaly might occur.
a. moving plates; b. volcanism; 26. Whatis the magnetic field, and how is it thought to
c. earthquakes; d. radioactive decay; be generated?

e. meteorite impacts. 27. Explain the phenomenon of magnetic inclination.
11 According to the principle of isostasy: 28. Illustrate how a vertical succession of ancient lava
a. more heat escapes from oceanic crust than flows preserves a record of magnetic reversals.
from continental crust; b. the Earth's crust is
floating in equilibrium with the more dense mantle
below; c. the Earth's crust behaves both as a ^ ADDITIONAL READINGS
liquid and a solid; d. much of the asthenosphere Anderson, D. L., and A. M. Dziewonski. 1984. Seismic
is molten; e. magnetic anomalies result when the tomography. Scientific American 251, no. 4: 60-68.
crust is loaded by glacial ice. Bolt, B. A. 1982. Inside the Earth: Evidence from earthquakes.
12. The magnetic field is probably generated by: San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Co.
a. the tilt of the Earth's rotational axis; Brown, G. C. 1981. The inaccessible Earth. London: George
b. the solar wind; c. electrical currents in the Allen &Unwin.
outer core; d. deformation of the asthenosphere; Fowler, C. M. R. 1990. The solid Earth. New York: Cambridge
e. a large deposit of magnetite at the North Pole. University Press.
13. Except at the magnetic equator, a compass needle in Heppenheimer, T. A. 1987. Journey to the center of the Earth.
Discover 8, no. 10: 86-93.
the Northern Hemisphere points to the magnetic
Jeanloz, R. 1983. The Earth's core. Scientific American 249, no.
north pole and downward from the horizontal. This
3: p. 56-65.
phenomenon is:
McKenzie, D. P. 1983. The Earth's mantle. Scientific American
a. magnetic declination; b. magnetic 249, no. 3: p. 66-78.
reflection; c. magnetic reversal; d. magnetic Monastersky, R. 1988. Inner space. Science News 136:
polarity; e. magnetic inclination. 266-268.

CHAPTER 12
THE SEA FLOOR
^ OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
CONTINENTAL MARGINS
The Continental Shelf
"^"Perspective 12-1: Lost Continents
The Continental Slope and Rise
Turbidity Currents, Submarine Canyons, and
Submarine Fans
TYPES OF CONTINENTAL MARGINS
THE DEEP-OCEAN BASIN
Abyssal Plains
Oceanic Trenches
Oceanic Ridges
Fractures in the Sea Floor
Seamounts, Guyots, and Aseismic Ridges
"*r Perspective 12-2: Maurice Ewing and His
Investigation of the Atlantic Ocean
DEEP-SEA SEDIMENTATION
REEFS
COMPOSITION OF THE OCEANIC
CRUST
RESOURCES FROM THE SEA
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Pillow lava on the floor of the Pacific Ocean

near the Galapagos Islands.
PROLOGUE were detected and sampled in the Red Sea. These
dense brines were concentrated in pools along the axis
of the sea; beneath them thick deposits of metal-rich
sediments were found. During the early 1970s,
|^gJ)lV~|| j n 1979^ researchers aboard the
researchers observed hydrothermal vents on the
submersible Alvin descended about
Mid-Atlantic Ridge about 2,900 km east of Miami,
2,500 m to the Galapagos Rift in the eastern Pacific
Florida, and in 1978 moundlike mineral deposits were
Ocean basin and observed hydrothermal vents on the
sampled from the East Pacific Rise just south of the
sea floor (Fig. 12-1). Such vents occur near spreading
Gulf of California.
ridges where seawater seeps down into the oceanic
crust through cracks and fissures, is heated by the hot
When the submersible Alvin descended to the
Galapagos Rift in 1979, mounds of metal-rich sediments
rocks, and then rises and is discharged onto the sea
were observed. Near these mounds the researchers saw
floor as hot springs. During the 1960s, hot metal-rich
what they called black smokers (chimneylike vents)
brines apparently derived from hydrothermal vents
discharging plumes of hot, black water (Fig. 12-1). Since
1979 similar vents have been observed at or near
spreading ridges in several other areas.
"^ FIGURE 12-1 The submersible Alvin sheds light on Submarine hydrothermal vents are interesting for
hydrothermal vents at the Galapagos Rift, a branch of the Near the vents live communities of
several reasons.
East Pacific Rise. Seawater seeps down through the oceanic organisms, including bacteria, crabs, mussels, starfish,
crust, becomes heated, and then rises and builds chimneys
and tubeworms, many of which had never been seen
on the sea floor. Communities of organisms, including
tubeworms, giant clams, crabs, and several types of fish, live before (Fig. 12-1). In most biological communities,
near the vents.
"**' FIGURE 12-2 Formation of a black smoker. The

plume of "black smoke" is simply heated water saturated
with dissolved minerals. Precipitation of anhydrite (CaS0 4 )

and sulfides of iron, copper, and zinc forms the chimney.
photosynthesizing organisms form the base of the 1979 was inactive six months later. When their
food chain and provide nutrients for the herbivores activity ceases, the vents eventually collapse and are
and carnivores. In vent communities, however, no incorporated into a moundlike mineral deposit.
sunlight is available for photosynthesis, and the base The economic potential of hydrothermal vent
of the food chain consists of bacteria that practice deposits is tremendous. The deposits in the Atlantis II
chemosynthesis; they oxidize sulfur compounds from Deep of the Red Sea contain an estimated 100 million
the hot vent waters, thus providing their own tons of metals, including iron, copper, zinc, and
silver,
nutrients and the nutrients for other members of the gold. These deposits are fully as large as the major
food chain. sulfide deposits mined on land. Many of these sulfide
Another interesting aspect of these submarine deposits now on land, such as the Troodos Massif on
hydrothermal vents is their economic potential. When Cyprus, are believed to have formed on the sea floor
seawater circulates downward through the oceanic by hydrothermal vent activity.
crust, it is heated to as much as 400°C. The hot water Hydrothermal vent sulfide deposits have formed
then reacts with the crust and is transformed into a throughout geologic time. None are currently being
metal-bearing solution. As the hot solution rises and mined, but the technology to exploit them exists. In fact,
discharges onto the sea floor, it cools, precipitating the Saudi Arabian and Sudanese governments have
iron, copper, and zinc sulfides and other minerals that determined that it is feasible to recover such deposits
accumulate to form a chimneylike vent (Fig. 12-2). from the Red Sea and are making plans to do so.
These vents are ephemeral, however; one observed in
^ INTRODUCTION curately, Western Europeans were not aware of the vast-

ness of the oceans until the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
Although the oceans are distinct enough to be desig-
turies when various explorers sought new trade routes
nated by separate names such as Pacific, Atlantic, and
Indian, a single interconnected body of salt water covers
to the Indies. When Christopher Columbus set sail on
August 3, an attempt to find a route to the
1492, in
more than 70% of the Earth's surface. During its very
Indies, he greatly underestimated the width of the At-
earliest history, the Earth was probably hot, airless, and
lantic Ocean. Contrary to popular belief, Columbus was
lacking in surface water. Volcanic activity, however, was
not attempting to demonstrate that the Earth is a
more common than it is at present because the Earth
possessed more heat, and this activity is believed to have
sphere — the Earth's spherical shape was well accepted by
then. The controversy was over the Earth's circumference
been responsible for the formation of the atmosphere
and what was the shortest route to China. During these
and surface water. As we noted in previous chapters,
and subsequent voyages, Europeans sailed to the Amer-
volcanoes emit a variety of gases, the most abundant of
icas, the Pacific Ocean, Australia, New Zealand, the Ha-
which is water vapor. The atmosphere and surface wa-
waiian Islands, and many other islands previously un-
ters are thought to have derived within the Earth and
known to them.
been emitted at the surface by volcanoes in a process
Such voyages of discovery added considerably to our
called outgassing* (Fig. 12-3). As the Earth cooled, wa-
knowledge of the oceans, but truly scientific investiga-
ter vapor began condensing and fell as rain, which ac-
tions did not begin until the late 1700s. Great Britain was
cumulated to form the surface waters. Geologic evi-
the dominant maritime power, and in order to maintain
dence clearly indicates that an extensive ocean was
that dominance, the British sought to increase their
present more than 3.5 billion years ago.
knowledge of the oceans. The earliest British scientific
During most of historic time, people knew little of the
voyages were led by Captain James Cook in 1768, 1772,
oceans and, until fairly recently, believed that the sea
and 1777. In 1872, the converted British warship H.M.S.
floor was flat and featureless. Although the ancient
Challenger began a four-year voyage, during which sea-
Greeks had determined the size of the Earth rather ac-
water was sampled and analyzed, oceanic depths were
determined at nearly 500 locations, rock and sediment
*The alternate hypothesis— that much of the Earth's surface water samples were recovered from the sea floor, and more than
was derived from comets — is not yet widely accepted. 4,000 new marine species were classified.
316 Chapter 12 The Sea Floor

Escapes
Hydrogen
Water h
Nitrogen
N,
Carbon To atmosphere
dioxide
Erosional debris
— FIGURE 12-4 The Glomar Challenger is a 10,500-ton,

122-m long oceanographic research vessel.
a larger, more advanced research vessel, the JOIDES*

Resolution, made its first voyage in 1985.
In addition to surface vessels, submersibles, both re-
motely controlled and manned by scientists, have been
" r FIGURE Gases derived from within the Earth by
12-3
added to the research arsenal of oceanographers. In
outgassing formed the early atmosphere and surface waters.
1985, for example, the Argo, towed by a surface vessel
and equipped with sonar and television systems, pro-
vided the first views of the British ocean liner R.M.S.
Titanic since it sank in 1912. The U.S. Geological Sur-
Continuing exploration of the oceans revealed that
vey is using a towed device to map the sea floor (Fig.
the sea floor is not flat and featureless as formerly be-
12-5). The system uses sonar to produce images resem-
lieved. Indeed, scientists discovered that the sea floor
bling aerial photographs. Researchers aboard the sub-
possesses varied topography including oceanic trenches,
mersible Alvin have observed submarine hydrothermal
submarine ridges, broad plateaus, hills, and vast plains.
vents (see the Prologue) and have explored parts of the
Some people have suggested that some of these features
oceanic ridge system.
are remnants of the mythical lost continent of Atlantis
The measurements of the oceanic depths were
first
made by lowering a weighted line to the sea floor and
measuring the length of the line. Now, however, an in-
^ OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH strument called an echo sounder is used. Sound waves

from a ship are reflected from the sea floor and detected
The Deep Sea Drilling Project, an international program by instruments on the ship, thus yielding a continuous
sponsored by several oceanographic institutions and profile of the sea floor. Depth is determined by knowing
funded by the National Science Foundation, began in the velocity of sound waves in water and the time it
1968. Its first research vessel, the Glomar Challenger, takes for the waves to reach the sea floor and return to
was capable of drilling in water more than 6,000 m deep the ship.
(Fig. 12-4). It was equipped to drill into and recover Seismic profiling is similar to echo sounding but even
long cores of sea-floor sediment and the oceanic crust. more useful. Strong waves are generated at an energy
During the next 15 years, the Glomar Challenger drilled source, the waves penetrate the layers beneath the sea
more than 1,000 holes in the sea floor. floor, and some of the energy is reflected from various
The Deep Sea Drilling Project came to an end in 1983
when the Glomar Challenger was retired. However, an
international project, the Ocean Drilling Program, con- *JOIDES is an acronym for Joint Oceanographic Institutions for
tinued where the Deep Sea Drilling Project left off, and Deep Earth Sampling.
Oceanographic Research 317

"^ FIGURE 12-6 Diagram showing how seismic profiling
isused to detect buried layers at sea. Some of the energy
generated at the energy source is reflected from various
horizons back to the surface where it is detected by
hydrophones.
"^ FIGURE 12-5 The sonar system used by the U.S.

Geological Survey for sea-floor mapping.
acquired since World War II. This statement is particu-
larly true with respect to the sea floor, because only in
recent decades has instrumentation been available to
geologic horizons back to the surface (Fig. 12-6). Recall study this largely hidden domain. The data collected are
from Chapter 11 that seismic waves are reflected from not only important in their own right but also have
boundaries where the properties of Earth materials provided much of the evidence that supports plate tec-
change. Seismic profiling has been particularly useful in tonic theory (see Chapter 13).
mapping the structure of the oceanic crust beneath sea-
floor sediments.
Oceanographers also use gravity surveys to detect
^ CONTINENTAL MARGINS
gravity anomalies. For example, saltdomes beneath the All continents are bounded by continental margins,
continental margins are recognized by negative gravity zones separating the part of a continent above sea level
anomalies, and oceanic trenches also exhibit negative from the deep-sea floor. The continental margin consists
gravity anomalies. Magnetic surveys have also provided of a gently sloping continental shelf, a more steeply in-
important information regarding the sea floor (see clined continental slope, and, in some cases, a deeper,
Chapter 13). gently sloping continental rise (Fig. 12-7). Seaward of
Although scientific investigations of the oceans have the continental margin is the deep-ocean basin. Thus,
been yielding important information for more than two the continental margin extends to increasingly greater
hundred years, much of our current knowledge has been depths until it merges with the deep-sea floor.
-^ FIGURE 12-7 A generalized Continental margin Continental margin

profile of the sea floor showing
* '» _ Continental shelf
\
features of the continental margins. Continental shelf
The vertical dimensions of the Sea level
features in this profile are greatly /
exaggerated because the vertical and Oceanic ridge
horizontal scales differ.
Oceanic trench
Continental slope
Continental slope
i i i i i I I I i i i i i I i I i I I i i i i I I i i I I f'ni^^r^^^^^rT
500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000
Distance (km)

-^ FIGURE 12-8 The transition
from continental to oceanic crust,
and hence the geological margin of
a continent, occurs beneath the
continental slope.
Most people perceive continents as land areas out- eral hundred kilometers across in some places, whereas
linedby sea level. However, the true geologic margin of along the west coast it is only a few kilometers wide.
a continent— that is, where continental crust changes to Deep, steep-sided submarine canyons are most char-
oceanic crust— is below sea level, generally somewhere acteristic of the continental slope, but some of them
beneath the continental slope (Fig. 12-8). Accordingly, extend well up onto the continental shelf. Some of these
marginal parts of continents are submerged. canyons lie offshore from the mouths of large streams.
At times during the Pleistocene Epoch (1,600,000 to
10,000 years ago), sea level was more than 100 m lower
The Continental Shelf than at present, so much of the continental shelves were
Between the shoreline and continental slope of all con- above sea level. Streams flowed across these exposed
tinents lies the continental shelf, an area where the sea shelves and eroded deep canyons that were subsequently
floor slopes very gently in a seaward direction. Its slope flooded when sea level rose. However, most submarine
is much less than 1° (Fig. 12-7); it averages about 2 m/km, canyons extend to depths far greater than can be ex-
or 0.1°. The outer edge of the continental shelf is gen- plained by stream erosion during periods of lower sea
erally taken to correspond to the point at which the in- level. Furthermore, many submarine canyons are not
clination of the sea floor increases rather abruptly to sev- associated with streams on land. They are discussed
eral degrees; this shelf-slope break occurs at an average more fully in the following section.
depth of about 135 m (Fig. 12-7). Continental shelves As a consequence of lower sea level during the Pleis-
vary considerably in width, ranging from a few tens of tocene Epoch, much of the sediment on continental
meters to more than 1,000 km. For example, the shelf shelves accumulated in stream channels and floodplains
along the east coast of North America is as much as sev- (Fig. 12-9). In fact, in areas such as northern Europe and
-^ FIGURE 12-9 At times of

lower sea level during the
Pleistocene Epoch, large parts of the
continental shelves were exposed.
Accordingly, much of the sediment
deposited during these times
accumulated in various continental
environments such as stream
channels and lakes.

Perspective 12-1
LOST CONTINENTS
Most people have heard of the mythical lost continent True Continent
of Atlantis, but few are aware of the source of the
Atlantis legend or the evidence that is cited for the
former existence of this continent. Only two known
sources of the Atlantis legend exist, both written in
about 350 B.C. by the Greek philosopher Plato. In two
of his philosophical dialogues, the Timaeus and the
Critias, Plato tells of Atlantis, a large island continent
that, according to him, was located in the Atlantic
Ocean west of the Pillars of Hercules, which we now

call the Strait of Gibraltar (Fig. 1). Plato also wrote
that following the conquest of Atlantis by Athens, the
continent disappeared:
. . . there were violent earthquakes and floods and one

True Continent
terrible day and night came when . . . Atlantis . . .
disappeared beneath the sea. And for this reason even "^ FIGURE 1 According to Plato, Atlantis was a large
now the sea there has become unnavigable and continent west of the Pillars of Hercules, which we now call
unsearchable, blocked as it is by the mud shallows the Strait of Gibraltar.

which the island produced as it sank.*
If one assumes that the destruction of Atlantis was of the sunken continent can be found. No "mud
a real event, rather than one conjured up by Plato to shallows" exist in the Atlantic as Plato claimed, but
make a philosophical point, he nevertheless lived long the Azores, Bermuda, the Bahamas, and the
after it was supposed According to
to have occurred. Mid-Atlantic Ridge are alleged to be remnants of
Plato, Solon, an Athenian who lived about 200 years Atlantis. If a continent had actually sunk in the
before Plato, heard the story from Egyptian priests Atlantic, however, it could be easily detected by a
who claimed the event had occurred 9,000 years gravity survey. Recall that continental crust has a
before their time. Solon told the story to his grandson, granitic composition and a lower density than oceanic
Critias, who in turn told it to Plato. crust. Thus, if were actually present
a continent
Present-day proponents of the Atlantis legend beneath the Atlantic Ocean, there would be a huge
generally cite two types of evidence to support their negative gravity anomaly, but no such anomaly has
claim that Atlantis did indeed exist. First, they point to been detected. Furthermore, the crust beneath the
supposed cultural similarities on opposite sides of the Atlantic has been drilled in many places, and all the
Atlantic Ocean basin, such as the similarity in shape of samples recovered indicate that its composition is the
the pyramids of Egypt and those of Central and South same as that of oceanic crust elsewhere.
America. They contend that these similarities are due to In short, there is no geological evidence for Atlantis.
cultural diffusion from the highly developed civilization some
Nevertheless, archaeologists think that the legend
of Atlantis. According to archaeologists, however, few may be based on a real event. About 1390 B.C., a huge
similarities actually exist, and those that do can be volcanic eruption destroyed the island of Thera in the
explained as the independent development of analogous Mediterranean Sea, which was an important center of
features by different cultures. early Greek civilization. The eruption was one of the
Secondly, supporters of the legend assert that remnants most violent during historic time, and much of the
island disappeared when it subsided to form a caldera
*From the Timaeus. Quoted in E. W. Ramage, ed., Atlantis: Fact or (Fig. 2). Most of the island's inhabitants escaped (Fig. 3),
Fiction? (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1978), p. 13. but the eruption probably contributed to the demise of

km
p^j Pre-collapse island I Collapsed material
y
— .] Possible pre-collapse
shape ol island
?* FIGURE 2 The island of Thera was destroyed by a

huge eruption about 1390 b.c. Ash was carried more than
950 km to the southeast, and tsunami probably devastated
nearby coastal areas. The inset shows the possible profile of
the island before the eruption and its shape immediately
after the caldera formed.
the Minoanculture on Crete. At least 10 cm of ash

fellon parts of Crete, and the coastal areas of the
island were probably devastated by tsunami. It is
possible that Plato used an account of the destruction
of Thera, but fictionalized it for his own purposes,
thereby giving rise to the Atlantis legend.
"*»" FIGURE 3 (right) An artist's rendition of the volcanic

eruption on Thera in about 1390 b.c. that destroyed most of
the island. Most of the island's inhabitants escaped the
devastation.

Shelf-slope
break
Submarine
fan
"^r_
FIGURE 12-11 Submarine fans formed by the
deposition of sediments carried down submarine canyons by
turbidity currents. Much of the continental rise is composed
of overlapping submarine fans.
monly descend directly into an oceanic trench, and a

continental rise is absent (Fig. 12-7).
The shelf-slope break is a very important feature in

terms of sedimentation. Landward from the break, the
"^ FIGURE 12-10 {a) Turbidity currents flow downslope shelf is by waves and tidal currents. Seaward of
affected
along the sea floor (or lake bottom) because of their density. the break, the bottom sediments are completely unaf-
(b) Graded bedding formed by deposition from a turbidity fected by surface processes, and their transport onto the
current. slope and rise is controlled by gravity. The continental
slope and rise system is the area where most of the sed-
iment derived from continents is eventually deposited.
parts of North America, glaciers extended onto the ex- Much of this sediment is transported by turbidity cur-
posed shelves and deposited gravel, sand, and mud. rents through submarine canyons.
Since the Pleistocene Epoch, sea level has risen submerg-
ing the shelf sediments, which are now being reworked
Turbidity Currents, Submarine
by marine processes. That these sediments were, in fact,
Canyons, and Submarine Fans
deposited on land is indicated by evidence ofhuman
settlements and fossils of mammoths and mastodons Turbidity currents are sediment-water mixtures denser
(extinct members of the elephant family) and other land- than normal seawater that flow downslope to the deep-
dwelling animals. sea floor (Fig. 12-10). An individual turbidity current
flows onto the relatively flat sea floor where it slows and
begins depositing sediment; the coarsest particles are
The Continental Slope and Rise
deposited first, followed by progressively smaller parti-
The seaward margin of the continental shelf marked
is cles, thus forming graded bedding (Fig. 12-10). These
by the shelf-slope break (at an average depth of 135 m) deposits accumulate as a series of overlapping subma-
where the relatively steep continental slope begins (Fig. rine fans, which constitute a large part of the continental
12-7). Continental slopes average about 4°, but range rise (Fig. 12-11). At their seaward margins, these fans
from 1° to 25°. In many places, especially around the grade into the deposits of the deep-ocean basins.
margins of the Atlantic, the continental slope merges No one has ever observed a turbidity current in
with the more gently sloping continental rise. In other progress, so for many years there was considerable de-
places, such as around the Pacific Ocean, slopes com- bate about their existence. In 1971, however, abnor-

mally turbid water was sampled just above the sea floor perhaps play some role in their origin. Furthermore, tur-
in the North Atlantic, indicating that a turbidity current bidity currents periodically move through these canyons
had occurred recently. Furthermore, sea-floor samples and are now thought to be the primary agent responsi-
from many areas show a succession of graded beds and ble for their erosion.
the remains of shallow-water organisms that were ap-
parently displaced into deeper water.
Perhaps the most compelling evidence for the exist- » TYPES OF
ence of turbidity currents the pattern of trans-Atlantic
cable breaks that occurred south of
is
Newfoundland on
CONTINENTAL MARGINS
November 18, 1929 (Fig. it was as-
12-12). Initially, Two types of continental margins are generally recog-
sumed that an earthquake that occurred on that date nized, passive and active. An active continental margin
had ruptured several trans-Atlantic telephone and tele- develops at the leading edge of a continental plate where
graph cables. However, while the breaks on the conti- oceanic lithosphere is subducted (Fig. 12-13a). The west
nental shelf near the epicenter occurred when the earth- coast of South America is a good example. Here, the
quake struck, cables farther seaward were broken later continental margin is characterized by seismicity, a geo-
and in succession. The last cable to break was 720 km logically young mountain range, and andesitic volca-
from the source of the earthquake, and it did not snap nism. Additionally, the continental shelf is narrow, and
until 13 hours after the first break occurred (Fig. 12-12). the continental slope descends directly into the Peru-
In 1949, geologists realized that the earthquake had Chile Trench.
generated a turbidity current that moved downslope, The configuration and geologic activity of the conti-
breaking the cables The
in succession. precise time at nental margins of eastern North and South America dif-
which each cable broke was known, so it was a simple fer considerably from their western margins. In the east,
matter to calculate the velocity of the turbidity current. the continental margins developed as a consequence of
It apparently moved at about 80 km/hr on the continen- The continen-
the rifting of the supercontinent Pangaea.
tal slope, but slowed to about 27 km/hr when it reached tal was stretched, thinned, and fractured as rifting
crust
the continental rise. proceeded. As plate separation occurred, the newly
As mentioned previously, submarine canyons occur formed continental margins became the sites of deposi-
on the continental shelves, but they are best developed tion of land-derived sediments. These passive continen-
on continental slopes (Fig. 12-11). Some submarine can- tal margins are on the trailing edge of a continental plate
yons can be traced across the shelf to associated streams (Fig. 12-13b). They possess broad continental shelves
on land. However, many have no such association, and and a continental slope and rise; vast, flat abyssal plains
their origin is notfully understood. It is known that are commonly present adjacent to the rises (Fig. 12-
strong currents move through submarine canyons and 13b). Furthermore, passive continental margins lack the
Northwest Southeast
100
• Breaks due to shock, slumps

• Breaks due to turbidity current
Breaks due to turbidity current
00:59"
Time intervals between
5,000 -
quake and cable breaks 03:03
'
Continent
Continental shelf
Continental
slope
Oceanic trench
Upper
mantle
(a)
Continent
Continental shelf
Abyssal plain
(b)
"•' FIGURE 12-13 Diagrammatic views of (a) an active continental margin and (b) a
passive continental margin.

^ Oceanic ridge system Rift valley
| Abyssal plain Oceanic trench
"^ FIGURE 12-14 The distribution of oceanic trenches, abyssal plains, and the
oceanic ridge system.
intense seismic and volcanic activity characteristic of ac- life exists,the temperature is generally just above 0°C,
tive continental margins. and the pressure varies from 200 to more than 1,000
Active and passive continental margins share some atmospheres depending on depth. Submersibles have car-
features, but in other respects they differ markedly (Fig. ried scientists to the greatest oceanic depths, so some of
12-13). Active continental margins obviously lack a the sea floor has been observed directly. Nevertheless,
continental rise because the slope descends directly into much of the deep-ocean basin has been studied only by
an oceanic trench. Just as on passive continental mar- echo sounding, seismic profiling, and remote devices that
gins, sediment is transported down the slope by turbid- have descended in excess of 11,000 m. Although ocean-
ity currents, but it simply fills the trench rather than ographers know considerably more about the deep-
forming a rise. The proximity of the trench to the con- ocean basins than they did even a few years ago, many
tinent also explains why the continental shelf is so nar- questions remain unanswered.
row. In contrast, the continental shelf of a passive con-
tinental margin is much wider because land-derived
Abyssal Plains
sedimentary deposits build outward into the ocean.
Beyond the continental rises of passive continental mar-
^ THE DEEP-OCEAN BASIN gins are abyssal plains,

of the sea floor. In some
flat surfaces covering vast areas
areas they are interrupted by
Considering that the oceans are an average 3,865 m deep, peaks rising more than km, but in general they are the
1
most of the sea floor lies far below the depth of sunlight flattest, most featureless areas on Earth (Fig. 12-14).
penetration, which is rarely more than 100 m. Accord- The flat topography is a consequence of sediment dep-
ingly, most of the sea floor is completely dark, no plant osition on the rugged topography of the oceanic crust.
The Deep-Ocean Basin 325

60 Miles
"***
FIGURE 12-15 Seismic profile showing the burial of rugged sea-floor topography
by sediments of the Northern Madeira Abyssal Plain.
Where sediment accumulates in sufficient quantities, the they are common around the margins of the Pacific
rugged sea floor is buried beneath thick layers of sedi- Ocean basin (Fig. 12-14). On the landward side of oce-
ment (Fig. 12-15). anic trenches, the continental slope descends at angles of
Seismic profiles and sea-floor samples reveal that the up to 25° (Fig. 12-13). Oceanic trenches are also the
abyssal plains are covered with fine-grained sediment sites of the greatest oceanic depths; a depth of more than
derived mostly from the continents and deposited by 11,000 m has been recorded in the Challenger Deep of
turbidity currents. Some of this sediment is character- theMarianas Trench.
ized as pelagic, meaning that it was deposited far from Oceanic trenches show anomalously low heat flow
the land by the settling of fine particles suspended in compared to the rest of the oceanic crust; thus, it ap-
seawater. Abyssal plains are invariably found adjacent pears that the crust here is cooler and slightly denser
to the continental rises, which are composed mostly of than elsewhere. Furthermore, gravity surveys reveal that
overlapping submarine fans that owe their origin to dep- trenches show a huge negative gravity anomaly, indicat-
osition by turbidity currents (Fig. 12-11).Along active ing that the crust is held down and is not in isostatic
continental margins, sediments derived from the shelf equilibrium. Seismic activity also occurs at or near
and slope are trapped in an oceanic trench, and abyssal trenches. In fact, trenches are characterized by Benioff
plains fail to develop. Accordingly, abyssal plains are zones in which earthquake foci become progressively
common in the Atlantic Ocean basin, but rare in the deeper in a landward direction (Fig. 10-8). Most of the
Pacific Ocean basin (Fig. 12-14). Earth's intermediate and deep earthquakes occur in such
zones. Finally, oceanic trenches are associated with vol-
canoes, either as an arcuate chain of volcanic islands
Oceanic Trenches
(island arc) or as a chain of volcanoes on land (volcanic
Although oceanic trenches constitute a small percentage arc) adjacent to a trench along the margin of a continent
of the sea floor, they are very important, for it is here as in western South America (Fig. 12-13).
that lithospheric plates are consumed by subduction (see
Chapter 13). Oceanic trenches are long, narrow fea-
Oceanic Ridges
tures* restricted to active continental margins; thus,
A feature called the Telegraph Plateau was discovered in
"The Peru-Chile Trench west of South America is 5,900 km long, the Atlantic Ocean basin during the late nineteenth cen-
but only 100 km wide. It is more than 8,000 m deep. tury when the first submarine cable was laid between

North America and Europe. Following the 1925-1927 Fractures in the Sea Floor
voyage of the German research vessel Meteor, scientists
Oceanic ridges are not continuous features winding
proposed that this plateau was actually a continuous
without interruption around the globe. They abruptly
feature extending the length of the Atlantic Ocean basin
terminate where they are offset along major fractures
(see Perspective 12-2). Subsequent investigations re-
oriented more or less at right angles to ridge axes (Fig.
vealed that this proposal was correct, and we now call
12-17). Such large-scale fractures run for hundreds of
this feature the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Fig. 12-14).
kilometers, although they are difficult to trace where
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is more than 2,000 km wide
about 2.5 km above the sea floor adjacent to they are buried beneath sea-floor sediments. Many ge-
and rises it.
ologists are convinced that some geologic features on
It is, in fact, part of a much submarine
larger system of
the continents can best be accounted for by the exten-
mountainous topography 65,000 km long. The
at least
sion of such fractures into continents.
oceanic ridge system runs from the Arctic Ocean
Where these fractures offset oceanic ridges, they are
through the middle of the Atlantic, curves around South
characterized by shallow seismic activity only in the area
Africa, and passes into the Indian Ocean, continuing
between the displaced ridge segments (Fig. 12-17). Fur-
from there into the Pacific Ocean basin (Fig. 12-14).
thermore, because ridges are higher than the sea floor
This oceanic ridge system's length surpasses that of the
adjacent to them, the offset segments yield vertical relief
largest mountain range on land. However, the latter
on the sea floor. For example, nearly vertical escarp-
ranges are typically composed of granitic and metamor-
ments 3 or 4 km high develop, as illustrated in Figure
phic rocks and sedimentary rocks that have been folded
12-17. We will have more to say about such fractures,
and fractured by compressional forces. The oceanic
called transform faults, in Chapter 13.
ridges, on the other hand, are composed of volcanic
rocks (mostly basalt) and have features produced by ten-
sional forces.
Seamounts, Guyots, and Aseismic Ridges
Running along the crests of some ridges is a rift that
appears to have opened up in response to tensional As noted previously, the sea floor is not a flat, featureless
forces (Fig. 12-16), although portions of the East Pacific plain, except for the abyssal plains, and even these are
Rise lack such a feature. These rifts are commonly one to underlain by rugged topography (Fig. 12-15). In fact, a
two kilometers deep and several kilometers wide. Such large number of volcanic hills, seamounts, and guyots
rifts open as sea-floor spreading occurs (discussed in riseabove the sea floor. Such features are present in all
Chapter 13); ridges are characterized by shallow-focus ocean basins, but are particularly abundant in the Pacific.
earthquakes, basaltic volcanism, and high heat flow. All are of volcanic origin and differ from one another
Direct observation of the ridges and their rift valleys mostly in size. Seamounts rise more than one kilometer
began in 1974. As a part of Project FAMOUS (French- above the sea floor; if they are flat topped, they are called
American Mid-Ocean Undersea Study), submersible guyots rather than seamounts (Fig. 12-18). Guyots are
craft descended into the rift of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, volcanoes that originally extended above sea level. How-
and more recent dives have investigated other rifts. Al- upon which they were situated contin-
ever, as the plate
though no active volcanism was observed, the research- ued to grow, they were carried away from a spreading
ers did see pillow lavas (Fig. 4-14), lava tubes, and sheet ridge, and the oceanic crust cooled and descended to
lava flows, some of which appear to have formed very greater oceanic depths. Thus, what was once an island
recently. In addition, hydrothermal vents such as black slowly sank beneath the sea, where it was eroded by
smokers have been observed (see the Prologue). waves, giving it the typical flat-topped appearance.
"** FIGURE 12-16 Profile across the North Atlantic Ocean showing the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge with its well-developed central rift.
Continental
Shelf Slope Rise
Bermuda Is. Mid-Atlantic Ridge
1 1 itmm+Mmm UMte
1,000 1.500

"^ FIGURE 12-17 Fractures in the sea floor of the Atlantic Ocean basin. The dark
line indicates the crest of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The inset is a diagrammatic view of a
fracture offsetting a ridge. Earthquakes occur only in the segments between offset ridge
crests.
Other volcanic features are also known to exist on They are common on the sea floor and underlie thick
the sea floor;most of these are much smaller than sea- sediments on the abyssal plains.
mounts, but probably originated in the same way. These Other common features in the ocean basins are long,
so-called abyssal hills average only about 250 m high. linear ridges and broad plateaulike features rising as

— FIGURE 12-18 Submarine
volcanoes may up above sea
build
level to form seamounts. As the
plate upon which these volcanoes
rest moves away from a spreading
ridge, the volcanoes sink beneath
sea level and become guyots.
much as 2 to 3 km above the surrounding sea floor. represented by such features as the Jan Mayen Ridge in
They are known as aseismic ridges because they lack the North Atlantic (Fig. 12-19).
seismic activity. A few of these ridges are thought to be Most aseismic ridges form as a linear succession of
small fragments separated from continents during rift- hot spot volcanoes. These may develop at or near an
ing. Such fragments, referred to as microcontinents, are oceanic ridge, but each volcano so formed is carried
"^ FIGURE 12-19 Map showing the locations of some of the aseismic ridges.
^75
|
Aseismic ridge Oceanic ridge system Oceanic trench

Perspective 12-2
MAURICE EWING AND HIS

INVESTIGATION OF THE
ATLANTIC OCEAN
In 1935, when Maurice Ewing began his studies of the covered by a thin layer of sediments, but the floor
continental shelf off Norfolk, Virginia, little was itself was of geologically recent origin.
known about the deep-sea floor. Ewing's analysis of In 1948, led two more expeditions to the
Ewing
seismic evidence had indicated that the continental Mid- Atlantic Ridge, and in 1949 he founded the
shelf is composed of sediment as much as 4,000 m Columbia Lamont Geologic Observatory, whose main
thick that had been deposited on ocean-floor bedrock. mission is studying the ocean floor. Early on, he
Since these thick sediments probably contained discovered that the oceanic crust is composed of
hydrocarbons, he tried to interest oil companies in basalt, not sunken continental material. Furthermore,
supporting further studies of the continental shelf. He he determined that the oceanic crust is only 5 to 10
was told that oil was so easily found on land that km thick, much thinner than continental crust.
there was no reason to look for it under the sea. During the early 1950s, Ewing decided to transfer
Undiscouraged, he pursed his ocean-floor research and all of the available seismic profiles of the North
made many important discoveries. Atlantic Ocean floor onto a topographic map. He
In 1947, the National Geographic Society assigned the job to Bruce Heezen, a graduate student
commissioned Ewing to explore the little-known who enlisted the help of Marie Tharp, a cartographer
Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the adjacent sea floor. Using (mapmaker) at the observatory. As the profiles were
seismic and echo-sounding techniques as well as converted into a map, both Heezen and Tharp were
equipment for sampling seawater, he determined water surprised to see a deep canyon (or rift valley) running
temperature at various depths and sampled the sea down the center of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Initially,
floor itself. His initial samples and seismic they did not believe that such a large-scale rift existed,
investigations produced surprising results. The data so Heezen and Ewing began plotting the locations of
indicated that rather than a thick layer of sea-floor all mid-ocean earthquakes for which they had data.
sediment that had accumulated for billions of years, What emerged was a band of earthquakes running
the sediments were only several hundred meters thick through not only the middle of the rift valley mapped
and represented 100 to 200 million years of by Tharp, but through all the world's oceans.
deposition. Furthermore, dredging across the slopes of In 1959 Ewing, Heezen, and Tharp published a
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge brought up pieces of pillow spectacular three-dimensional map of the North Atlantic
lava (see Fig. 4-14). Not only was the ocean floor Ocean. The map showed vast plains and conical
with the plate upon which it originated. The net

laterally coarse-grained sediment (sand and gravel) far from land.
such activity is a sequence of seamounts/guyots
result of Coarse sediment in icebergs or trapped in floating veg-
extending from an oceanic ridge (Fig. 12-18); the Walvis etation, such as the roots of a tree, can find its way into
Ridge in the South Atlantic is a good example (Fig. 12- the ocean basins, but only trivial amounts are actually
19). Aseismic ridges also form over hot spots unrelated transported by such processes.
to ridges. The Hawaiian-Emperor chain in the Pacific Most of the fine-grained sediment in the deep sea is
formed in such a manner (Fig. 12-19). windblown dust and volcanic ash from the continents
and oceanic islands and the shells of microscopic organ-
^ DEEP-SEA SEDIMENTATION isms that live in the near-surface waters of the oceans.
Other sources of sediment include cosmic dust and de-
Deep-sea sediments consist mostly of fine-grained de- from chemical reactions in seawater. The
posits resulting
posits because few mechanisms exist that can transport manganese nodules that are fairly common in all the

*" FIGURE 1 This map of the sea floor resulted from the work of Maurice Ewing,
Bruce Heezen, and Marie Tharp.
seamounts, as well as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge with its between and parallel to the coasts of South America
still mysterious rift valley (Fig. 1). As more of the and Africa forced geologists to reexamine their
world's ocean floors were explored, this original regional theories about the Earth. The realization that new
map was expanded to reveal a mountain chain 65,000 crust was forming along the rift valley of the
km long winding through all the world's oceans. Mid-Atlantic Ridge hastened the acceptance of
The recognition of a curving ridge located midway sea-floor spreading and plate tectonic theory.
ocean basins are a good example of the latter (Fig. 12- The bulk of the sediments on the deep-sea floor are
20). These nodules are composed mostly of manganese pelagic,meaning that they settled from suspension far
and iron oxides, but also contain copper, nickel, and from land. Two categories of pelagic sediment are rec-
cobalt. Such nodules may be an important source of ognized: pelagic clay and ooze (Fig. 12-21). Pelagic clay
some metals in the future; the United States, which im- covers most of the deeper parts of the ocean basins. It is
ports most of its manganese and cobalt, is particularly generally brown or reddish and is composed of clay-
interested in this potential resource. sized particles derived from the continents and oceanic
The contribution of cosmic dust to deep-sea sediment islands. Ooze, on the other hand, is composed mostly of
is negligible. Even though some researchers estimate shells of microscopic marine animals and plants. It is
that as much360,000 metric tons of cosmic dust may
as characterized as calcareous ooze if it contains mostly
fall to Earth each year, this is a trivial quantity compared calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 skeletons of tiny marine or-
)
to the volume of sediments derived from other sources. ganisms such as foraminifera (see Perspective 9-1, Fig.
Deep-Sea Sedimentation 331

^ REEFS
Reefs are moundlike, wave-resistant structures composed
of the skeletons of organisms (Fig. 12-22). Commonly they
are called coral reefs, but many other organisms in addi-
tion to corals make up reefs. A reef consists of a solid
framework of skeletons of corals, clams, and such encrust-
ing organisms as algae and sponges. Reefs grow to a depth
of about 45 or 50 m and are restricted to shallow tropical
seas where the water is clear, and the temperature does not
fall below about 20°C.
Three types of reefs are recognized: fringing, barrier,

and atoll (Fig. 12-23). Fringing reefs are solidly attached
to the margins of an island or continent. They have a
-»- rough, tablelike surface, are as much as one kilometer

FIGURE 12-20 Manganese nodules on the sea floor
south of Australia. wide, and, on their seaward side, slope steeply down to
the sea floor. Barrier reefs are similar to fringing reefs,
except that they are separated from the mainland by a
lagoon. Probably the best-known barrier reef in the
2). Siliceous ooze is composed of the silica (Si0 2 ) skel- world is the Great Barrier Reef of Australia. It is more
etons of such single-celled organisms as radiolarians than 2,000 km long and is separated from the continent
(animals) and diatoms (plants) (Fig. 7-16). by a wide lagoon (Fig. 12-24).
""»' FIGURE 12-21 The distribution of sediments on the deep-sea floor.
~~\
|
Calcareous ooze Siliceous ooze Pelagic clay

"•' FIGURE 12-22 Reefs such as this one fringing an island in the Pacific are
wave-resistant structures composed of the skeletons of organisms.
The last type of reef is an atoll, which is a circular to shallow water. However, the island eventually subsides
oval reef surrounding a lagoon (Fig. 12-23). Such reefs below sea level, leaving a circular lagoon surrounded by
form around volcanic islands that subside below sea a more-or-less continuous reef (Fig.12-23). Such reefs
level as the plate upon which they rest is carried pro- are particularly common in the western Pacific Ocean
gressively farther from an oceanic ridge (Fig. 12-18). As basin (Fig. 12-25). Many of these began as fringing
subsidence occurs, the reef organisms construct the reef reefs, but as subsidence occurred, they evolved first to
upward so that the living part of the reef remains in barrier reefs and finally to atolls.
"^" FIGURE 12-23 Three-stage development of an atoll. In the first stage, a fringing
reef forms, but as the island sinks, a barrier reef becomes separated from the island by
a lagoon. As the island disappears beneath the sea, the barrier reef continues to grow
upward, thus forming an atoll. An oceanic island carried into deeper water by plate
movement can account for this sequence.
Fringing reef Barrier reef Atoll
Reefs 333
FIGURE 12-25 View of an atoll in the Pacific Ocean.
Deep-sea drill holes have penetrated through the upper

oceanic crust into a sheeted dike complex, a zone con-
sisting almost entirely of vertical basaltic dikes (Fig. 12-
26). What lies below this sheeted dike complex has not
been sampled.
Even though the oceanic crust is 5 to 10 km thick and
can be penetrated only about 1 km by drill holes, geol-
ogists have a good idea of the composition of the entire
crust. As mentioned previously, oceanic crust is contin-
uously consumed at subduction zones, but a tiny
amount of this crust is not subducted. Rather it is em-
placed in mountain ranges on continents, where it usu-
ally arrives by moving along large fractures called thrust
faults (thrust faults and mountain building are discussed
"*" FIGURE 12-24 Aerial view of the Great Barrier Reef more fully in Chapter 14).
of Australia. It is more than 2,000 km long and separated Such slivers of oceanic crust and upper mantle now
from the continent (in the background) by a wide lagoon.
on continents are called ophiolites (Fig. 12-26). They are
structurally complex, but detailed studies reveal that an
ideal ophiolite consists of a layer of deep-sea sedimen-
tary rocks underlain by pillow basalts and a sheeted dike
This particular scenario for the evolution of reefs from complex, the same layers as in deep-sea cores. Further
fringing to barrier to atoll was proposed more than 150 downward in an ophiolite is massive gabbro, and below
years ago by Charles Darwin while he was serving as a that is layered gabbro that may represent magma that
naturalist on the ship H.M.S. Beagle. Drilling into atolls cooled at the top of a magma chamber (Fig. 12-26).
has revealed that they do indeed rest upon a basement of Beneath the gabbro is peridotite— sometimes altered by
volcanic rocks, thus confirming Darwin's hypothesis. metamorphism to assemblages containing serpentine—
that probably represents the upper mantle. Thus, a com-
^ COMPOSITION OF plete ophiolite consists of deep-sea sedimentary rocks,

oceanic crust, and upper mantle (Fig. 12-26).
THE OCEANIC CRUST
Sampling and direct observations of the oceanic ridges
reveal that the upper part of the oceanic crust iscom-
^ RESOURCES FROM THE SEA
posed of basalt. Much of this basalt is in the form of Seawater contains many elements in solution, some of
pillow lavas (Fig. 4-14), but sheet flows are also present. which are extracted for various industrial and domestic

Oceanic ridge
"•»• FIGURE 12-26 New oceanic

Layered crust consisting of the layers shown
gabbro here forms as magma beneath
rises
oceanic ridges. The composition of
the oceanic crust is known from
Pendotite
ophiolites, sequences of rock on
Upper
mantle land consisting of deep-sea
sediments, oceanic crust, and upper
mantle.
uses. For example, in many places sodium chloride (ta- compounds can be extracted from seawater, but for
ble salt) is produced by the evaporation of seawater, and many, such as gold, the cost is prohibitive.
a large proportion of the world's magnesium is pro- In addition to substances in seawater, deposits on the
duced from seawater. Numerous other elements and sea floor or within sea-floor sediments are becoming
^ FIGURE 12-27 The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) includes a vast area adjacent
to the United States and its possessions.
120°E 150°E
Resources from the Sea 335

"^ FIGURE 12-28 Sedimentary basins within the
Exclusive Economic Zone in which known or potential
reserves of hydrocarbons occur.

increasingly important. Many of these potential re-
sources lie well beyond the margins of the continents, so
the ownership of such resources is a political and legal
problem that has not yet been resolved. Most nations
bordering the ocean claim those resources occurring
within their adjacent continental margin. The United
States, forexample, by a presidential proclamation is-
sued on March 10, 1983, claims sovereign rights over an
area designated as the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
The EEZ extends seaward 200 nautical miles (371 km)
from the coast, giving the United States jurisdiction over
an area about 1.7 times larger than its land area (Fig.
12-27).* Also included within the EEZ are the areas
adjacent to U.S. territories, such as Guam, American
Samoa, Wake and Puerto Rico (Fig. 12-27). In
Island,
short, the United States claims a huge area of the sea
floor and any resources on or beneath it.
Numerous resources occur within the EEZ, some of
which have been exploited for many years. For example,
sand and gravel for construction are mined from the
CALIFORNIA
continental shelf in several areas. About 17% of U.S. oil
and natural gas production comes from wells on the
continental shelf. Some 30 sedimentary basins occur Mendocino fracture zone
within the EEZ, several of which are known to contain ~^~ FIGURE 12-29 Massive sulfide deposits formed by
hydrocarbons whereas others are areas of potential hy-
submarine hydrothermal activity have been identified on the
drocarbon production (Fig. 12-28). Ancient shelf depos- Gorda Ridge within the Exclusive Economic Zone.
its in the Persian Gulf region contain the world's largest
reserves of oil (see Perspective 7-2).

Other resources of interest include the massive sulfide
deposits that form by submarine hydrothermal activity
at spreading ridges (see the Prologue). Such deposits erous oxide crusts found on seamounts. Manganese
containing iron, copper, zinc, and other metals have nodules contain manganese, cobalt, nickel, and copper;
been identified within the EEZ at the Gorda Ridge off the United States is heavily dependent on imports of the
the coasts of California and Oregon; similar deposits first three of these elements (see Fig. 3-25). Within the
occur at the Juan de Fuca Ridge within the Canadian EEZ, however, manganese nodules occur near Johnston
EEZ (Fig. 12-29). Island in the Pacific Ocean and on the Blake Plateau off
Other potential resources include the manganese the east coast of South Carolina and Georgia. In addi-
nodules discussed previously (Fig. 12-20), and metallif- seamounts and seamount chains within the EEZ in
tion,
the Pacific are known to have metalliferous oxide crusts
*A number of other nations also claim sovereign rights to resources several centimeters thick from which cobalt and man-
within 200 nautical miles of their coasts. ganese could be mined.
J3K>^^*:^--«^«£^g3^^ Ti
Continental margins separate the continents above

^ CHAPTER SUMMARY sea level from the deep ocean basin. They consist of
1. Scientific investigations of the oceans began during a continental shelf, continental slope, and in some
the late 1700s. Present-day research vessels are cases a continental rise.
equipped to investigate the sea floor by drilling, echo Continental shelves slope gently in a seaward
sounding, and seismic profiling. direction and vary in width from a few tens of
Chapter Summary 337

meters to more than 1,000 km. 15. The United States has claimed rights to all resources
4. The continental slope begins at an average depth of occurring within 200 nautical miles (371 km) of its
135 m where the inclination of the sea floor shorelines. Numerous resources including various
increases rather abruptly from less than 1° to several metals occur within this Exclusive Economic Zone.
degrees.
Submarine canyons are characteristic of the
5.
continental slope, but some of them extend well up
IMPORTANT TERMS
onto the shelf and lie offshore from large streams.
abyssal plain ooze
Stream erosion of the shelf during the Pleistocene
active continential margin ophiolite
Epoch may account for some submarine canyons,
aseismic ridge passive continental
but many have no association with streams on land
continental margin margin
and were probably eroded by turbidity currents.
continental rise pelagic clay
6. Turbidity currents commonly move through
continental shelf reef
submarine canyons and deposit an overlapping series
continental slope seamount
of submarine fans that constitutes a large part of the
echo sounder seismic profiling
continental rise.
Exclusive Economic Zone submarine canyon
7. Active continental margins are characterized by a
guyot submarine fan
narrow and a slope that descends directly into
shelf
oceanic ridge turbidity current
an oceanic trench with no rise present. Such margins
oceanic trench
are also characterized by seismic activity and
volcanism.
8. Passive continental margins lack volcanism and ^ REVIEW QUESTIONS
exhibit little seismic activity. The continental shelf
along such margins is broad, and the slope merges 1. Much of the continental rise is composed of:
with a continental rise. Abyssal plains are commonly a. calcareous ooze; b. submarine fans;
present seaward beyond the rise. c. fringing reefs; d. sheeted dikes;
9. Oceanic trenches are long, narrow features where e. ophiolite.
oceanic crust is subducted. They are characterized by 2. The greatest oceanic depths occur at:
low heat flow, negative gravity anomalies, and the a aseismic ridges; b. guyots; c. the
greatest oceanic depths. shelf-slope break; d. oceanic trenches;
10. Oceanic ridges consisting of mountainous e. passive continental margins.
topography are composed of volcanic rocks, and 3. Abyssal plains are most common:
many ridges possess a large rift caused by tensional a. around the margins of the Atlantic;
forces. Basaltic volcanism and shallow-focus b. adjacent to the East Pacific Rise; c. along
earthquakes occur at ridges. Oceanic ridges nearly the west coast of South America; d. in the rift
encircle the globe, but they are interrupted and valley of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge; e. on
offset by large fractures in the sea floor. continental shelves.
11. Other important features on the sea floor include 4. A circular reef enclosing a lagoon is a(n):
seamounts that rise more than a kilometer high and a. barrier reef; b. seamount; c. aseismic
guyots, which are flat-topped seamounts. Many ridge; d. guyot; e. atoll.
aseismic ridges are oriented more-or-less 5. Submarine canyons are most characteristic of the:
perpendicular to oceanic ridges and consist of a a. continental shelves; b. abyssal plains;
chain of seamounts and/or guyots. c. continental slopes; d. rift valleys;
12 Deep-sea sediments consist mostly of fine-grained e. fractures in the sea floor.
particles derived from continents and oceanic islands 6. The Earth's surface waters probably originated
and the microscopic shells of organisms. The through the process of:
primary types of deep-sea sediments are pelagic clay a. dewatering; b. subduction;
and ooze. c. outgassing; d. crustal fracturing;
13 Reefs are wave-resistant structures composed of e. erosion.
animal skeletons, particularly corals. Three types of 7. Continental shelves:
reefs are recognized: fringing, barrier, and atoll. a. are composed of pelagic sediments; b. lie
14 Deep-sea drilling and the study of fragments of sea between continental slopes and rises; c. descend
floor in mountain ranges on land reveal that the to an average depth of 1,500 m; d. slope gently
oceanic crust is composed in descending order of from the shoreline to the shelf-slope break;
pillow lava, sheeted dikes, and gabbro. e. are widest along active continental margins.

8. The flattest, most featureless areas on Earth are the: 19. Describe the continental rise, and explain why a rise
a. oceanic ridges; b. abyssal plains; occurs at some continental margins and not at
c. continental slopes; d. aseismic ridges; others.
e continental margins. 20. Summarize the evidence indicating that turbidity
9. Sediment that settles from suspension far from land currents transport sediment from the continental
is: shelf onto the slope and rise.
a. abyssal; b. pelagic; c. volcanic; 21. Where do abyssal plains most commonly develop?
d. generally coarse grained; e. characterized Describe their compositon.
by graded bedding. 22. What is the significance of oceanic trenches, and
10. Which of the following statements is correct? where are they found?
a most of the continental margins around the 23. How do mid-oceanic ridges differ from mountain
Atlantic are passive; b. oceanic ridges are ranges on land?
composed largely of deformed sedimentary rocks; 24. Describe how an aseismic ridge forms.
c. the deposits of turbidity currents consist of 25. List four sources of deep-sea sediments, and explain
calcareous ooze; d. most of the Earth's their relative importance.
intermediate and deep earthquakes occur at or near 26. Describe the sequence of events leading to the origin
oceanic ridges; e. oceanic crust is thicker than of an atoll.
continental crust. 27. Illustrate and label an ideal sequence of rocks in an

11. Massive sulfide deposits form: ophiolite.
a. on passive continental margins; b. as 28. What is the Exclusive Economic Zone? What types
accumulations of microscopic shells on the sea floor; of metal deposits occur within it?
c. by precipitation of minerals near

hydrothermal vents; d. from sediments derived
12.
from continents; e. in oceanic trenches.
The most useful method of determining the structure
of the oceanic crust beneath continental shelf Anderson, R. N. 1986. Marine geology. New York: John Wiley
sediments is: 8c Sons.
a. echo sounding; b. observations from Bishop, J. M. 1984. Applied oceanography. New York: John
Wiley &c Sons.
submersible research vessels; c. dredging;
Davis, R. A. 1987. Oceanography: An introduction to the
d. seismic profiling; e. underwater
marine environment. Dubuque, Iowa: W. C. Brown.
photography. Edmond, J. M., and K. Von Damm. 1983. Hot springs on the
13. Which of the following is not characteristic of an ocean floor. Scientific American 248, no. 4: 78-93.
active continental margin? Gass, I. G. 1982. Ophiolites. Scientific American 247, no. 2:
a. volcanism; b. earthquakes; c. oceanic 122-31.
trench; d. volcanic arc; e continental rise. Kennett, J. R 1982. Marine geology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
14. What is the average slope of the continental slope? Prentice-Hall.

Mark, K. 1976. Coral reefs, seamounts, and guyots. Sea
a 25°; b 1°; c 4°; d 0.1°;
40°. Frontiers 22, no. 3: 143-49.
e
Pinet, P. 1992. Oceanography: An introduction to the planet
15. Graded bedding is a characteristic of:
oceanus. St. Paul, Minn.: West Publishing Co.
a. continental shelves; b. turbidity current
Rona, P. A. 1986. Mineral deposits from sea-floor hot springs.
deposits; c. pelagic clay; d. siliceous ooze;
Scientific American 254, no. 1: 84-93.
e. manganese nodules. Ross, D. A. 1988. Introduction to oceanography. Englewood
16. How do sulfide mineral deposits form on the sea Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
floor? Thurman, H. V. 1988. Introductory oceanography. 5th ed.
17. What is an echo sounder, and how is it used to Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co.
study the sea floor? Tolmazin, D. 1985. Elements of dynamic oceanography.
18. What are the characteristics of a passive continental Boston, Mass.: Allen & Unwin.
margin? How does such a continental margin

originate?

CHAPTER 13
PLATE TECTONICS:
A Unifying Theory
OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
EARLY IDEAS ABOUT CONTINENTAL
DRIFT
ALFRED WEGENER AND THE
CONTINENTAL DRIFT HYPOTHESIS
THE EVIDENCE FOR CONTINENTAL
DRIFT
Continental Fit
Similarity of Rock Sequences and Mountain
Ranges
Glacial Evidence
Fossil Evidence
PALEOMAGNETISM AND POLAR
WANDERING
SEA-FLOOR SPREADING
"^ Perspective 13-1: Paleogeographic Maps
Deep-Sea Drilling and the Confirmation of
Sea-Floor Spreading
PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
PLATE BOUNDARIES
Divergent Boundaries
"* Perspective 13-2: Tectonics of the
Terrestrial Planets
Convergent Boundaries
"^ Guest Essay: Geoscience Careers— The
Diversity Is Unparalleled
Transform Boundaries
PLATE MOVEMENT AND MOTION
Hot Spots and Absolute Motion
THE DRIVING MECHANISM OF PLATE
TECTONICS
PLATE TECTONICS AND THE
DISTRIBUTION OF NATURAL
RESOURCES
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Vertical view of the Himalayas, the youngest
and highest mountain system in the world. The
Himalayas began forming when India collided
with Asia 40 to 50 million years ago.
PROLOGUE Both of these events occurred along the eastern
portion of the Ring of Fire, a chain of intense seismic
and volcanic activity that encircles the Pacific Ocean
basin (Fig. 13-1). Some of the world's greatest
Two tragic events that occurred disasters occur along this ring because of volcanism
during 1985 serve to remind us of the and earthquakes generated by plate convergence. For
dangers of living near a convergent plate margin. On example, the 1989 volcanic eruptions in Alaska, the
September 19, a magnitude 8.1 earthquake killed 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, and the 1970
more than 9,000 people in Mexico City. Two months earthquake that killed 66,000 people in Peru all
later and 3,200 km to the south, a minor eruption of occurred as a consequence of plate convergence.
Colombia's Nevado del Ruiz volcano partially melted Although earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are
its summit glacial ice, causing a mudflow that very different geologic phenomena, both are related to
engulfed Armero and several other villages and killed the activities occurring at convergent plate margins.
more than 23,000 people. These two tragedies The Mexico City earthquake resulted from subduction
resulted in more than 32,000 deaths, tens of of the Cocos plate at the Middle America Trench (Fig.
thousands of injuries, and billions of dollars in 13-1). Sudden movement of the Cocos plate beneath
property damage. Central America generated seismic waves that traveled
*•' FIGURE 13-1 The Ring of Fire is a zone of intense earthquake and volcanic
activity that encircles the Pacific Ocean basin. Most of this activity results from plate
convergence as illustrated by the two insets.
Mexico
City
Volcanoes Earthquakes
Prologue 341
the mountain; the meltwater rushed down the valleys,
mixed with the sediment, and turned it into a deadly
viscous mudflow.
The city of Armero, Colombia, lies in the valley of
the Lagunilla River, one of several river valleys inun-
dated by mudflows. Twenty thousand of the city's
23,000 inhabitants died, and most of the city was de-
stroyed (Fig. 13-2). Another 3,000 people were killed
in nearby valleys. A geologic hazard assessment study
completed one month before the eruption showed that
Armero was in a high-hazard mudflow area!
These two examples vividly illustrate some of the
dangers of living in proximity to a convergent plate
boundary. Subduction of one plate beneath another
"•' FIGURE The 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz
13-2 repeatedly triggers large earthquakes, the effects of
in Colombia melted some of its glacial ice. The meltwater which are frequently felt far from their epicenters.
mixed with sediments and formed a huge mudflow that Since 1900, earthquakes have killed more than
destroyed the city of Armero and killed 20,000 of its
112,000 people in Central and South America alone.
inhabitants.
While volcanic eruptions in this region have not
caused nearly as many casualties as earthquakes, they
outward in all directions. The violent shaking have, nevertheless, caused tremendous property dam-
experienced in Mexico City, 350 km away, and age and have the potential for triggering devastating
elsewhere was caused by these seismic waves. events such as the 1985 Colombian mudflow.
The strata underlying Mexico City consist of Because the Ring of Fire is home to millions of
unconsolidated sediment deposited in a large ancient people, can anything be done to decrease the
lake. Such sediment amplifies the shaking during devastation that inevitably results from the earthquake
earthquakes with the unfortunate consequence that and volcanic activity occurring in that region? Given
buildings constructed there are commonly more our present state of knowledge, most of the disasters
heavily damaged than those built on solid bedrock could not have been accurately predicted, but better
(see Perspective 10-1, Fig. 5). planning and advance preparations by the nations
Less than two months after the Mexico City bordering the Ring of Fire could have prevented much
earthquake, Colombia experienced its greatest life. As long as people live near
tragic loss of
recorded natural disaster. Nevado del Ruiz is one of convergent plate margins, there will continue to be
several active volcanoes resulting from the rise of disasters. However, by studying and understanding
magma generated where the Nazca plate is subducted geologic activity along convergent as well as divergent
beneath South America (Fig. 13-1). A minor eruption and transform plate margins, geologists can help to
of Nevado del Ruiz partially melted the glacial ice on minimize the destruction.
merely random occurrences. Furthermore, the forma-

^ INTRODUCTION tion and distribution of many important natural re-
The recognition that the Earth's geography has changed sources, such as metallic ores, are related to plate
continuously through time has led to a revolution in the boundaries, and geologists are now incorporating plate
geological sciences, forcing geologists to greatly modify tectonic theory into their prospecting efforts.
the way they view the Earth. Although many people The movement of plates determines the location of
have only a vague notion of what plate tectonic theory continents, ocean basins, and mountain systems, which
is, plate tectonics has aprofound effect on all of our in turn affects the atmospheric and oceanic circulation
lives. It is now realized that most earthquakes and vol- patterns that ultimately determine global climates. Plate
canic eruptions occur near plate margins and are not movements have also profoundly influenced the geo-
342 Chapter 13 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory

graphic distribution, evolution, and extinction of plants During the late nineteenth century, the Austrian ge-
and animals. ologist Edward Suess noted the similarities between the
Since at least the early 1900s, abundant evidence has Late Paleozoic plant fossils of India, Australia, Africa,
indicated that the continents have been moving through- Antarctica, and South America as well as evidence of
out geologic time. Nevertheless, most geologists rejected glaciation in the rock sequences of these southern con-
the idea because there was no suitable mechanism to tinents. In 1885 he proposed the name Gondwanaland
explain such movement. By the early 1970s, however, (or Gondwana as we will use here) for a supercontinent
studies of the Earth's magnetic field, its interior, and the composed of these southern landmasses. The name
ocean basins (see Chapters 11 and 12) convinced most came from Gondwana, a province in east-central India
geologists that continents are parts of plates that are where, along with evidence of extensive glaciation,
moving in response to some type of heat transfer system abundant fossils of the Glossopteris flora occur (Fig.
within the Earth. 13-3). Suess believed the distribution of plant fossils and
Plate tectonic theory is now almost universally accepted
among geologists, and its application has led to a greater
understanding of how the Earth has evolved and continues "•" FIGURE 13-3 Representative members of the
to do so. This powerful, unifying theory accounts for Glossopteris flora. Fossils of these plants are found on all
many apparently unrelated geologic events, allowing geol- five of the Gondwana continents. Glossopteris leaves from
(a) the Upper Permian Dunedoo Formation and (b) the
ogists to view such phenomena as part of a continuing
Upper Permian Illawarra Coal Measures, Australia. (Photos
story rather than as a series of isolated incidents.
courtesy of Patricia G. Gensel, University of North
Before discussing plate tectonic theory, we will review Carolina.)
the various hypotheses that preceded it and examine the
evidence that led some people to accept the idea of con-
tinental movement and others to reject it. Because plate
tectonic theory has evolved from numerous scientific in-
quiries and observations, only the more important ones
will be covered in this chapter.
^ EARLY IDEAS ABOUT

CONTINENTAL DRIFT
The idea that the Earth's geography was different during
the past is not new. During the fifteenth century, Leon-
ardo da Vinci observed that "above the plains of Italy
where flocks of birds are flying today fishes were once
moving in large schools." In 1620, Sir Francis Bacon
commented on the similarity of the shorelines of western
Africa and eastern South America but did not make the
connection that the Old and New Worlds might once
have been sutured together. Alexander von Humboldt
made the same observation in 1801, although he attrib-
uted these similarities to erosion rather than the splitting
apart of a larger continent.
One of the earliest specific references to continental
drift is in Antonio Snider-Pellegrini's 1858 book Creation
and Its Mysteries Revealed. Snider-Pellegrini suggested
that all of the continents were linked together during the
Pennsylvanian Period and later split apart. He based his
conclusions on the similarities between plant fossils in the
Pennsylvanian-aged coal beds of Europe and North Amer-
ica. However, he thought that continental separation was
a consequence of the biblical deluge.
Early Ideas About Continental Drift 343

glacial deposits was a consequence of extensive land Geological Association in Frankfurt, Germany, Wegener
bridges that once connected the continents and later first presented his ideas for moving continents. His evi-
sank beneath the ocean. dence for continental drift and his conclusions were
One of the first to actually propose a mechanism for published in 1915 in his monumental book, The Origin
continental movement was the American geologist of Continents and Oceans. According to Wegener's
Frank B. Taylor who in 1910 published a paper present- comprehensive hypothesis, all of the landmasses were
ing his own theory of continental drift. In it he explained originally united into a single supercontinent that he
the formation of mountain ranges as a result of the lat- named Pangaea, from the Greek meaning "all land."
eral movement of continents. He also envisioned the Wegener portrayed his grand concept of continental
present-day continents as parts of larger polar conti- movement in a series of maps showing the breakup of
nents that had broken apart and migrated toward the Pangaea and the movement of the various continents to
equator because of a slowing of the Earth's rotation due their present-day locations. Wegener had amassed a tre-
to gigantic tidal forces. According to Taylor, these tidal mendous amount of geological, paleontological, and cli-
forces were generated when the Earth captured the matological evidence in support of continental drift, but
Moon about 100 million years ago. the initial reaction of scientists to his then-heretical ideas
Although we now know that Taylor's mechanism is can best be described as mixed.
incorrect, one of his most significant contributions was Opposition to Wegener's ideas became particularly
his suggestion that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, discoverd by widespread in North America after 1928 when the
the 1872-1876 H.M.S. Challenger expeditions,

British American Association of Petroleum Geologists held an
might mark the site along which an ancient continent international symposium to review the hypothesis of
broke apart to form the present-day Atlantic Ocean. continental drift. After each side had presented its argu-
ments, the opponents of continental drift were clearly in
^ ALFRED WEGENER AND THE the majority, even though the evidence in support of
continental drift, most of which came from the Southern
CONTINENTAL DRIFT HYPOTHESIS Hemisphere, was impressive and difficult to refute. One
Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist (Fig. 13-4), is
problem with the hypothesis, however, was its lack of a
generally credited with developing the hypothesis of
mechanism to explain how continents, composed of gra-
continental drift. In a 1912 lecture before the German nitic rocks, could seemingly move through the denser
basaltic oceanic crust.
Nevertheless, the eminent South African geologist Al-
exander du Toit further developed Wegener's arguments
— FIGURE 13-4 Alfred Wegener, a German
and gathered more geological and paleontological evi-
meteorologist, proposed the continental drift hypothesis in
dence in support of continental drift. In 1937, du Toit
1912 based on a tremendous amount of geological,
paleontological, and climatological evidence. He is shown published Our Wandering Continents, in which he con-
here waiting out the Arctic winter in an expedition hut. trasted the glacial deposits of Gondwana with coal de-
posits of the same age found in the continents of the
Northern, Hemisphere. In order to explain the origin
and distribution of these rocks, both of which form un-
der different climatic conditions, du Toit moved the
Gondwana continents to the South Pole and brought the
northern continents together such that the coal deposits
were located at the equator. He named this northern
Jandm ass Laurasia. It consisted of present-da y North
-America. Greenland, Europe, and Asia (except tor India).
In spite of what seemed to be overwhelming evidence,
most geologists still refused to accept the idea that con-
tinents moved. It was not until the 1960s when ocean-
ographic research provided convincing evidence that the
continents had once been joined together and subse-
quently separated that the hypothesis of continental
drift finally became widely accepted.

=»THE EVIDENCE FOR Continental Fit
CONTINENTAL DRIFT Wegener, like some before him, was impressed by the
The evidence used by Wegener, du Toit, and others to close resemblance between the coastlines of continents
support the hypothesis of continental drift includes the fit on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean, particularly be-
of the shorelines of continents; the appearance of the same tween South America and Africa. He cited these simi-
rock sequences and mountain ranges of the same age on larities as partial evidence that the continents were at one
continentsnow widely separated; the matching of glacial time joined together as a supercontinent that subse-
depositsand paleoclimatic zones; and the similarities of quently split apart. As his critics pointed out, however,
many extinct plant and animal groups whose fossil re- the configuration of coastlines results from erosional and
mains are found today on widely separated continents. depositional processes and therefore is continually being
— FIGURE 13-5 The best fit
between continents occurs along the

continental slope at a depth of
2,000 m.
Areas of overlap
Gaps
The Evidence for Continental Drift 345

modified. Thus, even if the continents had separated Similarity of Rock Sequences
during the Mesozoic Era, as Wegener proposed, it is not and Mountain Ranges
likely that the coastlines would fit exactly.
If the continents were at one time joined together, then
A more realistic approach is to fit the continents to-
the rocks and mountain ranges of the same age in ad-
gether along the continental slope where erosion would
joining locations on the opposite continents should
be minimal. Recall from Chapter 12 that the true mar-
closely match. Such is the case for the Gondwana con-
gin of a continent— that is, where continental crust
tinents (Fig. 13-6). Marine, nonmarine, and glacial rock
changes to oceanic crust— is beneath the continental
sequences of Pennsylvanian to Jurassic age are almost
slope (see Fig. 12-8). In 1965 Sir Edward Bullard, an En-
identical for all five Gondwana continents, strongly in-
glish geophysicist, and two associates showed that the dicating that they were at one time joined together.
best fit between the continents occurs along the conti- The trends of several major mountain ranges also
nental slope at a depth of about 2,000 m (Fig. 13-5). support the hypothesis of continental These moun-
drift.
Since then, other reconstructions using the latest ocean tain ranges seemingly end one conti-
at the coastline of
basin data have confirmed the close fit between continent only to apparently continue on another continent
nents when they are reassembled to form Pangaea. across the ocean. For example, in a reconstructed
"•" FIGURE 13-6

Marine, nonmarine, and glacial rock sequences of Pennsylvanian to
Jurassic age are nearly the same for all Gondwana continents. Such close similarity
strongly suggests that they were at one time joined together. The range indicated by G
is that of the Glossopteris flora.
J*
(a)
•^ FIGURE 13-7 Various mountain ranges of the

{a)
same age and deformation are currently widely

style of
separated by oceans, (b) When the continents are brought
together, however, a single continuous mountain range is
formed. Such evidence indicates the continents were at one
time joined together and were subsequently separated.
Gondwana, the east-west trending mountain range at the

Cape of Good Hope in South Africa abruptly terminates
at the coast. However, a mountain range of the same age
and style of deformation occurs near Buenos Aires, Ar-
gentina. When South America and Africa are brought
together, thesetwo seemingly different mountain ranges
form continuous structure (Fig. 13-7).
a single
, In North America, the folded Appalachian Moun-
3,000
tains trend northeastward through the eastern United
I i i I
Statesand Canada and terminate abruptly at the New- km

i
foundland coastline. Mountain ranges of the same age
(b)
The Evidence for Continental Drift 347

"^ FIGURE 13-8 (a) If the continents did not move in the past, then Late Paleozoic
glacial striations preserved in bedrock in Australia, India, and South America indicate
that glacial movement for each continent was from the oceans onto land within a
subtropical to tropical climate. Such an occurrence is highly unlikely, (b) (right) If the
continents are brought together, such that South Africa is located at the South Pole,
then the glacial movement indicated by the striations makes sense. In this situation, the
glacier, located in a polar climate, moved radially outward from a thick central area
toward its periphery.
and deformational style occur in eastern Greenland, Ire- All of the Gondwana continents except Antarctica
land, Great Britain, and Norway. Even though these are currently located near the equator in subtropical to
mountain ranges are currently separated by the Atlantic tropical climates. Mapping of glacial striations in bed-
Ocean, they form an essentially continuous mountain rock in Australia, India, and South America indicates
range when the continents are positioned next to each that the glaciers moved from the areas of the present-
other (Fig. 13-7). day oceans onto land (Fig. 13-8a). However, this would
be impossible because large continental glaciers (such as
occurred on the Gondwana continents during the Late
Glacial Evidence
Paleozoic Era) flow outward from their central area of
Massive glaciers covered large continental areas of the accumulation toward the sea.
Southern Hemisphere during the Late Paleozoic Era. Ev- If the continents did not move during the past, one
idence for this glaciation includes layers of till (sedi- would have to explain how glaciers moved from the
ments deposited by glaciers) and striations (scratch oceans onto land and how large-scale continental gla-
marks) in the bedrock beneath the till. Fossils and sed- ciers formed near the equator. But if the continents are
imentary rocks of the same age from the Northern reassembled as a single landmass with South Africa lo-
Hemisphere, however, give no indication of glaciation. cated at the south pole, the direction of movement of
Fossil plants found in coals indicate that the Northern Late Paleozoic continental glaciers makes sense. Fur-
Hemisphere had a tropical climate during the time that thermore, this geographic arrangement places the north-
the Southern Hemisphere was glaciated. ern continents nearer the tropics, which is consistent

Furthermore, even if the seeds had floated across the
ocean from one continent to another, they probably
would not have remained viable for any length of time in
salt water.
The present-day climates of South America, Africa,
India, Australia, and Antarctica range from tropical to
polar and are much too diverse to support the type of
plants that compose the Glossopteris flora. Wegener rea-
soned therefore that these continents must once have
been joined such that these widely separated localities
were all in the same latitudinal climatic belt (Fig. 13-9).
The fossil remains of animals also provide strong ev-
drift. One of the best examples is
idence for continental
Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile whose fossils are found
in Permian-aged rocks in certain regions of Brazil and
South Africa and nowhere else in the world (Fig. 13-9).
Because the physiology of freshwater and marine ani-
mals is completely different, it is hard to imagine how a
freshwater reptile could have swum across the Atlantic
Ocean and found a freshwater environment nearly iden-
tical to its former habitat. Moreover, if Mesosaurus
could have swum across the ocean, its fossil remains
should be widely dispersed. It is more logical to as-
sume that Mesosaurus lived in lakes in what are now
adjacent areas of South America and Africa, but were
then united into a single continent.
Lystrosaurus and Cynognathus are both land-
dwelling reptiles that lived during the Triassic Period;
their fossils are found only on the present-day continen-
Glaciated area
I I
Arrows indicate the direction of

tal fragments of Gondwana (Fig. 13-9). Since Lystrosau-
glacial movement based on rus and Cynognathus are both land animals, they cer-
striations preserved in bedrock. tainly could not have swum across the oceans currently
(b)
separating the Gondwana continents. Therefore, the
continents must once have been connected.
The evidence favoring continental drift seemed over-
whelming to Wegener and his supporters yet the lack of
a suitable mechanism to explain continental movement
with the fossil and climatological evidence from Laur-
prevented its widespread acceptance. Not until new ev-
asia (Fig. 13-8b).
idence from studies of the Earth's magnetic field and
oceanographic research showed that the ocean basins
Fossil Evidence were geologically young features did renewed interest in
continental drift occur.
Some of the most compelling evidence for continental
driftcomes from the fossil record. Fossils of the Glos-
found in equivalent Pennsylvanian-
sopteris flora are ^ PALEOMAGNETISM AND
and Permian-aged coal deposits on all five Gondwana
continents. The Glossopteris flora is characterized by
POLAR WANDERING
the seed fern Glossopteris (Fig. 13-3) as well as by many Some of the most convincing evidence for continental
other distinctive and easily identifiable plants. Pollen drift came from the study of paleomagnetism, a rela-
and spores of plants can be dispersed over great dis- tively new discipline during the 1950s. During that time,
tances by wind, but Glossopteris-type plants produced some geologists were researching past changes of the
seeds that are too large to have been carried by winds. Earth's magnetic field in order to better understand the
Paleomagnetism and Polar Wandering 349

Lystrosaurus
Glossopteris
^^ FIGURE 13-9 Some of the animals and plants whose fossils are found today on
the widely separated continents of South America, Africa, India, Australia, and
Antarctica. These continents were joined together during the Late Paleozoic to form
Gondwana, the southern landmass of Pangaea. Glossopteris and similar plants are
found in Pennsylvanian- and Permian-aged deposits on all five continents. Mesosaurus is
a freshwater reptile whose fossils are found in Permian-aged rocks in Brazil and South
Africa. Cynognathus and Lystrosaurus are land reptiles who lived during the Early
Triassic Period. Fossils of Cynognathus are found in South America and Africa, while
fossils of Lystrosaurus have been recovered from Africa, India, and Antarctica.
present-day magnetic field. As so often happens in sci- mine the location of the Earth's magnetic poles and the
ence, these studies led to other discoveries. In this case, latitude of the rock when it formed.
they led to the discovery that the ocean basins are geo- Research conducted during the 1950s by the English
logically young features, and that the continents have geophysicist S. K. Runcorn and his associates showed
indeed moved during the past, just asWegener and oth- that the location of the paleomagnetic pole, as measured
ers had proposed. by the paleomagnetism in European lava flows of dif-
Recall from Chapter 11 that the Earth's magnetic ferent ages, varied widely. They found that during the
poles correspond closely to the location of the geo- past 500 million years, the north magnetic pole has ap-
graphic poles (see Fig. 11-27). When a magma cools, the parently wandered from the Pacific Ocean northward
iron-bearing minerals align themselves with the Earth's through eastern and then northern Asia to its present-
magnetic field when they reach the Curie point, thus day location near the geographic north pole (Fig. 13-
recording both the direction and the intensity of the 10). This paleomagnetic evidence from Europe could be
magnetic field. This information can be used to deter- interpreted in three ways: the continent remained fixed

and the north magnetic pole moved; the north magnetic
pole stood still and the continent moved; or both the
continent and the north magnetic pole moved.

When paleomagnetic readings from numerous lava
flows of different ages in North America were plotted on
a map, however, they pointed to different magnetic pole
locations than did flows of the same ages in Europe (Fig.
13-10). Furthermore, analysis of lava flows from all con-

tinents indicated that each continent had its own series
of magnetic poles! Does this mean that each continent

had a different north magnetic pole? That would be
highly unlikely and difficult to reconcile with the laws of ,, Path of v
physics and what we know about how the Earth's mag- /jl European
paleomagnetic
netic field is generated (see Chapter 11). pole
Therefore, the best explanation for the apparent
wandering of the magnetic poles is that they have re-
mained at their present locations near the geographic
poles and the continents have moved. When the conti-
nents are fitted together so that the paleomagnetic data
point to only one magnetic pole, we find, just as We-
gener did, that the rock sequences, mountain ranges,
and glacial deposits match, and that the fossil and cli-
"•'' FIGURE 13-10 The apparent paths of polar
matic evidence is consistent with the reconstructed pa-
wandering for North America and Europe. The apparent
leogeography (see Perspective 13-1). location of the north magnetic pole is shown for different
periods on each continent's polar wandering path.
» SEA-FLOOR SPREADING
In addition to the paleomagnetic research in the 1950s, movement. Hess proposed that the continents do not
a renewed oceanographic research led to ex-
interest in move across or through oceanic crust, but rather that the
tensive mapping of the world's ocean basins (see Per- continents and oceanic crust move together and are both
spective 12-2). Such mapping revealed that the Mid- parts of large plates. According to Hess, oceanic crust
Atlantic Ridge is part of a worldwide oceanic ridge separates at oceanic ridges where new formed by
crust is
system more than 65,000 km long. It was also discov- upwelling magma. As the magma newly
cools, the
ered that oceanic ridges are characterized by high heat formed oceanic crust moves laterally away from the
flow, basaltic volcanism, and seismicity. Furthermore, ridge, thus explaining how volcanic islands that formed
magnetic reversals, as recorded in oceanic-crust rocks, at or near ridge crests later become guyots (Fig. 12-18).
and the age of deep-sea sediments immediately above Hess revived the idea (proposed in the 1930s and
the oceanic crust occur in distinct patterns with respect 1940s by Arthur Holmes and others) of a heat transfer
to ridges. system — or thermal convection cells— within the mantle
Harry H. Hess of Princeton University conducted as a mechanism to move the plates. According to Hess,
much of his oceanographic research while serving in the hot magma rises from the mantle, intrudes along rift
central Pacific during World War II. His discovery of zone fractures defining oceanic ridges, and thus forms
guyots (submerged, flat-topped volcanic islands) pro- new crust. Cold crust is subducted back into the mantle
vided geologists with evidence that the sea floor is mov- at deep-sea trenches where it is heated and recycled.
ing away from the oceanic ridges (see Fig. 12-18). How could Hess's hypothesis be confirmed? If new
As a result of his discovery of guyots and other re- crust is forming at oceanic ridges and the Earth's mag-
search conducted during the 1950s, Hess published a netic field is periodically reversing itself, then these mag-
landmark paper in 1962 in which he proposed the hy- netic reversals should be preserved as magnetic anoma-
pothesis of sea-floor spreading to account for continental lies in the rocks of the oceanic crust (Fig. 13-11).

Perspective 13-1
PALEOGEOGRAPHIC MAPS
The key to any reconstruction of world The and animals provides a
distribution of plants
paleogeography is the correct positioning of the on the latitudes determined by
useful check
continents in terms of latitude and longitude and the paleomagnetism and can provide additional limits on
proper orientation of the paleocontinent relative to the longitudinal separation of continents. It is well known
paleonorth pole. The main criteria used for and animals is
that the distribution of plants
paleogeographic reconstructions are paleomagnetism, controlled by both climatic and geographic barriers.
biogeography, tectonic patterns, and climatology. Such information can be used to position continents
Paleomagnetism provides the only quantitative data and ocean basins in a way that accounts for the
on the orientations of the continents. For the biogeographic patterns indicated by fossil evidence.
Paleozoic Era, however, the paleomagnetic data are Tectonic activity is indicated by deformed
often inconsistent and contradictory because sediments associated with andesitic volcanics and
secondary magnetizations may be acquired through ophiolites. Such features allow geologists to recognize
the effects of metamorphism or weathering. ancient mountain chains and zones of subduction.
(text continued on page 354)
""''
FIGURE 1 Three paleogeographic maps and one modern map depicting the Earth
during the (a) Late Cambrian Period, {b) Early Triassic Period, (c) Late Cretaceous Period,
and (d) Recent.
(a) PyiSil Uplands and I I

Lowlands I I
Shallow sea I
I
Deep sea
mountains

These mountain chains may subsequently have been exceeds precipitation, such as in desert regions or
separated by plate movement, so the identification of along hot, dry, shorelines.Tillites result from glacial
large, continuous mountain chains provides important activityand indicate cold, wet environments.
information about continental positions in the By combining all relevant geologic, paleontologic,
geologic past. and climatologic information, geologists can construct
Climate-sensitive sedimentary rocks are used to paleogeographic maps (Fig. 1). Such maps are simply
interpret past climatic conditions. Desert dunes are interpretations of the geography of an area for a
typically well sortedand cross-bedded on a large particular time in the geologic past. The majority of
scale,and associated with other deposits, they indicate paleogeographic maps show the distribution of land
an arid environment. Coals form in freshwater and sea, probable climatic regimes, and such
swamps where climatic conditions promote abundant geographic features as mountain ranges, swamps, and
plant growth. Evaporites result when evaporation glaciers.
Around 1960, magnetic data gathered by scientists L. W. Morley, a Canadian geologist, independently ar-
from the ScrippsInstitution of Oceanography in Cali- rived at a model that explained this pattern of magnetic
fornia indicated an unusual pattern of alternating posi- anomalies.
tiveand negative magnetic anomalies for the Pacific These three geologists proposed that when basaltic
ocean floor off the west coast of North America. The magma intruded along the crests of oceanic ridges, it
pattern consisted of a series of roughly north-south par- would record the magnetic polarity at the time it cooled.
allel stripes, but they were broken and offset by essen- As the ocean floor moved away from these oceanic
tially It was not until 1963 that F.
east-west fractures. ridges, repeated intrusions would form a symmetrical
Vine and D. Matthews of Cambridge University and series of magnetic stripes, recording periods of normal

Oceanic ridge
Normal
magnetism
Reversed
magnetism
Magnetic profile
as recorded by a Continental Continental
magnetometer sequence of lava flows
magnetic reversals
""' FIGURE 13-11 The sequence of magnetic anomalies preserved within the oceanic
crust on both sides of an oceanic ridge is identical to the sequence of magnetic reversals
already known from continental lava flows. Magnetic anomalies are formed when
basaltic magma intrudes into oceanic ridges; when the magma cools below the Curie
point, records the Earth's magnetic polarity at the time. Subsequent intrusions split
it
the previously formed crust in half, so that it moves laterally away from the oceanic
ridge. Repeated intrusions produce a symmetrical series of magnetic anomalies that
reflect periods of normal and reversed polarity. The magnetic anomalies are recorded by
a magnetometer, which measures the strength of the magnetic field.
and reverse polarity (Fig. 13-11). Shortly thereafter, the million years old, whereas the oldest continental crust is
Vine, Matthews, and Morley proposal was supported 3.96 billion years old; this difference in age provides
by evidence from magnetic readings across the Reyk- confirmation that the ocean basins are geologically
janes Ridge, part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge south of young features whose openings and closings are par-
Iceland. A
group from the Lamont-Doherty Geological tially responsible for continental movement.
Observatory at Columbia University found that mag-
netic anomalies in this area did form stripes that were
Deep-Sea Drilling and the Confirmation
distributed parallel to and symmetrical about the oce-
of Sea-Floor Spreading
anic ridge. By the end of the 1960s, comparable mag-
netic anomaly patterns were found surrounding most To many amassed in
geologists, the paleomagnetic data
oceanic ridges. support of continental and sea-floor spreading was
drift
Magnetic surveys for most of the ocean floor have convincing. Results from the Deep-Sea Drilling Project
now been completed (Fig. 13-12). They demonstrate (see Chapter 12) have confirmed the interpretations
that the youngest oceanic crust is adjacent to the spread- made by earlier paleomagnetic studies. Cores of deep-
ing ridges and that the age of the crust increases with sea sediments and seismic profiles obtained by the Glo-
distance from the ridge axis, as would be expected ac- mar Challenger and other research vessels have provided
cording to the sea-floor spreading hypothesis. Further- much of the data that support the sea-floor spreading
more, the age of the oldest oceanic crust is less than 180 hypothesis.

EaSr%
| Pleistocene to Recent (0-2 M.Y.A.) | Paleocene (58-66 M.Y.A.)
| |
Pliocene (2-5 M.Y.A.) | |
Late Cretaceous (66-88 M.Y.A.)
^2 Miocene (5-24 M.Y.A.) |

Middle Cretaceous (88-1 18 M.Y.A.;
^| Oligocene (24-37 M.Y.A.) | Cretaceous (118-144

Early M.Y.A.)
Eocene (37-58 M.Y.A.) B Late Jurassic (144-161 M.Y.A.)
"^ FIGURE 13-12 The age of the world's ocean basins established from magnetic
anomalies demonstrates that the youngest oceanic crust is adjacent to the spreading
ridges and that its age increases away from the ridge axis.
According to this hypothesis, oceanic crust is contin- distribution.

uously forming at mid-oceanic ridges, moving away Sediments in the open ocean accumulate, on average,
from these ridges by sea-floor spreading, and being con- at a rate of less than 0.3 cm per 1,000 years. If the ocean
sumed at subduction zones. If this is the case, oceanic basins were as old as the continents, we would expect
and become pro-
crust should be youngest at the ridges deep-sea sediments to be several kilometers thick. How-
gressively older with increasing distance away from ever, datafrom numerous drill holes indicate that deep-
them. Moreover, the age of the oceanic crust should be sea sediments are at most only a few hundred meters
symmetrically distributed about the ridges. As we have thick and are thin or absent at oceanic ridges. Their
just noted, paleomagnetic data confirm these state- near-absence at the ridges should come as no surprise,
ments. Furthermore, fossils from sediments overlying however, because these are the areas where new crust is
the oceanic crust and radiometric dating of rocks found continuously produced by volcanism and sea-floor
on oceanic islands both substantiate this predicted age spreading. Accordingly, at or very close to spreading

.
Oceanic crust
"•" FIGURE 13-13 The total
thickness of deep-sea sediments
increases away from oceanic ridges.
This is because oceanic crust
Total thickness of sediment becomes older away from oceanic
increases away from ridges, and thus there has been
oceanic ridge
more time for sediment to
Upper mantle Magma Increasing age of crust accumulate.
ridges where the oceanic crust is young, sediments are asmuch as 250 km thick, whereas those of upper
have had little time to accumulate, but their thick- mantle and oceanic crust are up to 100 km thick.
ness increases with distance away from the ridges The lithosphere overlies the hotter and weaker semi-
(Fig. 13-13). plastic asthenosphere. It is believed that movement result-
ing from some type of heat transfer system within the
^ PLATE TECTONIC THEORY asthenosphere causes the overlying plates to move. As

plates move over the asthenosphere, they separate, mostly
As early as 1965, J. T. Wilson of the University of Tor- at oceanic ridges, while in other areas such as at oceanic
onto proposed that the Earth's crust is composed of trenches, they collide and are subducted back into the
several large rigid plates that move with respect to one mantle. Individual plates are recognized by the types of
another. He also speculated on the nature of large frac- geological phenomena occurring at their boundaries.
tures in the oceanic crust and named them transform
faults (discussed later in this chapter). In 1968, B.
Isacks, J. Oliver, and L. R. Sykes of Columbia University » PLATE BOUNDARIES
proposed the term new global tectonics to encompass
Plates move relative to one another such that their
the concepts of continental drift, seajjioor spreading.
boundaries can be characterized as divergent, conver-
andânsforrn jaults/Ihat rprm has: nnw-heerusharrenerl
gent, and transform. Interaction of plates at their
t^4>late_iectonics
boundaries accounts for most of the Earth's seismic and
Most geologists accept plate tectonic theory, in part
volcanic activity and, as will be apparent in the next
because the evidence for it is overwhelming, and also
chapter, the origin of mountain systems.
because it is a unifying theory that can explain many
seemingly unrelated geologic phenomena. Conse-
quently, geologists now view many geologic processes,
Divergent Boundaries
such as mountain building, seismicity, and volcanism,
from the perspective of plate tectonics. Furthermore, be- Divergent plate boundaries or spreading ridges occur
cause all of the terrestrial planets have had a similar where p lates are sepaf ating~and new oceanic lit hosphere
origin and early history, geologists are interested in de- is forming. Divergent boundaries are placeswKere the
termining whether plate tectonics is unique to Earth or cfusi is "b eing extended, thinned, and fractured as
whether it operates in the same way on the other terres- magma, derived from the partial melting of the mantle,
trial planets (see Perspective 13-2). rises to the surface. The magma is almost entirely ba-
Plate tectonic theory based on a simple model of
is saltic and intrudes into vertical fractures to form dikes
the Earth. The both
rigid outer lithosphere, consisting of and lava flows (Fig. 13-15). As successive injections of
oceanic and continental crust, as well as the underlying magma cool and solidify, they form new oceanic crust
upper mantle, consists of numerous variable-sized pieces and record the intensity and orientation of the Earth's
called plates (Fig. 13-14). The plates vary in thickness; magnetic field (Fig. 13-11). Divergent boundaries most
those composed of upper mantle and continental crust commonly occur along the crests of oceanic ridges, for

Perspective 13-2
TECTONICS OF THE
TERRESTRIAL PLANETS
Recall from Chapter 2 that the four terrestrial "^ FIGURE 2 {a) Western Ishtar Terra and mountain belts
planets— Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars— all had a surrounding Lakshmi Planum. Surrounding Western Ishtar
Terra are a transitional zone (blue) and lowlands plains
similar early history involving accretion,
(rust), (b) A radar image of Akna Montes, Freyja Montes,
differentiation into a metallic core and silicate mantle and a portion of Lakshmi Planum illustrating the folded and
and and formation of an early atmosphere by
crust, faulted nature of the Akna and Freyja montes.
outgassing. Their early history was marked by
widespread volcanism and meteorite impacts, both of
which helped modify their surfaces. The volcanic and
tectonic activity and resultant surface features (other
than meteorite craters) of these planets are clearly
related to the way in which they transport heat from
their interiors to their surfaces.
The Earth appears to be unique in that its surface
is broken up into a series of plates. The creation and
destruction of these plates at spreading ridges and
subduction zones transfer the majority of the Earth's
internally produced heat. In addition, movement of
the plates, together with life-forms, the formation of
sedimentary rocks, and water, is responsible for the
Sedna Planitia , 50°
cycling of carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and
lithosphere and thus the maintenance of a habitable
climate on Earth (see Perspective 2-2). 340° 350° 50°
"^^ FIGURE 1 This radar image of Venus made by the

Magellan spacecraft reveals circular and oval-shaped volcanic
features. A complex network of cracks and fractures extends
(a)
outward from the volcanic features. Geologists think these
features were created by blobs of magma rising from the
interior of Venus with dikes filling some of the cracks.

Heat is transferred between the interior and surface of
both Mercury and Mars mainly by lithospheric
conduction. This method is sufficient for these planets
because both are significandy smaller than Earth or Venus.

Because both Mercury and Mars have a single, globally
continuous plate, they have exhibited fewer types of

volcanic and The
tectonic activity than has the Earth.
initial interior warming of Mercury and Mars produced
expansional features such as normal faults (see Chapter 14)
and widespread volcanism, while their subsequent cooling
produced folds and faults resulting from compressional
forces, as well as a succession of volcanic activity.
Mercury's surface is heavily cratered and shows

little in the way of primary volcanic structures.
However, it does have a global system of lobate scarps
(see Fig. 2-10). These have been interpreted as
evidence that Mercury shrank a little soon after its
crust hardened, resulting in crustal cracking.

Mars has numerous features that indicate an extensive
early period of volcanism. These include Olympus Mons,
the solar system's largest volcano (see Fig. 2-12), lava
flows, and uplifted regions believed to have resulted from
mande convection. In addition to volcanic features, Mars
also displays abundant evidence of tensional tectonics,
including numerous faults and large fault-produced valley
structures. While Mars was tectonically active during the
past, there is no evidence that plate tectonics comparable
to that on Earth has ever occurred there.

Venus underwent essentially the same early history as
the other terrestrial planets, including a period of
volcanism, but it is more Earth-like in its tectonics than
either Mercury or Mars. Initial radar mapping in 1990

by the Magellan spacecraft revealed a surface of
extensive lava flows, volcanic domes, folded mountain
ranges, and an extensive and intricate network of faults,
all of which attest to an internally active planet (Fig. 1).
broad plateau area named the Western Ishtar

In a
Terra, a series of mountain belts surrounds Lakshmi
Planum, a central smooth plain (Fig. 2). On the basis of
detailed mapping from radar images and interpretation
"*r- FIGURE 3 Block diagram showing the geologic history
of the topography and geology of the Akna and Freyja
of the Freyja Montes region, (a) Crustal convergence and
montes, geologists believe that these structures represent compression cause buckling and underthrusting of the crust
mountain belts. Features identified include folds and and lithosphere. (b) Continued convergence, compression,
faults resulting from compressive forces and horizontal and underthrusting produce crustal thickening, uplift, and
the formation of new zones of underthrusting.
movement. It is thought that the Freyja Montes region
(c) Continuing convergence, crustal thickening, and
was the site of large-scale crustal convergence that is underthrusting cause numerous slabs of crust to overlap one
continuing as a result of the underthrusting of the North another like shingles, producing the present-day
Polar Plains beneath Ishtar Terra (Fig. 3). configuration of the region.

• Hot spot —»- Direction of movement
"^ FIGURE 13-14 A map of the world showing the plates, their boundaries,
direction of movement, and hot spots.
example, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Oceanic ridges are thus

'*"'
FIGURE 13-15 Pillow lavas forming along the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Their distinctive bulbous shape is the characterized by rugged topography with high relief result-
result of underwater eruption. ing from displacement of rocks along large fractures,
shallow-focus earthquakes, high heat flow, and basaltic
flows or pillow lavas.
Divergent b ound aries also occur under continents
during trie early" stages of continental breakup (Fig. 13-
16). When magma wells up beneath a continent, the
crust is initially elevated, extended, and thinned (Fig.
13-16a). Such stretching eventually produces fractures
an d rift v alleys. During IKIs stage, magma~~typically in-
trudes into the faults and fractures forming sills, dikes,
and lava flows; the latter often cover the rift valley floor
(Fig. 13-16b). The East African rift valleys are an excellent
example of this stage of continental breakup (Fig. 13-17).
If spreading proceeds, some rift valleys will continue

to lengthen and deepen until they form a narrow linear
sea separating two continental blocks (Fig. 13- 16c). The
Red Sea separating the Arabian Peninsula from Africa
(Fig. 13-17) and the Gulf of California, which separates

Crustal upwarp
Narrow
sea
"^ FIGURE 13-16 History of a divergent plate boundary, {a) Rising magma beneath a
continent pushes the crust up, producing numerous cracks and fractures, (b) As the crust is
stretched and thinned, rift and lava flows onto the valley floors, (c) Continued
valleys develop,
spreading further separates the continent until a narrow seaway develops, (d) As spreading
continues, an oceanic ridge system forms, and an ocean basin develops and grows.
Baja California from mainland Mexico, are good exam- moving westward, and the Eurasian and African plates
ples of this advanced stage of rifting. are moving eastward.
As a newly created narrow sea continues enlarging, it
may eventually become an expansive ocean basin such
Convergent Boundaries'^
as the Atlantic, which separates North and South Amer-
ica from Europe and Africa by thousands of kilometers Because new lithosphere is formed at divergent plate
(13-16d). The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is the boundary be- boundaries, older lithosphere must be destroyed and re-
tween these diverging plates; the American plates are cycled in order for the entire surface area of the Earth to

SO°E
Most of these planes dip from oceanic trenches beneath
adjacent island arcs or continents, marking the surface of
Levantine Rift
slippage between the converging plates. As the subduct-
ing plate moves down into the asthenosphere, it is heated
and eventually incorporated into the mantle. However,
subduction does not occur when both of the converging
plates are continental because continental crust is not
dense enough to be subducted into the mantle.
Convergent boundaries are characterized by deforma-
mountain building, metamorphism, seis-
tion, volcanism,
micity, and important mineral deposits. Three types of
convergent plate boundaries are recognized: oceanic-
oceanic, oceanic-continental, and continental-continental.
Oc eanic -Oceanic Boundaries

When-twxLXiceanic plates^conterge, one of them is sub-
Carlsberg ducted beneath t he other along an oceanic-oceanic plate
Ridge boundary (Fig. 13-18). The subducting plate bends
downward at an angle between 5° to 10° to form the
outer wall of an oceanic trench. The inner wall of the
trench consists of a subduction complex composed of
wedge-shaped slices of highly folded and faulted marine
sediments and oceanic lithosphere scraped off from the
descending plate. This subduction complex is elevated
Rift
as a result of uplift along faults as subduction continues
T I ' Rift valley
(Fig. 13-18).
I I Oceanic crust
As the subducting plate descends into the asthenos-
I I Stretched continental
crust phere, it is heated and partially melted, generating a
magma, commonly of andesitic composition. This

magma is less dense than the surrounding mantle rocks
and rises to the surface through the nonsubducting or
overriding plate where it forms a curved chain of vol-
canoes called a volcanic island arc (any plane intersect-
Madagascar
ing a sphere makes an arc). This arc is nearly parallel to
the oceanic trench and is separated from it by up to
several hundred kilometers — the distance depends on
Kilometers the angle of dip of the subducting plate (Fig. 13-18).
J L
Located between the volcanic island arc and the sub-
•^ FIGURE 13-17 The East African being
rift valley is
duction complex of the oceanic trench is a fore-arc basin
formed by the separation of eastern Africa from the rest of
(Fig. 13-18). It typically contains a diverse assortment of
the continent along a divergent plate boundary. The Red Sea
represents an advanced stage of rifting, in which two
generally flat-lying detrital sediments up to 5 km thick.
continental blocks are separated by a narrow sea. These sediments are derived from the weathering and
erosion of the island arc volcanoes and reflect a progres-
sive shallowing as the basin fills up.
remain constant. Otherwise, we would have an expand- In those areas where the rate of subduction is faster
ing Earth. Such plate destruction occurs at convergent than the forward movement of the overriding plate, the
plate boundaries where two plates collide. lithosphere on the landward side of the volcanic island
At a convergent boundary, the leading edge of one arc may be subjected to tensional stress and stretched
plate descends beneath the margin of the other_by_sjib- and thinned, resulting in the formation of a back-arc
diigtion. A dipping plane of earthquake foci, referred to basin. This back-arc basin may grow by spreading if
as a Benioff zone, defines subduction zones (Fig. 10-8). magma breaks through the thin crust and forms new

Sea level
—
FIGURE 13-18
Oceanic-oceanic plate boundary. An
oceanic trench forms where one
oceanic plate is subducted beneath
another. As a result of subduction, a
complex of highly folded and
faulted marine sediment and
scraped-off pieces of oceanic
lithosphere forms along the inner
Asthenosphere Magma wall of the trench. On the
nonsubducted plate, a volcanic
island arc forms from the rising
magma generated from the
subducting plate.
oceanic crust (Fig. 13-18). In any case, the back-arc ba- pine Islands. The Scotia and Antillean (Caribbean) is-
sin will with a mixture of volcanic rocks and detrital

fill land arcs are present in the Atlantic Ocean basin.
sediments. A good example of a back-arc basin associ-
ated with an oceanic-oceanic plate boundary is the Sea
Oc eanic-Continen ta l Boundaries
of Japan between the Asian continent and the islands of When an oceanic and a continental plate c onverge, the
Japan. oceanic plate is subducted under the continental plate
Most present-day active volcanic island arcs are in alo ng an oceanic-continental pla te_boundary (Fig. 13-
Ocean basin and include the Aleutian Islands,
the Pacific 19). The oceanic plate is subducted because it is denser
the Kermadec-Tonga arc, and the Japanese and Philip- than continental crust. Just as at oceanic-oceanic plate
— FIGURE 13-19
Continental Oceanic-continental plate boundary.
interior Trench When an oceanic plate is subducted
Sea beneath a continental plate, an
level andesitic volcanic mountain range is
formed on the continental plate as a
Magma result of rising magma.
Continental
crust
Asthenosphere

boundaries, the descending oceanic plate forms the of subduction, and the Andes Mountains are the result-
outer wall of an oceanic trench; a subduction complex ing volcanic mountain chain on the overriding plate
forms the inner wall of the trench and between it and the (see Fig. 4-31).
continent is a fore-arc basin.
The oceanic trenches of oceanic-continental bound- Continental-Continental Boundaries
aries typically contain sediments derived from the ero- continental converge ;dong a
plates
The subduction complex consists of
sion of continents. boundary, one platem av
rtinental plate
wedge-shaped slices of complexly folded and faulted partially slide undg£the other, but neither plate wil l be
rocks. These wedges contain continental sediments as subductej becausej^Lt heir low and equal de nsities and
well assome of the sediment and pieces of crust that are great thickness (Fig. 13-20). These continents are ini-
scraped off by the overriding continental plate. The sub- tially separatecTfrom ojiejmojhgr_ by oceanic crust that
duction complex is elevated as new slices are added by the is being subducted under one of the continents. The edge
underthrusting of subduction. The fore-arc basin of the of that continent will display the characteristics of an
oceanic-continental boundary contains detrital sediments oceanic-continental boundary with the development of
derived from the erosion of the continent. These sediments a deep-sea trench, subduction complex, fore-arc basin,
are typically flat-lying or only mildly deformed. and volcanic arc (Fig. 13-19). Eventually, the oceanic
As the cold, wet, and slightly denser oceanic plate crust is totally consumed and the two continents collide;
descends into the hot asthenosphere, melting occurs and the sediments and portions of sea floor caught between
magma is generated. This magma rises beneath the over- the two plates are deformed and uplifted. A new moun-
riding continental plate and can extrude at the surface, tain range is thus formed, composed of deformed sedi-
producing a chain of andesitic volcanoes (also called a mentary rocks, scraped-off oceanic crust, and the vol-
volcanic arc), or intrude into the continental margin as canic arc of the overriding plate.
plutons, especially batholiths. A back-arc basin may be The Himalayas, the world's youngest and highest
filled with continental detrital sediments, pyroclastic mountain system, resulted from the collision between In-
materials,and lava flows, derived from and thickening dia and Asia that began about 40 to 50 million years ago
toward the volcanic arc. and is still continuing (Fig. 14-35). During this collision,
An excellent example of an oceanic-continental plate the leading margin of the Indian plate was partially forced
boundary is the Pacific coast of South America where under the Asian plate, resulting in a thick accumulation of
the oceanic Nazca plate is currently being subducted and the uplift of the Himalayas
continental lithosphere
under South America. The Peru-Chile Trench is the site and the Tibetan Plateau. Other examples of mountain
*»- FIGURE 13-20 Deformed and metamorphosed

Continental-continental plate subduction complex
boundary. When two continental
plates converge, neither is subducted
because of their great thickness and

low and equal densities. As the two Oceanic crust
continental plates collide, a fragments
mountain range formed in the

is
interior of a new and larger

continent.
Continental
crust
Magma
Asthenosphere
- Oceanic crust

Guest Essay NICHOLAS B. CLAUDY
GEOSCIENCE CAREERS-THE
DIVERSITY IS UNPARALLELED
The following essay originally appeared in the January Department of Energy and the Environmental
1991 issue of Geotimes, and has been adapted with Protection Agency. Numerous employment
permission from the author. opportunities in energy-related programs will
show moderate- to above-average growth.
The geosciences offer unparalleled career opportunities
Consulting (11%): This has been and will
that reflect a unique blend of many scientific
continue to be the fastest growing employment
disciplines. Whether you are interested in scientific
sector for the next few years. And, for those
research, applying research and development to
consultants who deal with environmental issues,
problem solving, conserving and protecting natural
faster-than-average growth should continue well
resources, or disseminating geologic knowledge, the
into the 1990s.
geosciences offer rewarding careers.
Academia (14%): Modest growth is predicted for
Several factors will contribute to thedemand for
academia as enrollments begin to recover and
geoscientists: a far lower unemployment rate and far
retirements increase. The increased emphasis on
greateremployment growth than for the labor force as
environmental studies will perhaps allow growth
a whole; and potential shortages of workers, due to
in some areas. More qualified secondary and high
depressed enrollments, too few new graduates, and the
school teachers will be needed in the earth
aging of the current work force.
sciences as increased emphasis is placed on
The following are the major geoscience employers
math literacy.
science skills and
(the figure in parentheses indicates the percentage of
Each category of employer has its own list of
the geoscience work force employed in that area):
preferred credentials for new employees.
- Oil/gas (50%): Since the invasion of Kuwait, the However, all employers seek a few basic
world's attention has been refocused on its requisites. A master's degree is highly desirable.
dependence on oil, realistic alternative energy In 1990, there were far more B.A./B.S.
sources, and conservation. As a result, emphasis graduates than jobs available, but the situation
will be placed on global expansion of energy was quite the opposite for those with a master's
markets and improved research and operations. degree. Diversity of coursework is highly
Domestically, there will be increased valued, since it allows the employee to be more
concentration on improved recovery technology adaptable to employer needs. Any work
rather than exploration. Shortages of geoscientists experience ( full-time, part-time or summer) is
are likely in the next few years, and an energy also a valuable asset. Skills in oral and written
career remains a strong and viable option. communication are also frequently cited as a
Mining/minerals (9%): Worldwide metallic- necessity for new employees, a

and nonmetallic-mineral exploration and
JN icholas B. Gaudy graduated from Brown University
production will continue as current supplies
where he majored in Greek studies and earned a master's
decrease. Probable growth in nuclear power
degree in Greek from the
will increase interest in energy-related minerals,
University of North Carolina at
such as uranium and plutonium. Chapel Hill. In 1979, he joined
Federal/state (12%): Due to budget constraints, the American Geological Institute
the federal sector will probably not expand its where he is responsible for
hiring significantly, although some regulatory preparing several publications. In
work force. State 1986, he became the institute's

efforts will require a larger
director of development. Claudy
agencies will continue to assume a greater role
notes that his general liberal arts
in regulatory activities. how
education is an example of
- Research institutions/Department of Energy geology-related positions are
labs (4%): This employment category includes open to people from diverse
energy-related programs funded by the U.S. backgrounds.
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA,AAAAAAAA« . - -i. AAA AAAAAAAAAAJ Hiliit illi tiiti

j
ranges that formed by continent-continent collision are

the Appalachians, Alps, and Urals (see Chapter 14).
Sea level
Transform Boundaries
Thej hird type of rjlaiejjoundary is a transform bound-
ary These occur a long transform faults where plates
slide laterall y past one another roughly parallel to the

directionof_plate movemen t. Although lithosphere is
neither created nor destroyed along a transform bound-

ary, the movement between plates results in a zone of
Oceanic and numerous shallow-focus
intensely shattered rock
Upper earthquakes.
mantle
Transform faults are particular types of faults that
(a) '
transform" or change one type~of motion_betjveen
'
Transform plates lntoan otRer type of notion. The majority of trans-
Trench
fault foFm raultsconnect two oceanic ridge segments, but they
Sea level
can also connect ridges to trenches and trenches to
/
trenches (Fig. 13-21). While the majority of transform
faults occur in oceanic crust and are marked by distinct
^, fracture zones, they

One
may also extend into continents.
of the best-known transform faultsis the San
Andreas fault in California. It separates the Pacific plate

from the North American plate and connects spreading
ridges in the Gulf of California and the ridge separating
the Juan de Fuca and Pacific plates off the coast of
northern California (Fig. 13-22). The many earthquakes
that affect California are the result of movement along
this fault.
(b)
Transform „
Oceanic
^ PLATE MOVEMENT
Sea level
Trench fall | f
ridge AND MOTION
How and in what direction are the Earth's various
fast
platesmoving, and do they all move at the same rate?
Rates of movement can be calculated in several ways.
The least accurate method is to determine the age of the
sediments immediately above any portion of the oceanic
crust and divide that age by the distance from the
spreading ridge. Such calculations give an average rate
of movement.
Magma
Oceanic Ajnore accura te method of determining both the av-
crust /
Upper erage rate of movement and relative motion is by dating
mantle the magnetic reversals in the crust of the sea floor. Recall
(c)
that magnetic reversals are distributed symmetrically
about and parallel to the oceanic ridges (Fig. 13-12),
'"•' FIGURE
13-21 Horizontal movement between plates
and that the age of each reversal has been determined.
occurs along a transform fault, (a) The majority of
transform faults connect two oceanic ridge segments. Note Therefore, the distance from an oceanic ridge axis to
that relative motion between the plates only occurs between any magnetic reversal indicates the width of new sea
the two ridges, (b) A transform fault connecting two floor that formed during that time interval. Thus, for a
trenches, (c) A transform fault connecting a ridge and a
given interval of time, the wider the strip of sea floor, the
trench.
faster the plate has moved. In this way not only can the

British
Columbia
.Seattle
<s^Xeg' Juan
&f<F cieFuca
Washington
plate
Montana
Oregon
*^ FIGURE 13-23 This map shows the average rate of
r
movement in centimeters per
year and relative motion of the Earth's plates.
present average rate of movement and relative motion tion, rates ofmovement and relative motion have also
be determined (Fig. 13-23), but the average rate of been calculated by measuring the difference between ar-
movement during the past can also be calculated by rival times of radio signals from the same quasar to
dividing the distance between reversals by the amount of receiving stations on different plates. The rate of plate
time elapsed between reversals. movement determined by these two techniques corre-
From the information in Figure 13-23, it is obvious lates closely with those determined from magnetic re-
that the rate of movement varies among plates. The versals (Fig. 13-23).
southeastern part of the Pacific plate and the Cocos
plates are the two fastest moving plates, while the Ara-
bian and southern African plates are the slowest.
Hot Spots and Absolute Motion
The average movement as
rate of well as the relative Plate motions derived from magnetic reversals, satellites,
motion between any two plates can also be determined and lasers give only the relative motion of one plate with
by satellite laser ranging techniques. Laser beams from a respect to another. To determine absolute motion, we
station on one plate are bounced off a satellite (in geo- must have a fixed reference from which the rate and di-
synchronous orbit) and returned to a station on a dif- rection of plate movement can be determined. Hot spots,
ferent plate. As the plates move relative to each other, which may provide reference points, are locations where
there is an increase in the length of time that the laser stationary columns of magma, originating deep within
beam takes to go from the sending station to the sta- the mantle (mantle plumes), slowly rise to the Earth's
tionary satellite and back to the receiving station. This surface and form volcanoes or flood basalts (Fig. 13-14).
difference in elapsed time is used to calculate the rate of One of the best examples of hot spot activity is that
movement and relative motion between plates. In addi- over which the Emperor Seamount— Hawaiian Island

Aleutian
Kamchatka
Islands
Sea level / Sea level
/ Al
Sea level
We also know that the ultimate energy source driving material must move downward. In this manner, a con-
the plates is the Earth's internal heat, and much of that vection cell is generated in which warm material rises to
heat gets to the surface by some type of convection the surface, and cooler material descends back into the
within the mantle. When a portion of the mantle is Earth's interior.
heated, it expands, becoming less dense than the sur- Two models involving thermal convection cells have
rounding rock, and thus slowly rises to the Earth's sur- been proposed to explain plate movement (Fig. 13-25).
face. To offset this warm rising mass, cooler, denser In one model, thermal convection cells are restricted to
the asthenosphere, whereas in the second model the en-

tiremantle is involved. In both models spreading ridges
mark the ascending limbs of adjacent convection cells,
"^ FIGURE 13-25 Two models involving thermal
while trenches occur where the convection cells descend
convection have been proposed to explain plate
cells
back into the Earth's interior. Thus, the locations of
movement, (a) In one model, thermal convection cells are
restricted to the asthenosphere. (b) In the other model, spreading ridges and trenches are determined by the
thermal convection cells involve the entire mantle. convection cells themselves. Furthermore, in both mod-
els, the lithosphere is considered to be the top of the
Oceanic trench Oceanic ridge
thermal convection cell, and each plate therefore corre-
sponds to a single convection cell.

Oceanic trench While most geologists agree that the Earth's internal
heat plays an important role in plate movement, prob-
lems are inherent in both models. The major problem
associated with the first model is the difficulty in ex-
plaining the source of heat for the convection cells and
why they are restricted to the asthenosphere. In the sec-
ond model, the source of heat comes from the Earth's
outer core, but it is still not known how heat is trans-
ferred from the outer core to the mantle. Nor is it clear
Oceanic ridge
how convection can involve both the lower mantle and
the asthenosphere.
Some geologists believe that in addition to being gen-
Lithosphere
Oceanic ridge erated by thermal convection within the Earth, plate
movement also occurs, in part, because of a mechanism
Oceanic trench
involving "slab-pull" or "ridge-push" (Fig. 13-26). Both
(a)
of these mechanisms are gravity driven, but still depend
Oceanic trench Oceanic ridge on thermal differences within the Earth. In "slab-pull,"
because the subducting cold slab of lithosphere is denser
than the surrounding warmer asthenosphere, it pulls the
Oceanic trench
rest of the plate along with it as it descends into the
asthenosphere. As the lithosphere moves downward,
there is a corresponding upward flow back into the
spreading ridge.
Operating in conjunction with "slab-pull" is the
"ridge-push" mechanism. As a result of rising magma,
the oceanic ridges are higher than the surrounding oce-
anic crust. It is believed that gravity pushes the oceanic
Oceanic ridge lithosphere away from the higher spreading ridges and
toward the trenches.
Currently, geologists are fairly certain that some type
Lithosphere of convective system is involved in plate movement.
Oceanic ridge
However, the extent to which other mechanisms such as
Oceanic trench "slab-pull" and "ridge-push" are involved is still unre-
(b) solved. Consequently, no comprehensive theory of plate

SGa
Trench | eve .
Rising magma \
Asthenosphere
Convection cell ^^
movement
(a)
Tre nch
,
Sea level
^ FIGURE 13-26 Plate

movement is also thought to
occur because of gravity-driven

"slab-pull," or "ridge-push"
mechanisms, (a) In "slab-pull,"
the edge of the subducting plate
descends into the Earth's interior,
and the rest of the plate is pulled
downward, (b) In "ridge-push,"
rising magma pushes the oceanic
magma ridges higher than the rest of the
Rising
Convection ^^ Asthenosphere
oceanic crust. Gravity thus
(b)
cell movement
pushes the oceanic lithosphere
away from the ridges and toward
the trenches.
movement has been developed, and much still remains their search for new mineral deposits and in explaining
to be learned about the Earth's interior. the occurrence of known deposits.
Many metallic mineral deposits such as copper, gold,
lead, silver, tin, and zinc are related to igneous and as-
^ PLATE TECTONICS AND sociated hydrothermal activity, so it is not surprising

that a close relationship exists between plate boundaries
THE DISTRIBUTION OF
and these valuable deposits. In the late 1960s, Frederick
NATURAL RESOURCES Sawkins of the University of Minnesota pointed out that
In addition to being responsible for the major features of the majority of metallic sulfides are located along
the Earth's crust, plate movement affects the formation present-day and ancient plate boundaries.
and distribution of the Earth's natural resources. Con- The magma generated by partial melting of a sub-
sequently, geologists are using plate tectonic theory in ducting plate rises toward the Earth's surface, and as it
Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Natural Resources 371

• Porphyry copper deposits
a. Subduction zone
— Divergent boundary
"^ FIGURE 13-27 Important porphyry copper deposits "^ FIGURE 13-28 Bingham Mine in Utah is a huge
are located along the west coasts of North and South open-pit copper mine with reserves estimated at 1.7 billion
America. tons. More than 400,000 tons of rock are removed each
day. (Photo courtesy of R. V. Dietrich.)
cools, it precipitates and concentrates various metallic metallic ores (Fig. 13-27). The world's largest copper
sulfide ores. Some of the major metallic ore deposits deposits are found along this belt. The majority of the
(such as copper and molybdenum, for example) associ- copper deposits in the Andes and the southwestern
ated with convergent plate boundaries include those in United States were formed less than 60 million years ago
the Andes, Rockies, the Coast Ranges of North and when oceanic plates were subducted under the North
South America, Japan, the Philippines, the Soviet Union, and South American plates. The rising magma and as-
and a zone extending from the eastern Mediterranean sociated hydrothermal fluids carried minute amounts of
region to Pakistan. In addition, the majority of the copper, which was originally widely disseminated but
world's gold is associated with sulfide deposits located eventually became concentrated in the cracks and frac-
at ancient convergent plate boundaries in such areas as tures of the surrounding andesites. These low-grade por-
South Africa, Canada, California, Alaska, Venezuela, phyry copper deposits contain from 0.2 to 2% copper
Brazil, southern India, the Soviet Union, and western and are extracted from large open-pit mines (Fig. 13-28).
Australia. Divergent plate boundaries also yield valuable re-
The porphyry copper deposits of western North and sources. As we discussed in Chapter 12, hydrothermal
South America are an excellent example of the relation- vents are the sites of much metallic mineral precipita-
ship between convergent plate boundaries and the dis- tion. The Cyprus in the Mediterranean is rich
island of
tribution, concentration, and exploitation of valuable in copper and has been supplying all or part of the

world's needs for the last 3,000 years. The concentra- stage in the growth of an ocean basin. Sediments sam-
tion of copper on Cyprus formed as a result of precip- pled from three central basins within the Red Sea are
itation adjacent to hydrothermal vents. This deposit was rich in the aforementioned elements; they are believed to
brought to the surface when the copper-rich sea floor result from the interaction of the hot seawater and the
collided with the European plate, warping the sea floor rising magma.
and forming Cyprus. becoming increasingly clear that if we are to keep
It is
Studies indicate that minerals of such metals as cop- up with the continuing demands of a global industrial-
per, gold, iron, lead, silver, and zinc are currently form- ized society, the application of plate tectonic theory to the
ing as sulfides in the Red The Red Sea is opening as
Sea. origin and distribution of mineral resources is essential.
a result of plate divergence and represents the earliest
» CHAPTER SUMMARY 7. Three types of plate boundaries are recognized:

divergent boundaries, where plates move away from
1. The concept of continental movement is not new. each other; convergent boundaries, where two plates
Early maps showing the similarity between the east collide; and transform boundaries, where two plates
coast of South America and the west coast of Africa slide past each other.
provided people with the first evidence that the 8. The average rate of movement and relative motion
continents may once have been united and of plates can be calculated several ways. These
subsequently split apart. different methods all yield similar average rates of
2. Alfred Wegener is generally credited with developing plate movement and indicate that the plates move at
the hypothesis of continental drift. He
provided different average velocities.
abundant geological and paleontological evidence to 9. Absolute motion of plates can be determined by the
show that the continents were once united into one movement of plates over mantle plumes. A mantle
supercontinent he named Pangaea. Unfortunately, plume is an apparently stationary column of magma
Wegener could not explain how the continents that rises to the Earth's surface where it becomes a
moved, and therefore most geologists ignored his hot spot and forms a volcano.
ideas. 10. Although a comprehensive theory of plate movement
3. The hypothesis of continental drift was revived has yet to be developed, geologists believe that some
during the 1950s when paleomagnetic studies type of convective heat system is involved.
revealed that there apparently were multiple 11. A close relationship exists between the formation of
magnetic north poles. This paradox was resolved by mineral deposits and plate boundaries. Furthermore,
moving the continents into different positions. When the formation and distribution of the Earth's natural
this was done, the paleomagnetic data were resources are related to plate movement.
consistent with a single magnetic north pole.
4. Magnetic surveys of the oceanic crust reveal
magnetic anomalies in the rocks indicating that the
Earth's magnetic field has reversed itself in the past.
Since the anomalies are parallel and form symmetric IMPORTANT TERMS
belts adjacent to the oceanic ridges, new oceanic
crust must have formed as the sea floor was back-arc basin oceanic-oceanic plate
spreading. continental-continental boundary
5. Sea-floor spreading has been confirmed by dating the plate boundary Pangaea
sediments overlying the oceanic crust and by continental drift plate
radiometric dating of rocks on oceanic islands. Such convergent plate plate tectonics
dating reveals that the oceanic crust becomes older boundary sea-floor spreading
with distance from spreading ridges. divergent plate spreading ridge
6. Plate tectonic theory became widely accepted by the boundary subduction
1970s because of the overwhelming evidence fore-arc basin thermal convection cell
supporting it and because it provides geologists with Glossopteris flora transform boundary
a powerful theory for explaining such phenomena as Gondwana transform fault
volcanism, seismicity, mountain building, global hot spot volcanic island arc
climatic changes, past and present animal and plant Laurasia
distribution, and the distribution of mineral oceanic-continental plate
boundary
Important Terms 373

^ REVIEW QUESTIONS 11. Which of the following will allow you to determine
the absolute motion of plates?
1. The man who is credited with developing the a. hot spots;b. the age of the sediment
continental drift hypothesis is: directly above any portion of the ocean crust;
a. Wilson; b. Hess; c. Vine; c. magnetic reversals in the sea-floor crust;
d. Wegener; e. du Toit. d. satellite laser ranging techniques; e. all of
2. The southern part of Pangaea, consisting of South these.
America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica, is 12. The formation of the island of Hawaii and the Loihi
called: Seamount are the result of:
a. Gondwana; b. Laurasia; c. Atlantis; a. oceanic-oceanic plate boundaries; b. hot
d. Laurentia; e. Pacifica. spots; c. divergent plate boundaries;
3. Which of the following has been used as evidence d. transform boundaries; e. oceanic-
for continental drift? continental plate boundaries.
a. continental fit; b. fossil plants and 13. The driving mechanism of plate movement is
animals; c. similarity of rock sequences; believed to be:

d. paleomagnetism; e. all of these. a. isostasy; b. magnetism; c. thermal
4. Magnetic surveys of the ocean basins indicate that: convection cells; d. rotation of the Earth;
a. the oceanic crust is oldest adjacent to e. none of these.
spreading ridges; b. the oceanic crust youngest
is 14. The formation and distribution of copper deposits
adjacent to the continents; c. the oceanic crust is are associated with boundaries.
youngest adjacent to spreading ridges; d. the a. divergent; b. convergent;
oceanic crust is the same age in all ocean basins; c. transform; answers (a) and (b);
d.
e. answers (a) and (b). e. answers and (c).

(b)
5. Plates: Name the type of plate boundary indicated in the

a are the same thickness everywhere; illustration found at the top of page 375.
b. vary in thickness; c. include the crust and 15.
upper mantle; d. answers (a) and (c); 16.
e. answers (b) and (c). 17.
6. Divergent boundaries are the areas where: 18.
a. new continental lithosphere is forming; 19. What evidence convinced Wegener that the
b. V- new oceanic lithosphere is forming; continents were once joined together and
c. two plates come together; d. two plates subsequently broke apart?
slide past each other; answers (b) and (d).
e. 20. Why can't the similarity between the coastlines of
7. Along what type of plate boundary does subduction continents alone be used to prove they were once
occur? joined together?
a. divergent; b. transform; 21. What is the significance of polar wandering in
c. convergent; d. answers (a) and (b); relation to continental drift?
e. answers (b) and (c). 22. How can magnetic anomalies be used to show that
8. The west coast of South America is an example of the sea floor has been spreading?
a(n) plate boundary. 23. Whatevidence besides magnetic anomalies
a. divergent; b. continental-continental; convinced geologists of sea-floor spreading?
c. oceanic-oceanic; d. oceanic-continental; 24. Why is plate tectonics such a powerful unifying
e. transform. theory?
9. Back-arc basins are associated with plate 25. Summarize the geologic features characterizing the
boundaries. three different types of plate boundaries.
a. divergent; b. convergent; 26. Explain how rates of movement of plates can be
c. transform; d. answers (a) and (b); determined.
e. answers (b) and (c). 27. What are mantle plumes and hot spots? How can
10. The San Andreas fault is an example of a(n) they be used to determine the direction and rate of
boundary. movement of plates?
a divergent; b. convergent; 28. What are some of the positive and negative features
c. transform; d. oceanic-continental; of the various models proposed to explain plate
e. continental-continental. movement?

Oceanic crust Asthenosphere
29. What features would an astronaut look for on the Condie, K. 1989. Plate tectonics and crustal evolution. 3d ed.
Moon or another planet to find out if plate tectonics New York: Pergamon Press.
currently active or if it was active during the past? Cox, A., and R. B. Hart. 1986. Plate tectonics: How it works.
is
Palo Alto, Calif.: Blackwell Scientific Publishers.
30. Briefly discuss how a geologist could use plate
Cromie, W. J. 1989. The roots of midplate volcanism. Mosaic
tectonic theory to help locate mineral deposits.
20, no. 4: 19-25.
Kearey, P., and F. J. Vine. 1990. Global tectonics. Palo Alto,
Calif.: Blackwell Scientific Publishers.
^ ADDITIONAL READINGS Nance, R. D., T. R. Worsley, and J. B.
supercontinent cycle. Scientific American 259, no.
Moody. 1988. The
1: 72-79.
Allegre, C. 1988. The behavior of the Earth. Cambridge, Mass. Saunders, R. S. 1990. The surface of Venus. Scientific American
Harvard University Press. 263, no. 6: 60-65.
Bonatti, E. 1987. The rifting of continents. Scientific American Vink, G. E., W. J. Morgan, and P. R. Vogt. 1985. The Earth's
256, no. 3: 96-103. hot spots. Scientific American 252, no. 4: 50-57.

CHAPTER 14
DEFORMATION, MOUNTAIN
BUILDING, AND THE
EVOLUTION OF CONTINENTS
^ OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
DEFORMATION
Strike and Dip
Folds
"^ Guest Essay: Studying the Earth:
Reflections of an Enthusiast
Joints
Faults
T Perspective 14-1: Folding, Joints, and

Arches
MOUNTAINS
Types of Mountains
MOUNTAIN BUILDING: OROGENESIS
Plate Boundaries and Orogenesis
'"' Perspective 14-2:
The Origin of the
Rocky Mountains
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF
CONTINENTS
Shields, Cratons, and the Evolution of
Continents
"^ Perspective 14-3: Plate Tectonic History
of the Appalachians
MICROPLATE TECTONICS AND
MOUNTAIN BUILDING
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Rocks deformed by folding and intruded by

small granite dikes, Georgian Bay, Ontario,
Canada. (Photo courtesy of R. V. Dietrich.)
K-^^^^ ** **' : "*- "^ *« •* •*- *'
PROLOGUE
^HgJiV^JI Of the many scenic mountain ranges
in the continental United States, few
compare grandeur to the Teton Range of
in
northwestern Wyoming (Fig. 14-1). The Native
Americans of the region called these mountains
Teewinot, meaning many pinnacles. This is an
appropriate name indeed, for the Teton Range consists
of numerous jagged peaks, the loftiest of which, the
Grand Teton, rises to 4,190 m above sea level. There
are higher and larger mountain ranges in the United
States, but none rise so abruptly as the Tetons. They
ascend nearly vertically more than 2,100 m above the
""•" FIGURE 14-1 View of the Teton Range in Wyoming. >
The Grand Teton is the highest peak visible.
floor ofJackson Hole, the valley to their east. This
range and the surrounding region comprise Grand
Teton National Park. were eroded, exposing the underlying metamorphic
Mountains began forming in this region about 90 and plutonic rocks (Fig. 14-2). The fault is along the
million years ago. These early mountains were quite east side of the Teton block, so as uplift occurred, the
different from the present ones in that the long axes block has been tilted ever more steeply toward the
of these ranges were oriented northwest-southeast, west (Fig. 14-2). Displacement of recent sedimentary
and they originated as the Earth's crust was contorted deposits along the east flank of the Teton Range
and folded. The present-day Teton Range, which runs shows that uplift is continuing today.
north-south, began forming about 10 million years The spectacular, rugged topography of the Teton
ago when part of the crust was uplifted along a large Range developed rather recently. Currently, the range
fracture called the Teton fault (Fig. 14-2). supports about a dozen small glaciers, but periodically
Most of the rocks exposed in the Teton Range are during the last 200,000 years it was more heavily
Precambrian-aged metamorphic and plutonic rocks glaciated. Glaciers are particularly effective agents of
formed at great depth beneath sedimentary rocks. erosion; they scoured out valleys and intricately
Movement on the Teton fault resulted in uplift of the sculpted the uplifted Teton block, producing excellent
Teton block relative to the block to the east; the total examples of glacial landforms. The Grand Teton,
displacement on this fault is about 6,100 m. As the which is a horn peak, is one of the most prominent of
Teton block rose, the overlying sedimentary rocks these (see Chapter 18).
Cenozic rocks
^ FIGURE 14-2 A cross section
I~~l
Teton Range of the Teton Range, Wyoming.
Mesozoic rocks
Grand Teton ,
Paleozoic rocks
Precambrian granite
elevation 4,190 m \<a.
EZ3
gneiss, and schist
Prologue 377
^
sr-«g — ^^ «^^ ^ . ^
^ ^^K- ^^^'^^^LL-^^c:^^^ ^ Ê.^ K.^ »l^m:
,
^ INTRODUCTION
Many ancient rocks are fractured or highly contorted —
an indication that forces within the Earth caused defor-
mation during the past. Seismic activity is a manifesta-
tion of forces continuing to operate within the Earth, as
is the Teton Range uplift in Wyoming (Fig. 14-1). Col-
liding plates generate forces causing deformation and
mountain building along convergent plate margins, and
in so doing, they add material to the margins of conti-
nents by a process called accretion. Mountain systems
within continents form when two continents collide and
become sutured, thereby forming a larger landmass.
Mountains also form when continents are stretched dur-
ing rifting events. In short, deformation, mountain
"^ FIGURE 14-3 Deformed layers of rock. The folded
building, and the evolution of continents are interre-
rock layers are considered to be ductile because they show
lated, although not all deformation results in the origin
considerable plastic deformation, whereas the fractured
of mountains. rocks are brittle.
The study of deformed rocks has several applications.
For example, the geologic structures produced during
deformation, such as folds and faults, provide a record sources. For example, several geologic structures form
of the kinds and intensities of forces that operated dur- traps for petroleum and natural gas (see Fig. 7-33). Fur-
ing the past. Interpretations of such structures allow thermore, geologic structures are considered when sites
geologists to make inferences regarding Earth history. are selected for dams, large bridges, and nuclear power
Understanding the nature of the local geologic struc- plants, especially if such sites are in areas of active de-
tures also helps geologists find and recover natural re- formation.
— FIGURE 14-4 Stress and

possible types of resulting
deformation, {a) Compression causes
shortening of rock layers by folding
or faulting, (b) Tension lengthens
rock layers and causes faulting.
(c) Shear stress causes deformation
by displacement along closely spaced

planes.
378 Chapter 14 Deformation, Mountain Building, and the Evolution of Continents

^ DEFORMATION
Fractured and contorted rock layers such as those in
Figure 14-3 are said to be deformed; that is, their orig-
inal shape or volume or both have been altered by stress,
which is the result of force applied to a given area of
rock. If the intensity of the stress is greater than the
internal strength of the rock, undergo strain,
it will
which is deformation caused by stress.
Three types of stress are recognized: compressional,
tensional, and shear. Compressional stress results when
rocks are squeezed or compressed by external forces
directed toward one another. Rock layers subjected to
compression are commonly shortened in the direction of
stress by folding or faulting (Fig. 14-4a). Tensional
"^ FIGURE 14-5 This marble slab in the Rock Creek
stress results from forces acting in opposite directions
Cemetery, Washington, D.C., bent under its own weight in
along the same line (Fig. 14-4b). Such stress tends to about 80 years.
lengthen rocks or pull them apart. In shear stress, forces
act parallel to one another but in opposite directions,
resulting in deformation by displacement of adjacent high temperature and high pressure, they are more com-
layers along closely spaced planes (Fig. 14-4c). monly and deform plastically rather than fracture
ductile
Strain is characterized as elastic if the deformed rocks (Fig. 14-6).The foci of most earthquakes are at depths of
return to their original shape when the stresses are re- less than 30 km, indicating that deformation by fracturing
laxed. Squeezing a tennis ball, for example, causes becomes increasingly difficult with depth; no fracturing is
strain, but once the stress is released, the tennis ball known to occur at depths greater than 700 km.
returns to its original shape. Rocks that are strained
beyond cannot recover their original
their elastic limit
shape, however, and retain the configuration produced Strike and Dip
by the stress. Such rocks either deform by plastic strain, As we observed earlier, the principle of original horizon-
as when they are folded, or behave as brittle solids and tality holds that when sediments are deposited, they ac-
are fractured (Fig. 14-3).
The type of strain that occurs depends on the kind of
stress applied, the amount of pressure, the temperature,
"^ FIGURE 14-6 Ductile versus brittle behavior in the
the rock type, and the length of time the rock is sub-
The thickness of the brittle upper crust varies
lithosphere.
jected to the stress. For example, a small stress applied depending on the amount of heat, the presence of fluids, and
over a long period of time, as on the slab shown in variations in pressure.
Figure 14-5, will cause plastic deformation. By contrast,
a large stress applied rapidly to the same object, as when
it is struck by a hammer,
probably result in fracture.
will
Rock type is important because not all rocks respond to
stress in the same way. Rocks are considered to be either
ductile or brittle depending on the amount of plastic
strain they exhibit. Brittle rocks show no plastic strain
before fracture, whereas ductile rocks exhibit a great
deal (Fig. 14-3). ';2* *>">"* *
«•"*
'
•
*
* •-"> -" ** * //"*
Many rocks show the effects of plastic deformation
~" ** =* J 1
, Ductile-brittle transition zone .
/+ ~~ *"
=* J1
that must have occurred deep within the Earth's crust

«* > in\ '„ * 'I*
% », * % p * „ xt IK >
where the temperature and pressure' are high. Recall ii t\
;
Ji'
from Chapters 8 and 1 1 that rock materials behave very

differently under these conditions compared to their be- Ductile lower crust and mantle
havior near the surface. At or near the surface, they
behave as brittle solids, whereas under conditions of
Deformation 379
such as a rock layer. For example, in Figure 14-8, the
surface of any of the tilted rock layers constitutes an
inclined plane. The intersection of a horizontal plane
with any of these inclined planes forms a line, the direc-
tion of which is the strike. The strike line's orientation is
determined by using a compass to measure its angle with
respect to north. Dip is a measure of the maximum an-
gular deviation of an inclined plane from horizontal, so
it must be measured perpendicular to the strike direction
(Fig. 14-8).
Geologic maps indicate strike and dip by using a long
line oriented in the strike direction and a short line per-
pendicular to the strike line and pointing in the dip di-
rection (Fig. 14-9a). The number adjacent to the strike
"''" FIGURE 14-7 The principle of original horizontality and dip symbol indicates the dip angle. A circled cross is
holds that sediments are deposited in horizontal layers. used to indicate horizontal strata, and a strike symbol
These sedimentary rocks in Utah are inclined from horizon- with a short crossbar indicates layers dipping vertically
tal, so we can infer that they were tilted after deposition and
(Fig. 14-9b and c).
lithification. (Photo courtesy of David J. Matty.)
Folds
cumulate in nearly horizontal layers (see Fig. 9-3). Thus, Ifyou place your hands on a tablecloth and move them
sedimentary rock layers that are steeply inclined must toward one another, the tablecloth is deformed by com-
have been tilted following deposition and lithification pression into a series of up- and down-arched folds. Sim-
(Fig. 14-7). Some igneous
rocks, especially ash falls and ilarly, rock layers within the Earth's crust commonly re-
many form nearly horizontal layers. To
lava flows, also spond compression by folding. As opposed to the
to
describe the orientation of deformed rock layers, geol- tablecloth, however, folding in rock layers is permanent;
ogists use the concept of strike and dip. that is, the rocks have been strained plastically. Most
Strike is the direction of a line formed by the inter- folding probably occurs deep within the crust because
section of a horizontal plane with an inclined plane, rocks at or near the surface are brittle and generally de-
^ FIGURE 14-8 Strike and dip.

The strike is formed by the
intersection of a horizontal plane
(the water surface) with the surface
of an inclined plane (the surface of
the rock layer). Xhe_dip is th e
maximum .angular deviation of the
inclined plane from horizontal.

-^ FIGURE 14-9 (a) Strike and
dip symbol. The long bar is oriented
in the strike direction,and the short
bar points in the dip direction. The
number indicates the dip angle.
(£>) The symbol used to indicate
horizontal rock layers, (c) The

symbol for vertical rock layers.
form by fracturing rather than by folding. The intensity

of folding in many rocks is quite impressive (Fig. 14-10).
^ FIGURE 14-10 Intensely folded sedimentary rocks in
California. (Photo courtesy of David J. Matty.)
Monoclines, Anticlines, and Synclines

A monocline is a simple bend or flexure in otherwise
horizontal or uniformily dipping rock layers (Fig. 14-
11a). The large monocline in Figure 1 4- 1 1 b formed when
the Bighorn Mountains of Wyoming were uplifted along
a large fault. This fault did not penetrate to the surface,
however, so as uplift occurred, the near-surface layers of
rock were bent such that they appear to be draped over
the margin of the uplifted block (Fig. 14-1 lb).
An anticline is an up-arched fold, while a syncline is
a down-arched fold (Fig. 14-12). Both anticlines and
synclines are characterized by an axial plane that divides
them into halves; the part of a fold on opposite sides of
the axial plane is a limb (Fig. 14-13). Because folds most
commonly occur as a series of anticlines alternating with
synclines, a limb is generally shared by an anticline and
an adjacent syncline.
important to remember that anticlines and syn-
It is
rock lasers arid

clines are defined-hy. the oriejrtation of
not by the configuration of the Earth's surface. Thus,
folds may or may not correspond to mountains and
valleys and may, in fact, underlie areas where the Earth's
surface is rather flat (Fig. 14-14). Indeed, folds are com-
Deformation 381
(a) (b)
^ FIGURE 14-11 (a) A

monocline. Notice the strike and dip symbols and the
symbol for horizontal layers, (b) Uplift of the Bighorn Mountains in Wyoming formed
the monocline visible on the skyline.
monly exposed to view in areas that have been eroded. limb dip inward toward the center, and the youngest
Even where the exposed view has been eroded, anti- strata coincide with the center of the fold.
clines and synclines can easily be distinguished from Thus far, we have described symmetrical, or upright,
each other by strike and dip and by the relative ages of folds in which the axial plane is vertical,and each fold
the folded strata. As Figure 14-15 shows, in an eroded limb dips at the same angle (Fig. 14-13). However, if the
anticline, the strata of each limb dip outward or away axial plane is inclined, the limbs dip at different angles,
from the center, where the oldest strata are located. In and the fold is characterized as asymmetrical (Fig.
eroded synclines, on the other hand, the strata in each 4-16a). In an overturned fold, both limbs dip in the
-»- FIGURE 14-12 Antidine_and

t: Calico Mountains of
s ynclinej n_the
southeastern California.

^" FIGURE 14-14 These folded rocks in Kootenay
National Park, British Columbia, Canada, illustrate that
anticlines and synclines do not necessarily correspond to
mountains and valleys respectively.
Synclme Anticline
"^ FIGURE 14-13 Syncline and anticline showing the
axial plane, axis, and fold limbs.
Plunging Folds
Folds may be further characterized as nonplunging or
plunging. In the former, the fold axis, a line formed by
same direction. In other words, one fold limb has been the intersection of the axial plane with the folded beds,
rotated more than 90 degrees from its original position is horizontal (Fig. 14-13). However, it is much more
such that it is now upside down (Fig. 14-16b). Folds in common for the axis to be inclined so that it appears to
which theaxial_pjane is- horizontal-are, r eierre d_to_as plunge beneath the surrounding strata; folds possessing
recumbent (Fig. 14- 16c). Overturned and recumbent an inclined axis are plunging folds (Fig. 14-17). To dif-
folds are particularly common in many mountain ranges ferentiate plunging anticlines from plunging synclines,
(discussed later in this chapter). geologists use exactly the same criteria used for non-
•^ FIGURE 14-15 Identifying

eroded anticlines and synclines.
Deformation 383
Guest Essay MARIE MORISAWA
STUDYING THE EARTH:

REFLECTIONS OF AN ENTHUSIAST
I on becoming a geologist; in fact, my
didn't plan As a geology teacher, I felt I could do two things: I
college major was mathematics. But in my junior year, could introduce a large number of students to the
friends convinced me to take an introductory geology knowledge essential to their understanding of the
course. That did it! I was fascinated by what I learned Earth environment. And, perhaps, I could imbue some
about the Earth and by how much we still did not know of them with the same love and enthusiasm for
about it. It was too late to change my major, but my geology that I have. So throughout my career I taught
senior year was filled with as many geology courses as I at Brooklyn College, Bryn Mawr College, the
could take. University of Montana, Antioch College, and, finally,
That interest was held in abeyance, however, for 10 at the State University ofNew York at Binghamton
years, after which I decided to go back to graduate from which I recently retired. For a time, both as a
school and study geology. Why? After all, my former student and as a professor, I also did research as a
geology professor warned me that I probably could not geologist for the U.S. Geological Survey.
get a position teaching geology because there were not As I worked in geology, I became more and more
very many geology departments in women's colleges. interested in how the environment affects humans and
When I received my M.A. in geology at the University of how humans in turn affect the environment. Much of
Wyoming, an oil company recruiter told me he would my research and teaching has been in that area. I found
not hire me as a geologist— but would hire me as a that human activity has upset the natural behavior of the
secretary. Why, then, did I go on to obtain a Ph.D. in Earth systems. I became particularly interested in natural
geology from Columbia University? In part because of (geologic) hazards such as wave and river erosion,
the accepting attitude and encouragement of my fellow flooding, landslides, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions
students and professors. Then, too, I felt that if I could and how humans have handled these catastrophic
hold my own academically, I could succeed. And finally events. I came to see that in order to cope with these
my interest and enthusiasm for geology overcame any hazards in an environmentally compatible manner we
doubts about the future. need, first of all, to understand the geologic setting and
What could be more interesting than the Earth on processes at work. Only then can we take suitable
which we live? How was that rock formed? How do we measures to deal successfully with such disasters. If we
know that a sheet of ice 915 m thick once covered the do not understand the basic components of the Earth
state of New York? Why did Mount St. Helens erupt? systems and how they work together, we increase the
How did all the beautiful scenery that we see around us danger rather than mitigate the hazard. This is the
come to be? All these questions and more need to be present challenge of geology to me— to use our
answered. And the good thing about geology is that so knowledge about the Earth to enhance the environment
many questions are still unanswered. This is the and to use it wisely. This makes geology worthwhile, a
challenge— and even I (or you) could have a chance to
answer some of them. The delight in trying to answer
JVlarie Morisawa graduated
these questions is the very complexity of the Earth's from Hunter College and earned
physical systems, the interaction of one process with an M.A. from the University of
another, and the continual change that is taking place in Wyoming and a Ph.D. from
the systems. Columbia Her

University.
and specialties aregeomorphology and

The Earth itself is the geologist's textbook
environmental geology. She has
laboratory. Geomorphologists, such as myself, are the
taught at several colleges and
types of geologists who
study the landscape and the universities and recently retired
processes that form As an outdoor person, I combine
it.
from the State University of New
work and recreation. Doing field work, hiking, York at Binghamton where she is
canoeing, and camping are all part of a day's work. professor emeritus.
lAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAJkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA,

Axial plane
"•* FIGURE 14-16 (a) An asymmetrical fold. The axial

plane is not and the fold limbs dip at different angles.
vertical,
(b) Overturned folds. Both fold limbs dip in the same
direction, but one limb is inverted. Notice the special strike
and dip symbol to indicate overturned beds, (c) Recumbent
folds.
plunging folds: that is, all away from the fold

strata dip
Domes and Basins
axis in plunging anticlines, whereas in plunging syn- Anticlines and synclines are elongate structures; that is,
clines all strata dip inward toward the axis. The oldest they tend to be long and narrow. Domes and basins, on
exposed strata are in the center of an eroded plunging the other hand, are the circular to oval equivalents of
anticline, whereas the youngest exposed strata are in the anticlines and synclines (Fig. 14-19). In an eroded dome,
center of an eroded plunging syncline (Fig. 14-17b). the oldest exposed rock is at the center, whereas in a basin
In Chapter 7 we noted that anticlines form one type the opposite is true. All of the strata in a dome dip away
of structural trap for petroleum and natural gas (see Fig. from a central point (as opposed to dipping away from
7-33). As a matter of fact, most of the world's petroleum a fold axis, which is a line). By contrast, all the strata in
production comes from anticlinal traps, although several a basin dip inward toward a central point (Fig. 14-19).
other types are important as well. Accordingly, geologists Many domes and basins are of such large proportions
are particularly interested in correctly identifying the that they can be visualized only on geologic maps or
geologic structures in areas of potential petroleum and aerial photographs. The Black Hills of South Dakota,
natural gas production. Figure 14-18 shows hypothetical for example, are a large oval dome (Fig. 14-19b). One of
examples of how folds are identified from surface rock the best-known large basins in the United States is the
exposures and how buried folds are located. Michigan basin (Fig. 14-19d). Most of the Michigan
Deformation 385
Axial
plane
Angle of
plunge
**- FIGURE 14-17 Plunging folds

(a) A
schematic illustration of a
plunging fold, (b) A block diagram
showing surface and cross-sectional
views of plunging folds. The long
arrow at the center of each fold
shows the direction of plunge.
(c) Surface view of the eroded,
plunging Sheep Mountain anticline

in Wyoming. (c)
basin is buried beneath younger strata so it is not di-

Joints
rectly observable at the surface. Nevertheless, strike and
dip of exposed strata near the basin margin and thou- Joints are fractures alongwhich no movement has oc-
sands of drill holes for oil and gas clearly show that the curred, or where movement has been perpendicular to
strata are deformed into a large structural basin. The the fracture surface. In other words, the fracture may
structure of the Michigan basin was determined by us- open up, but no relative movement of the masses of rock
ing a combination of the methods shown in Figure 14- on opposite sides of the fracture occurs parallel to the
18. It is a huge structure of overall basinal configura- fracture. The term "joint" was originally used by coal
tion, but much of its oil and gas production comes from miners long ago for cracks in rocks that appeared to be
small anticlines and domes. surfaces where adjacent blocks were "joined" together.

•"-"
FIGURE 14-18 Identification of
geologic structures from surface
exposures, [a) Valley with rock exposures.
(£>)Data from these exposures are used to
construct a geologic map and cross
sections of the area. Strike and dip would
be recorded at many places but only two
are shown here.
Joints are the commonest structures in rocks; almost all Joints can form under a variety of conditions. For ex-
near-surface rocks are jointed to some degree (Fig. 14- ample, anticlines are produced by compression, but the
20).The lack of any movement parallel to joint surfaces rock layers are arched such that tension occurs perpen-
iswhat distinguishes them from faults, which do show dicular to fold crests, and joints form parallel to the long
movement parallel with the fracture surface. axis of the fold in the upper part of a folded layer (Fig.
Deformation 387
I
Jurassic _H Upper Devonian
I
Pennsylvanian | Middle Devonian
"^ FIGURE 14-19 (a) A block diagram of a dome.
| Upper Mississippian I |
Silurian
(b) A satellite view of an elongated dome, the Black Hills in

I I
~~|
Lower Mississippian H Ordovician
Mississippian and/or Devonian
western South Dakota, (c) A block diagram of a basin, [d) A
map view of the Michigan basin. (d)
14-21a). Joints also form in response to tension when extent (Fig. 14-20). Furthermore, they are often ar-
rock layers are simply stretched (Fig. 14-21 b). Compres- ranged in parallel sets, and it is com-
or nearly parallel
sive stresses can also produce joints as shown in Figure mon for a region to have two or perhaps three promi-
14-21c. nent sets. Regional mapping reveals that joints and joint
Joints vary from minute fractures to those of regional sets are usually related to other geologic structures such

as large folds. Weathering and erosion of jointed rocks
in Utah has produced the spectacular scenery of Arches
National Park (see Perspective 14-1).
One type of joint pattern that we have already dis-
cussed consists of columnar joints that form in some
lava flows and in some intrusive igneous bodies. Recall
from Chapters 4 and 5 that as cooling lava contracts, it
develops tensional stresses that form polygonal fracture
patterns (see Figs. 4-13 and 5-1). Another type of joint-
ing previously discussed is sheet jointing that forms in
response to unloading (see Fig. 6-9).
Faults
Faults are fractures along which movement has occurred

"^ FIGURE 14-20 Jointed strata on the northeast flank of
parallel to the fracture surface. A tault plane is the frac -
the Salt Valley anticline, Arches National Park, Utah.
y
ture surface along which blocks of rock on opposite
"^ FIGURE 14-21 {a) Folding and the formation of joints parallel to the crest of an
anticline. (£>) Joints produced by tension, (c) Joints formed in response to compression.
^-r^
(a) (b)
(c)
Deformation 389
Perspective 14-1
FOLDING, JOINTS, AND ARCHES

Arches National Park in eastern Utah is noted for its structures play a significant role in the origin of
panoramic which include such landforms as
vistas, arches. Where the Entrada Sandstone was folded into
Delicate Arch, Double Arch, Landscape Arch, and anticlines, it was stretched so that parallel, vertical
many others (Fig. 1). Unfortunately, the term arch is joints formed. Weathering and erosion occur most
used for a variety of geologic features of different vigorously along joints because these processes can
origin, but herewe will restrict the term to mean an attack the exposed rock from both the top and the
opening through a wall of rock that is formed by sides, whereas only the top is attacked in unjointed
weathering and erosion. strata (Fig. 14-20).
The arches of Arches National Park continue to Erosion along joints causes them to enlarge,
form as a result of weathering and erosion of the thereby forming long slender fins of rock between
folded and jointed Entrada Sandstone, the rock adjacent joints. Many such fins are clearly visible in
underlying much of the park. Accordingly, geologic Figure 14-20. Some parts of these fins are more
"** FIGURE 1 Delicate Arch in Arches National Park,

Utah formed by weathering and erosion of jointed ^" FIGURE 2 Baby Arch shows the early development of
sedimentary rocks, as shown in Figure 3. an arch.
-'4
I-
TFault dip angle sides have mov ed relative to one another. Notice in Fig-
11 ure 14-22 that the blocks adjacent to the fault plane are
labeled banging wall block and footwall block. The
hanging wall block is the block that overlies the fault,
whereas the footwall block lies beneath the fault plane.
Hanging wall and footwall blocks can be defined with
respect to any fault plane except those that are vertical.
Understanding the concept of hanging wall and footwall
blocks is important because geologists use the move-
ment of the hanging wall block relative to the footwall
Hanging
Arrows w^tt-btock
show directions
of relative movement -» FIGURE 14-22 Fault terminology.

susceptible to weathering and erosion than others, and
as the sides are attacked, a recess may form. If it does,
eventually pieces of the unsupported rock above the
recess will fall away, forming an arch as the original
recess is enlarged (Figs. 2 and 3). Thus, arches are
remnants of fins formed by weathering and erosion
along joints.
Historical observations show that arches continue
to form today. For example, in 1940, Skyline Arch was
enlarged when a large block fell from its underside.
The park also contains many examples of arches that
collapsed during prehistoric time. When arches
* FIGURE 3 (a) Weathering and erosion of a fin form a

collapse, they leave isolated pinnacles
Arches National Park is
and
well worth visiting; the
spires.
recess, (b) These recesses expand and eventually develop into

arches, (c) The arches continue to enlarge until they finally pinnacles, spires, and arches are impressive features
collapse. indeed.
block to distinguish between two different types of do wn relative to the block on the opposite side of th e
faults. fault. Although it is not possible to tell how the blocks

Like sedimentary beds, fault planes can be character- actually moved, it is usually easy to determine which
and dip (Fig. 14-22). Two basic types
ized by their strike block appears to have moved up or down in relation to
of faults are distinguished on the basis of whether the the other. Thus, geologists refer to relative movement on
blocks on opposite sides of the fault plane have moved faults. For example, in Figure 14-23a one cannot tell if
parallel to the direction of dip or along the direction of the hanging wall block moved down, or if the footwall
strike. block moved both blocks moved. Nevertheless,

up, or if
the hanging wall block app ears to hav e moved dow n-

Dip-Slip Faults ward "relative to the footwall bloc kT Such faults are
Dip-slipfaults are those on wh ich all movemen t is p ar- called normal faults , whereas those where the hanging
alieTwithThe dip of the fault p lane (Fig. 14-2j).~In other wall block movedLug^relative to the footwall block are
words, all movement is such that one block moves up or reverse faults (Fig. 14-23b). A type of reverse fault in-
Deformation 391
Reverse fault
Normal fault
Rift zone
Offset
stream
Strike-slip fault
Thrust fault
0Wft£>,
"'-w
Oblique-slip fault
^ FIGURE 14-23 Types of faults, (a), (b), and (c) are dip-slip faults, {a) Normal
fault— hanging wall block down relative to footwall block. \b) and (c) Reverse and
thrust faults— hanging wall block up. (d) Strike-slip fault— all movement parallel to
strike of fault, (e) Oblique-slip fault— combination of dip-slip and strike-slip.

"•r FIGURE 14-24 View of the Sierra Nevada from the
east in Owens Valley, California. The mountains have been
uplifted along a large normal fault.
yojving a fault plane with a dip of less than 45° is a

thrust fauI t~(Fig~ 14-23c).
Normal faults are caused by tensional forces, s uch as
those that occur when the Earth's crust is stretched and
thinned by rifting. The mountain ranges of a large area
called the Basin and Range Province in the western
United States are bounded on one or both sides by major
normal faults. A large normal fault is present along the
east side of the Sierra Nevada in California; these moun-
tainshave been uplifted along this normal fault so that
they now stand more than 3,000 m
above the lowlands
to the east (Fig. 14-24). Continued normal faulting is
also found along the eastern margin of the Teton Range
in Wyoming (Fig. 14-1).
Unlike normal jaults, reverse (and thrust) faults ar e

c aused by compressio n (Fig. 14-25). Many large reverse
and thrusfTauTti are present in mountain ranges that
form at convergent plate margins (discussed later in the
chapter). A well-known thrust fault is the Lewis over-
thrust of Montana. A large slab of Precambrian-aged
rocks moved at least 75 km eastward on this fault and
now rests upon much younger rocks of Cretaceous age
(Fig. 14-26).
Strike-Slip Faults
Shearing forces are responsible for strike-slip faulting, a

(b)
type~oTfau1tingTnvolving horizontal movement in which
opp osite sides of aâîltj^kne_sli de~siclewa vs
blocks o n
^ FIGURE 14-25 {a) Reverse fault in welded tuff,
Mojave Desert, California, (b) Thrust fault in Sumter

past one~ano ther (Fig. 14-23d). In other words, all
County, Alabama. The fault plane dips at 8°.
movement islrTthe direction of the fault plane's strike.
Deformation 393
Precambrian rocks
Chief Mountain
Cretaceous rocks
(a)
(b) (c)
"^ FIGURE The Lewis overthrust fault in Glacier National Park, Montana.
14-26
(a) Cross section showing the fault. As the slab of Precambrian rocks moved east along
the fault, it deformed the rocks below. Chief Mountain is an erosional remnant of a
more extensive slab of rock, (b) The trace of the fault is the light line on the side of the
mountain, (c) Chief Mountain.
One of the best-known strike-slip faults is the San been to the left, so the fault is characterized as a left-
An dreas fau lt of California.* Recent movement on this lateral strike-slip fault. Had this been a right-lateral
fault caused the October zy, 1989 earthquake that dam- strike-slip fault, the block across the fault from the ob-
aged so much of Oakland, San Francisco, and several server would appear to have moved to the right. The San
communities to the south and resulted in a 10-day delay Andreas fault is a right-lateral strike-slip fault (see Figs.
of the World Series (see the Prologue to Chapter 10). 10-3b and 14-27), whereas the Great Glen fault in Scot-
Strike-slip faults can be characterized as right-lateral land is left-lateral (Fig. 14-28).
or left-lateral, depending on the apparent direction of
offset. In Figure 14-23d, for example, an observer look- Oblique-Slip Faults
ing at the block on the opposite side of the fault deter- It is possible for movement on a fault to show compo-
mines whether it moved to the
appears to have right or nents of both dip-slip and strike-slip. For example,
to the left. In this example, movement appears to have strike-slipmovement may be accompanied by a dip-slip
component giving rise to a combined movement that
includes left-lateral and reverse, or right-lateral and nor-
'Recall from Chapter 13 that the San Andreas fault is also called a mal (Fig. 14-23e). Faults having components of both
transform fault in plate tectonics terminology. dip-slip and strike-slip movement are oblique-slip faults.

-»- FIGURE 14-27 Right-lateral
offset of a gully by the San Andreas
fault in southern California, the
gully is offset about 21 m.
^ MOUNTAINS
The term mountain refers to any area of land that stands FIGURE 14-28 Map view of the left-lateral offset
along the Great Glen fault of Scotland. The body of granite
significantly higher than the surrounding country. Some
has been displaced by about 105 km.
mountains are single, isolated peaks, but much more
commonly they are parts of a linear association of peaks
and/or ridges called mountain ranges that are related in
age and origin. A mountain system is a complex moun-
tainous region consisting of several or many mountain
ranges; the Porky Mountains and A ppalachians are ex-
amples of mountain system s.
Major mountain systems are indeed impressive fea-
tures and represent the effects of dynamic processes op-
erating within the Earth. The forces necessary to elevate
the Himalayas of Asia to nearly 9 km above sea level are
difficult tocomprehend, yet when compared with the
size of the Earth, even the loftiest mountains are very
small features. In fact, the greatest difference in eleva-
tion on Earth is about 20 km; if we depicted this to scale
on a globe 1 m in diameter, its relief would be less than
2 mm. From the human perspective, however, major
mountain systems are large-scale manifestations of tre-
mendous forces that have produced folded, faulted, and
thickened parts of the crust. Furthermore, in some
mountain systems, such as the Andes of South America
Mountains 395
can develop over a hot spot, but more commonly a series
of volcanoes develops as a plate moves over the hot spot,

Hawaiian Islands (see Fig. 13-24).
as in the case of the
Mountainous topography also forms where the crust
has been intruded by batholiths that are subsequently
uplifted and eroded (Fig. 14-29). The Sweetgrass Hills
of northern Montana consist of resistant plutonic rocks
exposed following uplift and erosion of the softer over-
lying sedimentary rocks.
Yet another way to form mountains — block-faulting—
involves considerable deformation (Fig. 14-30). Block-
faulting involves movement on normal faults so that one
or more blocks are elevated relative to adjacent areas. A
classic example is the large-scale block-faulting currently
occurring in the Basin and Range Province of the western
United States, a large area centered on Nevada but extend-
ing into several adjacent states and northern Mexico. This
region is numerous north-south trending
characterized by
mountain ranges, each of which is separated from the next
^ FIGURE 14-29 (a) Pluton overlain by sedimentary

range by a valley (Fig. 14-31). In the Basin and Range Prov-
ince, the Earth's crust is being stretched in an east-west
rocks, (b) Erosion of the softer overlying rocks reveals the
direction; thus, tensional stresses produce north-south ori-
pluton and forms small mountains.
ented, range-bounding faults. Differ ential movement n n
these faultsjias yielded uplifted blocks called horstsand
down-dropped blocks called grabens (Fig. 14-30). Horsts
and grabens are bounded on both sides by parallel normal
and the Himalayas of Asia, the mountain-building pro- faults. Erosion of the horsts has yielded the mountainous
cesses remain active today. topography now present, and the grabens have filled with
sediments eroded from the horsts (Fig. 14-30).
The processes discussed above can certainly yield
Types of Mountains mountains. However, the truly large mountain systems
Mountainous topography can develop in a variety of of the continents, such as the Alps of Europe and the
ways, some of which involve little or no deformation of Appalachians in North America, were produced by
the Earth's crust. For example, a single volcanic mountain compression along convergent plate margins.
'"•'" FIGURE 14-30 Block-faulting and the origin of a horst and a graben.
^
Graben
Horst

"^ FIGURE 14-31 (a) Cross section of part of the Basin
and Range Province in Nevada. The ranges and valleys are
bounded by normal faults, (b) View of the Humboldt Range
in Nevada.
* MOUNTAIN BUILDING:
OROGENESIS
An orogeny is an episode of mountain building du ring
which ntense deformation occurs, generally accom pa-

i
n ied bymetamo rp hism and the emplacement of pluton s,

especially batholiths. Mountain building, called orogen-
esis', is still not completely understood, but it is known
to be related to plate movements. In fact, the advent of
plate tectonic theory has completely changed the way
mountain systems. Any the-
geologists view the origin of number of these orogens, such as the Himalayan oro-
ory accounting for orogenesis must adequately explain gen, are active today. Older orogenic belt s include the
the characteristics of mountain systems such as their areas of the present-day Appalachia n Mountains of
long, narrow geometry and their location at or near frJ orth America and the Ural Mountains in the So viet
plate margins. The intensity of deformation increases Union.
from the continental interior into mountain systems Most orogenies occur at convergent plate boundaries
whereToverturned and recumbent folds and reverse and where one plate is subducted beneath another or where
thfusTTaults indica ting compression are common Fur- . two continents collide. Subduction-related orogenies are
thermore, both shallow and deep marine sedimentary t hose involving oceanic-oceanic and oceamcôntinental
rocks in mountain systems have been elevated far above plate boundaries.
sea level — in some cases as high as 9,000 m!
Orogenesis at Oceanic-Oceanic Plate Boundaries
Orogenies occurring where oceanic lithosphere is sub-
Plate Boundaries and Orogenesis
ducted beneath oceanic lithosphere are characterized by
Most of the Earth's geologically recent and present-day the formation of a volcanic island arc and by deforma-
orogenic activity is concentrated in two major zones or tion and igneous activity. Deformation occurs when sed-
belts: the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt and the iments derived from the volcanic island arc are com-
circum-Pacific orogenic belt (Fig. 14-32). Most of the pressed along a convergent plate boundary. These
Earth's volcanic and seismic activity also occurs in these sediments are deposited on the adjacent sea floor and in
two belts (see Figs. 4-28 and 10-7). Both belts are com- the back-arc basin. Those on the sea floor, including
posed of a number of smaller segments called orogens; sediments deposited in the oceanic trench, are deformed
each orogen is a zone of deformed rocks, many of which and scraped off against the landward side of the trench
have been metamorphosed and intruded by plutons. A (Fig. 14-33), thus forming a subduction complex, or
Mountain Building: Orogenesis 397

"^ FIGURE 14-32 Most of the Earth's geologically recent and present-day orogenic
activity is concentrated in the circum-Pacific and Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belts.
-»- FIGURE 14-33

Orogenesis and the origin of a
volcanic island arc at an
oceanic-oceanic plate
boundary.
Volcanic island arc
Asthenosphere

—
accretionary wedge, of intricately folded rocks cut by Orogenesis at Continental-Continental
numerous compression-induced thrust faults. In addi- Plate Boundaries
tion, orogenesis generated by plate convergence results
In contrast to the Andes, the Himalayas of Asia formed
in low-temperature, high-pressure metamorphism char-
when India first collided with Asia beginning about 40
acteristic of the blueschist facies (see Fig. 8-22).
to 50 million years ago. Prior to that time, India was far
Deformation of sedimentary rocks also occurs in the
island arc system where it is caused largely by the em-
placement of plutons, and many rocks show evidence of
high-temperature, low-pressure metamorphism. The "*** FIGURE 14-34
Generalized diagrams showing three
overall effect of island arc orogenesis is the origin of two stages in the development of the Andes of South America. v
more-or-less parallel orogenic belts consisting of a land- (a) Prior to 200 million years ago, the west coast of South K
ward volcanic island arc underlain by batholiths and a America was a passive continental margin, (b) Orogenesis
began when the west coast of South America became an
seaward belt of deformed trench rocks (Fig. 14-33).
active continental margin, (c) Continued deformation,
volcanism, and plutonism.
Orogenesis at Oceanic-Continental
Plate Boundaries Passive continental margin
Sea level
Many major mountain systems including the Alps of
Europe and the Andes of South America formed at
oceanic-continental plate boundaries. The— Ande s of
western South Amer ica are perhaps the best example of
such continuing orogeny (Fig. 14-32). Among the ranges
of the Andes are the highest mountain peaks in the
Americas and many active volcanoe s. Furthermore, the
west coast of South America is an extremely active seg-
ment of the cir cum-Pacific earth quake belt. One of the
Earth's great ocea nic trenchsysteTnp, the Peru-Chile
Trench, lies just orTlhe west coast ^Fig. 12-14).
200 million years ago, the western margin of
Prior to
South America was a passive continental margin, where
sediments accumulated on the continental shelf, slope,
and rise much as they currently do along the east coast
of North America. However, when Pangaea split apart
in response to rifting along what is now the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge, the South American plate moved west-
ward. As a consequence, the oceanic lithosphere west of
South America began subducting beneath the continent
(Fig. 14-34). As subduction proceeded, sedimentary
rocks of the passive continental margin were folded and

faulted and are now part of the accretionary wedge
along the west coast of South America. Accretionary
wedges here and elsewhere commonly contain frag-
ments of oceanic crust and upper mantle called ophio-
lites (see Fig. 12-26). Subduction also resulted in partial
melting of the descending plate prod ucing a~v ofcanic

arc, and numerous large plutons were emplaced beneath
the arc (Fig. 14-34t:
The Rocky Mountains of North America also formed
as a consequence of pl ate convergence and subdu ction.
However, they differ from other mountain systems in
several important aspects (see Perspective 14-2).
Perspective 14-2
THE ORIGIN OF THE

ROCKY MOUNTAINS
The Rocky Mountains are part of a complex Mexico. In the western United States, the Cordillera
mountainous region known as the North American widens to about 1,200 km and is one of the most
Cordillera, which extends from Alaska into central complex parts of the circum-Pacific orogenic belt
-"-FIGURE 1 Map of the

North American Cordillera in the
Cenozoic basins
United States. Coast
of Pacific
Pliocene-
Pleistocene
volcanics
Oceanic Forearc Arc volcanoes Backarc
trench seismicity \ Continental crust seismicity
Base of
lithosphere
(a)
Block uplift and rupture
"^* FIGURE 2 Orogenies resulting

from (a) steep and [b) shallow
subduction at oceanic-continental
plate boundaries. In the shallow-
subduction model, the subducted slab
Subhorizontal seismic zone moves nearly horizontally beneath the
(b) continent, and volcanism ceases.
(Fig. 1). Although the Cordillera has a long history of much less steep angle and moves nearly horizontally
deformation, the most recent episode of large-scale beneath the continental lithosphere, deforming
deformation was the Laramide orogeny, which began continental crust far inland from the continental
85 to 90 million years ago. Like many other margin (Fig. 2). Furthermore, magmatism seems to
orogenies, it occurred along an oceanic-continental occur only when the descending plate penetrates as
plate boundary. However, deformation in the area of deep as the asthenosphere, so in the Laramide type of
present-day Wyoming and Colorado occurred much orogeny, magmatism is suppressed.
farther inland from the continental margin than is Another consequence of shallow subduction seems
typical (Fig. 1). Furthermore, mountain building was to be deformation that produced large-scale fracturing
not accompanied by significant intrusions of granitic of the crust and uplift of fault-bounded blocks; such
batholiths. deformation differs from the intense folding and
To account for these observations, geologists have thrust faulting that characterizes a typical
modified the classic model for orogenies along oceanic-continental plate boundary orogeny. Many of
convergent plate margins. Geologists think that when the ranges in the present-day Rocky Mountains began
oceanic lithosphere is subducted beneath continental as large blocks that were elevated along such faults.
lithosphere, it descends at a steep angle (30° or more), The Laramide deformation ceased about 40
style of
a volcanic arc develops inland from the trench, and million years ago, but since that time the Rocky
the thick sediments deposited on the continental Mountains have continued to evolve. For example, the
margin are deformed. In the Laramide style of mountain ranges that formed during the orogeny were
orogeny, the subducted oceanic slab descends at a (continued on next page)
Older sedimentary
rocks
Thrust fault Volcanic ash falls
Younger sedimentary rocks
Older
sedimentary rocks
Valleys filled
to overflowing
Normal fault
"^ FIGURE 3 (a) through (c) Sediments eroded from the

blocks uplifted during the Laramide orogeny filled the
valleys between ranges were nearly covered.
until the ranges
(d) The sediment-filled valleys are eroded, and deep canyons
are cut into the uplifted blocks by streams.
eroded, and the valleys between ranges rilled with present-day elevations are the result of renewed uplift
sediments (Fig. 3). Many of the ranges were nearly that continues to the present in some areas (see the
buried in their own erosional debris, and their Prologue).

south of Asia and separated from it by an ocean basin """ FIGURE 14-35 Simplified cross sections showing the
(Fig. 14-35a). As the Indian plate moved northward, a
collision of India with Asia and the origin of the Himalayas.
subduction zone formed along the southern margin of {a) The northern margin of India before its collision with
Asia where oceanic lithosphere was consumed (Fig. 14- Asia. Subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath southern
35a). Partial melting generated magma, which rose to Tibet as India approached Asia, (b) About 40 to 50 million
years ago, India collided with Asia, but since India was too
form a volcanic arc, and large granite plutons were em-
light to be subducted, it was underthrust beneath Asia.
placed into what is now Tibet. At this stage, the activity (c) Continued convergence accompanied by thrusting of
along Asia's southern margin was similar to what is now rocks of Asian origin onto the Indian Subcontinent.
occurring along the west coast of South America. (d) Since about 10 million years ago, India has moved
beneath Asia along the main boundary fault. Shallow
marine sedimentary rocks that were deposited along India's
northern margin now form the higher parts of the
Crust Himalayas. Sediment eroded from the Himalayas has been
deposited on the Ganges Plain.
Volcano
Main Central Thrust
(c) 20-40 m.y.
Main Boundary Fault
Main Central Thrust -
(d) 20-0 m.y.
Main Boundary Fault
Mountain Building: Orogenesis 403

The ocean separating India from Asia continued to northward, and two major thrust faults carried rocks of
close,and India eventually collided with Asia (Fig. 14- Asian origin onto the Indian plate (Fig. 14-35c and d).
35b). As a result, two continental plates became welded, Rocks deposited in the shallow seas along India's north-
or sutured, together. Thus, the Himalayas are now lo- ern margin now form the higher parts of the Himalayas.
cated within a continent rather than along a continental As the Himalayas were uplifted, they were also
margin 14-32 and 14-35b). The exact time of In-
(Figs. eroded, but at a rate insufficient to match the uplift.
dia's collision with Asia is uncertain, but between 40 Much of the debris shed from the rising mountains was
and 50 million years ago, India's rate of northward drift transported to the south and deposited as a vast blanket
decreased abruptly— from 15 to 20 cm per year to about of sediment on the Ganges Plain and as huge submarine
5 cm per year. Because continental lithosphere is not fans in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal (Fig.
dense enough to be subducted, this decrease in rate 14-36). Since its collision with Asia, India has been un-
seems to mark the time of collision and India's resis- derthrust about 2,000 km beneath Asia. Currently, India
tance to subduction. Consequently, the leading margin ismoving north at a rate of about 5 cm per year.
of India was thrust beneath Asia, causing crustal thick- A number of other mountain systems also formed as
ening, thrusting, and uplift. Sedimentary rocks that had a result of collisions between two continental plates.
been deposited in the sea south of Asia were thrust The Urals in the Soviet Union and the Appalachians of
"•" FIGURE 14-36 Sediment eroded

from the Himalayas has been deposited
as a vast blanket on the Ganges Plain
and as large submarine fans in the
Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.

North America both formed by such collisions (see Per- platforms are collectively called cratons, so shields are
spective 14-3). simply the exposed parts of cratons. Cratons are con-
sidered to be the stable interior parts of continents.
^ THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION In

much
North America, the Canadian Shield includes
of Canada; a large part of Greenland; parts of the
OF CONTINENTS
Rocks 3.8 billion years old that are thought to represent
continental crust are known from several areas, includ-
ing Minnesota, Greenland, and South Africa. Most ge-
ologists agree that even older crust probably existed,
and, in fact, rocks dated at 3.96 billion years were re-
Canada.
cently discovered in
According to one model for the origin of continents,
the earliest crust was thin and unstable and was com-
posed of ultramafic igneous rock. This early ultramafic
crust was disrupted by upwelling basaltic magmas at
ridges and was consumed at subduction zones (Fig. 14-
37a). Ultramafic crust would therefore have been de-
stroyed because its density was great enough to make
recycling by subduction very likely. Apparently, only
crust of a more granitic composition, which has a lower
density, is resistant to destruction by subduction.
A second stage in crustal evolution began when partial
melting of earlier formed basaltic crust resulted in the
formation of andesitic island arcs, and partial melting of
lower crustal andesites yielded granitic magmas that
were emplaced in the crust that had formed earlier (Fig.
14-37b). By 3.96 to 3.8 billion years ago, plate motions

accompanied by subduction and collisions of island arcs
had formed several granitic continental nuclei.
Shields, Cratons, and the

Evolution of Continents
Each continent is characterized by one or more areas of

exposed ancient rocks called a shield (see Fig. 8-4). Ex-
tending outward from these shields are broad platforms
of ancient rocks that are buried beneath younger sedi-
ments and sedimentary rocks. The shields and buried
^ FIGURE 14-37 Model for the origin of granitic

continental crust. The earliest crust may have been
composed of ultramafic rock but was disrupted by rising
magmas, {a) Basaltic crust is generated at spreading ridges
underlain by mantle plumes. Because of its high density,
basaltic crust is subduction zones and is

consumed at Subduction
form at convergent plate
recycled, (b) Andesitic island arcs zone
margins. Granitic continental crust forms by collisions of
island arcs and intrusions of granitic magmas.
The Origin and Evolution of Continents 405

Perspective 14-3
PLATE TECTONIC HISTORY

OF THE APPALACHIANS
The Appalachian Mountains (Fig. 1) of eastern North central Massachusetts, and Vermont, was the first of
America have a long and complex history that several orogenies to affect the Appalachian region.
includes continental rifting, opening and closure of the Radiometric age dating of igneous rocks from Georgia
same ocean basin, continental collision, and finally toNewfoundland indicates that the Taconic orogeny
renewed continental rifting. The relationship between occurred 480 to 440 million years ago.
mountain building and the opening and closing of Continuing closure of the ocean basin resulted in the
ocean basins is known as the Wilson cycle in honor of Acadian orogeny during the Silurian and Devonian
the Canadian geologist J. T. Wilson. Wilson was the periods (Fig. 2d). It affected the Appalachian region
first to suggest that an ancient ocean had closed to from Newfoundland to Pennsylvania as continental
form the Appalachians and then reopened and margin sedimentary rocks were deformed and thrust
widened to form the present-day Atlantic Ocean. northward and westward. Like the Taconic orogeny, the
During the Late Proterozoic Eon, a large rift Acadian orogeny occurred along an oceanic-continental
developed in a supercontinent consisting of what are plate boundary, but it culminated when continental
now North America and As rifting
Eurasia. collision occurred during the Devonian Period.
proceeded, an ocean basin formed and continued to The Acadian orogeny was of greater magnitude
widen along a divergent plate boundary (Fig. 2a and than the Taconic orogeny, as indicated by more
b). During this time, the east coast of North America widespread regional metamorphism and granitic
and the west coast of Europe were passive continental intrusions. Radiometric dates from these rocks cluster
margins, much as they are at the present. Plate between 350 and 400 million years ago, indicating
separation continued until the Early Paleozoic Era, at that was the time of maximum deformation.
which time the plate motions reversed, forming During the Late Paleozoic Era, the southern parts of
oceanic-continental plate boundaries on both sides of the Appalachian region from New York to Alabama
the ocean basin (Fig. 2c). were further deformed. This event, the Alleghenian
The resulting Taconic orogeny, named for the orogeny, was the last in a succession of orogenies
present-day Taconic Mountains of eastern New York, beginning during the Early Paleozoic, and it coincides
with the amalgamation of the supercontinent Pangaea.
During the Late Triassic Period, the first stage in the
^ FIGURE 1 The folded Appalachian Mountains in the
breakup of Pangaea began, with North America
eastern United States.
separating from Eurasia and North Africa. Along the
east coast of North America, from Nova Scotia to
North Carolina, block-faulting occurred and formed
numerous ranges with intervening valleys much like
those of the present-day Basin and Range Province of
the western United States (Fig. 3). Great quantities of
poorly sorted red-colored nonmarine detrital sediments
were deposited in the valleys, some of which are
well-known for dinosaur footprints. Rifting was
accompanied by widespread volcanism, which resulted
in extensive lava flows and numerous dikes and sills (see
Fig. 5-22).
Erosion of the block-fault mountains during the

Jurassic and Cretaceous periods produced a broad,
low-lying erosion surface. Renewed uplift and erosion
during the Cenozoic Era account for the present-day
topography of the Appalachian Mountains.

Continental
(a) crust
Caledonian Acadian-
Caledonian
Continental-
Tacontc
continental plate
Highlands
bOL'
*- FIGURE 2 Early history of the

Appalachian region. [a\ Opening of the
Iapetus Ocean basin during the Late
Proterozoic Eon. \b) The ocean
continues to widen during the Early
Paleozoic Era. (c) The ocean begins
closing, and subducnon occurs on both
'Oceanic-cc^' nenta sides, id) Final closure of the Iapetus
(c) plate boundary Ocean during the Devonian Period.
"• r FIGURE 3 Rifting of Pangaea during the Tnassic

Period resulted in block-faulting in eastern North America.
(j) Location of basins formed by block-faulting. [b-c\ Thick
sedimentary deposits and dikes and sills filled the basins,
which were themselves broken by a complex of normal
faults during rifting.
Albany .
^Connecticut Valley
-'area
The Origin and Evolution of Continents 407

cretionis not directly observable except in the Canadian
Shieldwhere one can easily see the remnants of ancient

mountains and early small cratons. Many of the ex-
posed rocks are plutonic and metamorphic, and many of
them show the structural complexities associated with
orogenesis.
^ MICROPLATE TECTONICS
AND MOUNTAIN BUILDING
In the preceding sections, we discussed orogenies along
convergent plate boundaries resulting in continental ac-
cretion. Much of the material accreted to continents

during such events is simply eroded older continental
crust, but a significant amount of new material is added
to continents as well — igneous rocks that formed as a
consequence of subduction and partial melting, for ex-
ample. While subduction is the predominant influence
I I Canadian Shield on the tectonic history in many regions of orogenesis,
I Other exposed Precambrian rocks

other processes are also involved in mountain building
and continental accretion, especially the accretion of mi-
I I Covered Precambrian rocks croplates.
"^ FIGURE 14-38 The North American craton. The During the late 1970s and 1980s, geologists discov-
Canadian Shield is exposed Precambrian-
a large area of
ered that portions of many mountain systems are com-
aged rocks. Extending from the shield are platforms of
posed of small accreted lithospheric blocks that are
buried Precambrian rocks. The shield and platforms
collectively make up the craton. clearly of foreign origin. These microplates differ com-
pletely in their fossil content, stratigraphy, structural
trends, and paleomagnetic properties from the rocks of
the surrounding mountain system and adjacent craton. In
Lake Superior region in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and fact, these microplates are so different from adjacent
Michigan; and parts of the Adirondack Mountains of rocks that most geologists think that they formed else-
New York (Fig. 14-38). In general, the Canadian Shield where and were carried great distances as parts of other
is a vast area of subdued topography, numerous lakes, plates until they collided with other microplates or con-
and exposed ancient metamorphic, volcanic, plutonic, tinents.
and sedimentary rocks. Geologic evidence indicates that more than 25% of
By about 2.5 billion years ago, the Canadian Shield the entire Pacific coast from Alaska to Baja California
area formed by the amalgamation of smaller cratons consists The accreting mi-
of accreted microplates.
that collided along belts of deformation called orogens, croplates arecomposed of volcanic island arcs, oceanic
thereby forming a larger craton (Fig. 14-39a). Several ridges, seamounts, and small fragments of continents
additional episodes of orogenesis resulted in further ac- that were scraped off and accreted to the continent's
cretion along the southern and eastern margins of the margin as the oceanic plate with which they were car-
craton as shown in 570 mil-
Figure 14-39b, so that by ried was subducted under the continent. It is estimated
lion years ago, North America had a size and shape that more than 100 different-sized microplates have
approximating that in Figure 14-39c. Further orogeny been added to the western margin of North America
and accretion during the last 570 million years occurred during the last 200 million years (Fig. 14-40).
mostly along the eastern, southern, and western margins The basic plate tectonic reconstruction of orogenies
of the craton, giving rise to the present configuration of and continental accretion remains unchanged, but the
North America. details of such reconstructions are decidedly different in
Much of the North American craton is covered by view of microplate tectonics. For example, growth along
younger strata, so the evidence for early continental ac- active continental margins is faster than along passive

billions of EZS3 Hi I I I 1 I 1
years >2.5 1.9-1.8 1.8-1.7 1.7-1.6 1.2-1.0
"*" FIGURE 14-39 Three stages in the early evolution
of the North American craton. (a) By about 2.5 billion

years ago, North America consisted of the elements
shown here, {b) and (c) Continental accretion along the
southern and eastern margins of North America. By the
end of the Proterozoic Eon, 570 million years ago, North
America had the size and shape shown diagrammatically
in (c).
Microplate Tectonics and Mountain Building 409

""•*"
FIGURE 14-40 Some of the accreted lithospheric
blocks called microplates that form the western margin of
the North American craton. The light brown blocks
probably originated as parts of continents other than North
America. The reddish brown blocks are possibly displaced
parts of North America.
continental margins because of the accretion of micro-

plates. Furthermore, these accreted microplates are often
new additions to a continent, rather than reworked older
continental material.
So far, most microplates have been identified in
mountains of the North American Pacific coast region,
but a number of such plates are suspected to be present
in other mountain systems as well. They are more dif-
ficult to recognize in older mountain systems, such as
the Appalachians, however, because of greater deforma-
tion and erosion. Nevertheless, about a dozen mi-
croplates have been identified in the Appalachians, but
their boundaries are hard to identify. Thus, microplate
tectonics provides a new way of viewing the Earth and
of gaining a better understanding of the geologic history
of the continents.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
1. Contorted and fractured rocks have been deformed
or strained by applied stresses.
2. Stresses are characterized as compressional,
tensional, or shear. Elastic strainis not permanent,
meaning that when the removed, the rocks

stress is
return to their original shape or volume. Plastic

strain and fracture are both permanent types of
deformation.
3. The orientation of deformed layers of rock is
described by strike and dip.

4. Rock layers that have been buckled into up- and
down-arched folds are anticlines and synclines,
respectively. They can be identified by the strike and
dip of the folded rocks and by the relative age of the
rocks in the center of eroded folds.
5. Domes and basins are the circular to oval
equivalents of anticlines and synclines, but are
commonly much larger structures. 7. Joints, which are the commonest geologic structures,
6. Two types of structures resulting from fracturing are form in response to compression, tension, and shear.
recognized: joints are fractures along which the only 8. On dip-slip faults, all movement is in the dip
movement, if any, is perpendicular to the fracture direction of the fault plane. Two varieties of dip-slip
surface, and faults are fractures along which the faults are recognized: normal faults form in response
blocks on opposite sides of the fracture move to tension, while reverse faults are caused by
parallel to the fracture surface. compression.

9. Strike-slip faults are those on which all movement is *F REVIEW QUESTIONS
in the direction of strike of the fault plane. They are
characterized as right-lateral or left-lateral depending 1. Strain is characterized as if deformed rocks
on the apparent direction of offset of one block regain their shape when they are no longer subjected
relative to the other. to stress.
10. Some faults show components of both dip-slip and a. compression; b. elastic; c. tensional;
strike-slip; they are called oblique-slip faults. d. plastic; e. shear.
11. Mountains can form in a variety of ways, some of 2. Rocks that show a large amount of plastic strain are
which involve little or no folding or faulting. said to be:
Mountain systems consisting of several mountain a. brittle; b. fractured; c. ductile;
ranges result from deformation related to plate d. sheared; e. all of these.
movements. 3. Most folding results from:
12. Most orogenies occur where plates converge and one a. fracturing; b. compaction; c. rifting;
plate is subducted beneath another or where two d. convection; e. compression.
continental plates collide. 4. An elongate fold in which all the strata dip in
13. A volcanic island arc, deformation, igneous activity, toward the center is a(n):
and metamorphism characterize orogenies occurring a. dome; b. monocline; c. basin;
at oceanic-oceanic plate boundaries. Subduction of d. syncline; e. anticline.
oceanic lithosphere at an oceanic-continental plate 5. An overturned fold is one in which:
boundary also results in orogeny. a. both limbs dip in the same direction;
14. Some mountain systems, such as the Himalayas, are b. the axial plain is vertical; c. the axis is
within continents far from a present-day plate inclined; d. the strata in one limb are horizontal;
boundary. Such mountains formed when two e. the strata are faulted as well as folded.
continental plates collided and became sutured. 6. An oval to circular fold with all strata dipping
15. A craton is the stable core of a continent. Broad outward from a central point is a(n):
areas in which the cratons of continents are exposed a. plunging anticline; b. dome;
are called shields; each continent has at least one c. overturned syncline; d. recumbent
shield area. syncline; e. basin.
16. Cratons formed as a result of accretion, a process 7. A fault on which the hanging wall block appears to
involving the addition of eroded continental material have moved down relative to the footwall block is
and igneous rocks to the margin of a craton during a fault.

orogenesis. a. thrust; b. strike-slip; c. normal;
17. Geologists now realize that continental accretion d. reverse; e. joint.
also occurs when microplates collide with 8. Faults on which both dip-slip and strike-slip
continents. movement has occurred are referred to as:
a. plunging;
b. recumbent; c. oblique-
^ IMPORTANT TERMS 9.
slip; d. nonplunging; e. normal-slip.
The range-bounding faults in the Basin and Range
Province of the western United States
anticline normal fault
are faults.
basin oblique-slip fault
a. normal; b. reverse; c. thrust;
compressional stress orogeny
d. strike-slip; e. oblique-slip.
craton plastic strain
10. A graben is a:
dip plunging fold
a. fold with a horizontal axial plane; b. type
dip-slip fault reverse fault
of reverse fault with a very low dip; c. fracture
dome shear stress
along which no movement has occurred;
elastic strain shield
d. down-dropped block bounded by normal
fault strain
faults; e. type of structure resulting from
faultplane stress
compression.
footwall block strike
11. In which of the following is an orogeny currently
fracture strike-slip fault
taking place?
hanging wall block syncline
North America; west
a. east coast of b.
joint tensional stress
coast of South America; c. the Appalachians;
microplate thrust fault
d central Africa; e. western Europe.
monocline

12. Strike-slip faults: anticline and an adjacent plunging syncline. Assume
a. are low-angle reverse faults; b. have that these folds plunge to the east.
mainly vertical displacement; c. have mainly 27. Domes and basins show the same patterns on
horizontal movement; d are faults on which no geologic maps, but differ in two important ways.
movement has yet occurred; e. are characterized What are the two criteria for distinguishing between
by uplift of the footwall block. them?
13. Solids that have been deformed by movement along 28. What are recumbent and overturned folds?
closely spaced slippage planes are said to have been: 29. How do joints differ from faults?
a sheared; b folded; c subjected to 30. Draw a simple cross section showing the
tension; d. elastically strained; e. overturned. displacement on a normal fault.
14. Which of the following might result from tensional 31. What type of stress is responsible for reverse
stresses? faulting?
a anticline; b. strike-slip fault; 32. Explain what is meant by an oblique-slip fault.
c. normal fault; d. basin; e. recumbent 33. Draw a simple sketch map showing the displacement
fold. on a left-lateral strike-slip fault.
15. Fractures along which no movement has occurred 34. Discuss two ways in which mountains can form with
are: little or no folding and faulting.
a joints; b. monoclines; c. transform 35. Cite two examples of mountain systems in which
faults; d. axial planes; e. fold limbs. mountain-building processes remain active.
16. The intersection of an inclined plane with a 36. Explain why two roughly parallel orogenic belts
horizontal plane is the definition of: develop where oceanic lithosphere is subducted
a. horizontal strata; b. dip-slip movement; beneath continental lithosphere.
c folded strata; d strike; e joint. 37. How do geologists account for mountain systems
17. In mountain systems that form at continental within continents, such as the Urals in the Soviet
margins: Union?
a. the Earth's crust is thicker than average; 38. Briefly outline the model for the origin of continents
b. most deformation is caused by tensional that was presented in this chapter.
stresses; c. little or no volcanic activity occurs; 39. Explain how continents "grow" by accretion.
d. stretching and thinning of the continental 40. What is the difference between a reverse fault and a
crust occur; e. most deformation results from thrust fault?
rifting.
18 The circular equivalent of a syncline is a(n):
d.
a. monocline; b. joint; c.
asymmetric anticline; e.
basin;
overturned fault.
19 Sediments deposited in an oceanic trench and then Davis, G. H. 1984. Structural geology of rocks and regions.
deformed and scraped off against the landward side New York: John Wiley Sons. &
of the trench during an orogeny form a(n): Dennis, J. G. 1987. Structural geology: An introduction.
a. divergent margin complex; b. accretionary Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown.

Hatcher, R. D., Jr. 1990. Structural geology: Principles, concepts,
wedge; c. back-arc basin facies; d. island arc
and problems. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co.
system; e. orogenic continental margin complex.
Howell, D. G. 1985. Terranes. Scientific American v. 253, no. 5:
20. An excellent example of a mountain system forming 116-125.
as a result of a continent-continent collision is the: 1989. Tectonics of suspect terranes: Mountain building
.
a. Andes; b. Rocky Mountains; and continental growth. London: Chapman and Hall.
c. Himalayas; d. Alps; e. Appalachians. Jones, D. L., A. Cox, P. Coney, and M. Beck. 1982. The growth
21 What types of evidence indicate that stress remains of western North America. Scientific American v. 247, no. 5:
active within the Earth? 70-84.
22 How do compression, tension, and shear differ from Lisle, R. J. 1988. Geological structures and maps: A practical
one another? guide. New

York: Pergamon Press.
Miyashiro, A., K. Aki, and A. M. C. Segnor. 1982. Orogeny.
23. How is it possible for rocks to behave both
elastically and plastically?
New York: John Wiley Sons. &
Molnar, P. 1986. The geologic history and structure of the
24. What is meant by the elastic limit of rocks?
Himalaya. American Scientist 74, no. 2: 144-154.
25. Explain how the factors of rock type, time, 1986. The structure of mountain ranges. Scientific
temperature, and pressure influence the type of American v. 255, no. 1: 70-79.
strain in rocks. Spencer, E. W. 1988. Introduction to the structure of the Earth.
26. Draw a simple geologic map showing a plunging New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

CHAPTER 15
MASS WA STING
ÔUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
FACTORS INFLUENCING MASS WASTING
Slope Gradient
Weathering and Climate
Water Content
Vegetation
Overloading
Geology and Slope Stability
Triggering Mechanisms
^"Perspective 15-1: The Tragedy at
Aberfan, Wales
TYPES OF MASS WASTING
Falls
Slides
-^- Guest Essay: Cleansing the Earth— Waste

Management
Flows
Complex Movements
RECOGNIZING AND MINIMIZING THE
EFFECTS OF MASS MOVEMENTS
""T Perspective 15-2: The Vaiont Dam
Disaster
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Hong Kong's most destructive landslide

occurred on Po Shan road on June 18, 1972.
Sixty-seven people were killed when a 68-m
wide portion of this steep hillside failed,
destroying a four-story building and a
13-story apartment block.
: ^'» * TK^ric-'«r^3E^KâEC .-^^•^-^^•^^.^TK.^.-Kr*
>
-
.
PROLOGUE the avalanche, consisting of

of
more than 50,000,000 m3
mud, rock, and water, flowed over ridges 140 m
high obliterating everything in its path.
|||||IlV|j On May 31, 1970, a devastating About 3 km east of the town of Yungay, where the
earthquake occurred about 25 km valley makes a sharp bend, part of the debris flow
west of Chimbote, Peru. High in the Peruvian Andes, overrode the valley walls and within seconds buried
about 65 km to the east, the violent shaking from the Yungay, instantly killing more than 20,000 of its
earthquake tore loose a huge block of snow, ice, and residents (Fig. 15-1). The main mass of the flow
rock from the north peak of Nevado Huascaran continued down overwhelming the town of
the valley,
(6,654 m), setting in motion one of this century's Ranrahirca and several other villages and burying
worst landslides. Free-falling for about 1,000 m, this about 5,000 more people. By the time the flow
block of material smashed to the ground, displacing reached the bottom of the valley, its momentum
thousands of tons of rock and generating a gigantic carried it across the Rio Santa and some 60 m up the
debris flow (Fig. 15-1). Hurtling down the mountain's opposite bank. In a span of roughly four minutes
steep glacial valley at speeds up to 320 km per hour, from the time of the initial ground shaking,
"»»" FIGURE 15-1 An earthquake 65 km away triggered a landslide on Nevado

Huascaran, Peru, that destroyed the towns of Yungay and Ranrahirca and killed more
than 25,000 people.
Pacific
Ocean
Prologue 415
^ FIGURE 15-2 Cemetery Hill was the only
part of Yungay to escape the 1970 landslide that
destroyed the rest of the town. Only 92 people
survived the destruction by running to the top of the
hill.
approximately 25,000 people died, and most of the breaker coming in from the ocean. I estimated the
area's transportation, power, and communication wave 80 m high. I observed hundreds of
to be at least
network was destroyed. people in Yungay running in all directions and many
Ironically, the only part of Yungay that was not of them toward Cemetery Hill. All the while, there
buried was Cemetery Hill, where 92 people survived was a continuous loud roar and rumble. I reached the
by running to its top (Fig. 15-2). A Peruvian upper level of the cemetery near the top just as the
geophysicist who was giving a French couple a tour of debris flow struck the base of the hill and I was
Yungay provided a vivid eyewitness account of the probably only 10 seconds ahead of it.
disaster:
At about the same time, I saw a man just a few
meters down hill who was carrying two small children
As we drove past the cemetery the car began to shake. toward the hilltop. The debris flow caught him and he
It was not until I had stopped the car that I realized threw the two children toward the hilltop, out of the
that we were experiencing an earthquake. We path of the flow, to safety, although the debris flow
immediately got out of the car and observed the swept him down the valley, never to be seen again. I
effects of the earthquake around us. I saw several alsoremember two women who were no more than a
homes as well as a small bridge crossing a creek near few meters behind me and I never did see them again.
Cemetery Hill collapse. It was, I suppose, after about Looking around, I counted 92 persons who had also
one-half to three-quarters of a minute when the saved themselves by running to the top of the hill. It
earthquake shaking began to subside. At that time I was the most horrible thing I have ever experienced
heard a great roar coming from Huascaran. Looking and I will never forget it.*
up, saw what appeared to be a cloud of dust and it
I
looked as though a large mass of rock and ice was As tragic and devastating as this debris avalanche
breaking loose from the north peak. My immediate was, it was not the first time a destructive landslide
reaction was to run for the high ground of Cemetery had swept down the Rio Shacsha valley. In January
Hill, situated about 150 to 200 m away. I began 1962, another large chunk of snow, ice, and rock
running and noticed that there were many others in broke off from the main glacier and generated a large
Yungay who were also running toward Cemetery Hill. debris avalanche that buried several villages and killed
About half to three-quarters of the way up the hill, about 4,000 people.
the wife of my friend stumbled and fell and I turned
to help her back to her feet. *B. A. Bolt et al., Geological Hazards (New York: Springer-Verlag,
The crest of the wave had a curl, like a huge 1977), pp. 37-39.
416 Chapter 15 Mass Wasting

Mass wasting (also called mass movement) is defined
^ INTRODUCTION as the downslope movement of material under the direct
Geologists use the term landslide in a general sense to influence of gravity. Most types of mass wasting are
cover a wide variety of mass movements that may cause aided by weathering and usually involve surficial mate-
loss of life, property damage, or a general disruption of rial. The material moves at rates ranging from almost
human activities. For example, in 218 B.C., avalanches in imperceptible, as in the case of creep, to extremely fast
the European Alps buried 18,000 people; an earth- as in a rockfall or slide. While water can play an impor-
quake-generated landslide in Hsian, China, killed an es- tant role, the relentless pull of gravity is the major force
timated 1,000,000 people in 1556; another 200,000 behind mass wasting.

people died when the side of a hill collapsed due to an Mass wasting is an important geologic process that
earthquake in Kansu, China, in 1920; and 7,000 people can occur at any time and almost any place. While most
died when mudflows and avalanches destroyed Huaraz, people associate mass wasting with steep and unstable
Peru, in 1941. What makes these mass movements so slopes, it can also occur on near-level land, given the
terrifying, and yet so fascinating, is that they almost right geologic conditions. Furthermore, while the rapid
always occur with little or no warning and are over in a types of mass wasting, such as avalanches and mud-
very short time, leaving behind a legacy of death and flows, typically get the most publicity, the slow, imper-
destruction (Table 15-1). ceptible types, such as creep, usually do the greatest
Every year about 25 people are killed by landslides in amount of property damage.
the United States alone, while the total annual cost of A basic knowledge of mass wasting is important to
damages from them exceeds $1 billion. Almost all of the avoid a recurrence of mistakes, some have been
tragic, that
major landslides have natural causes, yet many of the made during knowledge can help one avoid
the past. Such
smaller ones are the result of human activity and could selecting an unsafe building site for a house or business or
have been prevented or their damage minimized. can be useful in making decisions about land use.
"^ TABLE 15-1 Selected Landslides, Their Cause, and the Number of People Killed
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
-•' FIGURE 15-3 A slope's shear

strength depends on the slope
material's strength and cohesiveness,
the amount of internal friction
between grains, and any external
support of the slope. These factors
promote slope stability. The force
of gravity operates perpendicular to
the horizontal but has a component
acting parallel to the slope. When this
force, which promotes instability,
exceeds a slope's shear strength, slope Component of gravitational
failure occurs. force acting parallel to slope
* FACTORS INFLUENCING ternal support of the slope (Fig. 15-3). These factors
collectively define a slope's shear strength.
MASS WASTING
Opposing a slope's shear strength is the force of grav-
When the gravitational force acting on a slope exceeds ity. Gravity operates perpendicular to the horizontal
its resisting force, slope failure (mass wasting) occurs. but has a component acting parallel to the slope, thereby
The resisting forces helping to maintain slope stability causing instability (Fig. 15-3). The greater a slope's an-
include the slope material's strength and cohesion, the gle, the greater the component of force acting parallel to
amount of internal friction between grains, and any ex- the slope, and the greater the chance for mass wasting.
The steepest angle that a slope can maintain without
collapsing is its angle of repose. At this angle, the shear
strength of the slope's material exactly counterbalances
the force of gravity. For unconsolidated material, the angle
of repose normally ranges from 25° to 40°. Slopes steeper
than 40° usually consist of unweathered solid rock.
"^ FIGURE 15-4 Undercutting by stream erosion

(a)removes a slope's base, which increases the slope angle
and (b) can lead to slope failure, (c) Undercutting by stream
erosion caused slumping along this stream near Weidman,
Michigan.

All slopes are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, which Slope Gradient
means that they constantly adjust in response to new con-
ditions. While we tend to view mass wasting as a disrup- Slope gradient is probably the major cause of mass wast-
tive and usually destructive event, it is one of the ways that ing. Generally speaking, the steeper the slope, the less
a slope adjusts to new conditions. Whenever a building or stable it is. Therefore, steep slopes are more likely to
road is on a hillside, the equilibrium of that

constructed experience mass wasting than gentle ones.
slope is The slope must then adjust, perhaps by
affected. A number of processes can oversteepen a slope. One of
mass wasting, to this new set of conditions. the most common is undercutting by stream or wave ac-
Many factors can cause mass wasting: slope gradient, tion (Fig. 15-4). This removes the slope's base, increases
weakening of material by weathering, increased water the slope angle, and thereby increases the gravitational
content, changes in the vegetation cover, and overload- force acting parallel to the slope. Wave action, especially
ing. Although most of these are interrelated, we will during storms, often results in mass movements along the
examine them separately for ease of discussion, but will shores of oceans or large lakes.
also show how they individually and collectively affect a Excavations for road cuts and hillside building sites
slope's equilibrium. are another major cause of slope failure (Fig. 15-5).
""' FIGURE 15-5 {a) Highway excavations disturb the

equilibrium of a slope by [b) removing a portion of its
support as well as oversteepening it at the point of
excavation, (c) Such action can result in frequent landslides.
(d) Cutting into the hillside to construct this portion of the
Pan American Highway in Mexico resulted in a rockfall that
completely blocked the road. (Photo courtesy of R. V.
Dietrich.)
Factors Influencing Mass Wasting 419

30 —
"•" FIGURE 15-7 A California
Highway Patrol officer stands on
top of a 2-m high wall of mud that
rolled over a patrol car near the
Golden State Freeway on October
23, 1987. Flooding and mudslides
also trapped other vehicles and
closed the freeway.
up (Fig. 15-7). The soils of many hill-

dollars to clean rection as the slope, water can percolate along the var-
sides in New
Zealand are sliding because deep-rooted ious bedding planes and decrease the cohesiveness and
native bushes have been replaced by shallow-rooted friction between adjacent rock units (Fig. 15-8a). This is
grasses used for sheep grazing. When heavy rains satu- particularly true when there are interbedded clay layers
rate the soil, the shallow-rooted grasses cannot hold the because clay becomes very slippery when wet.
slope in place, and parts of it slide downhill. Even if the rocks are horizontal or dip in a direction
may dip in the same
opposite to that of the slope, joints
direction as the slope.Water migrating through them
Overloading
weathers the rock and expands these openings until the
Overloading is almost always the result of human ac- weight of the overlying rock causes it to fall (Fig. 15-8b).
tivity and typically results from dumping, filling, or pil-
ing up of material. Under natural conditions, a materi-
al's load is carried by its grain-to-grain contacts, and a
Triggering Mechanisms
slope is thus maintained by the friction between the
grains. The additional weight created by overloading, While the factors previously discussed all contribute to
however, increases the water pressure within the mate- slope instability, most— though not all — rapid mass
rial, which in turn decreases its shear strength, thereby movements are triggered by a force that temporarily
weakening the slope material. If enough material is disturbs slope equilibrium. The most common triggering
added, the slope will eventually fail, sometimes with mechanisms are strong vibrations from earthquakes and
tragic consequences. excessive amounts of water from a winter snow melt or
a heavy rainstorm.
Earthquakes are the most common type of strong vi-
Geology and Slope Stability
brations and thus trigger many mass movements (see the
The relationship between topography and the geology Prologue and the Chapter 13 Prologue). In many cases, the
of an area is important in determining slope stability resulting landslide causes far more damage and poses a
(Fig. 15-8). If the rocks underlying a slope dip in the greater threat to people than the earthquake itself.
same direction as the slope, mass wasting is more likely Volcanic eruptions, explosions, and even loud claps
to occur than if the rocks are horizontal or dip in the of thunder may be enough to trigger a landslide if the
opposite direction. When the rocks dip in the same di- slope is sufficiently unstable. Many avalanches, which

Perspective 15-1
THE TRAGEDY AT
ABERFAN, WALES
The debris brought out of underground coal mines in
southern Wales typically consists of a wet mixture of
various sedimentary rock fragments. This material is
usually dumped along the nearest valley slope where it
builds up into large waste piles called tips. A tip is
fairly stable aslong as the material composing it is

relatively dry and its sides are not oversteepened.
Between 1918 and 1966, seven large tips composed
of mine debris had been built at various elevations on
the valley slopes above the small coal-mining village
of Aberfan (Fig. 1). Shortly after 9:00 a.m. on
October 21, 1966, the 250 m high, rain-soaked Tip
No. 7 collapsed, and a black sludge flowed down the
it came
valley with a loud train roar (Fig. 2). Before
to a halt800 m from its starting place, the flow had
destroyed two farm cottages, crossed a canal, and
buried Pantglas Junior School, suffocating virtually all
the children of Aberfan. A 144 people died in

total of
the flow, among them 116 children who had gathered
for morning assembly in the school.
After the disaster, everyone asked, "Why did this
tragedy occur and could it have been prevented?" The
subsequent investigation revealed that no stability
•^ FIGURE 1 Aberfan,
Wales, and a cross section
showing the various tips built
along the valley walls above
Aberfan.

could result from a combination of various geologic
features including springs and seeps from the tip.
In 1939, 8 km to the south, a tip constructed under

conditions almost identical to those of Tip No. 7
collapsed. Luckily no one was injured, but
unfortunately the failurewas soon forgotten and the
Aberfan tips continued to grow. In 1944 Tip No. 4
failed, and again no one was injured. By the time Tip
No. 5 was closed in 1956, it had a large, ominous
bulge growing on its lower side, but fortunately it
never slid.
1958 Tip No. 7 was sited solely on the basis of

In
available space, with no regard to the area's geology.
The springs and seeps, though they were visible and
well known, were completely ignored. In spite of
previous tip failures and warnings of slope failure by
tip workers and others, mine debris was being piled
onto Tip No. 7 until the day of the disaster.

What exactly caused Tip No. 7 and the others to
fail? The official investigation revealed that the
foundation of the had become saturated with
tips
water from the springs over which they were built. In
the case of the collapsed tips, pore pressure from the
water exceeded the friction between grains, and the
entire mass liquefied like a "quicksand." Behaving as a
liquid, the mass quickly moved downhill spreading
out laterally. As it flowed, water escaped from the
mass, and the sedimentary particles regained their
cohesion.
Following the inquiry, it was recommended that a
"^ FIGURE 2 Aerial view of the Aberfan tip disaster in National Tip Safety Committee be established to
which 144 people died. assess the dangers of existing tips and advise on the
construction of new tip sites. Unfortunately, six years
studies had ever been made on the tips and that after theAberfan disaster, a similar incident occurred
repeated warnings about potential failure of the tips, in West Virginia, where a water-saturated, coal-mining
as well as previous slides, had all been ignored. As refuse dam collapsed. The resulting mudflow swept
early as 1927, a publication warned that tip failures down the valley killing 118 people.

Water percolates
through soil and
sandstone, wetting
the clay layer,
which swells and
becomes slippery
"•" FIGURE 15-8 (a) Rocks
dipping in the same direction as a

hill's slope are particularly
susceptible to mass wasting.
Undercutting of the base of the
slope by a stream removes support
and steepens the slope at the base.
Water percolating through the soil
and into the underlying rock
increases its weight and, if clay
layers are present, wets the clay
making them slippery, (b) Fractures
dipping in the same direction as a
slope are enlarged by chemical
weathering, which can remove
enough material to cause mass
wasting.
are rapid movements of snow and ice down steep moun- one type of mass movement to change into another
tain slopes, are triggered by the sound of a loud gunshot along its course. For example, a landslide may start out
or, in rare cases, even a person's shout. as a slump at its head and, with the addition of water,
become an earthflow at its base. Even though many
^ TYPES OF MASS WASTING slope failures are combinations of different materials
and movements, it is still convenient to classify them
Geologists recognize a variety of mass movements (Ta- according to their dominant behavior.
ble 15-2). Some are of one distinct type, while others are Mass movements are generally classified on the basis
a combination of different types. It is not uncommon for of three major criteria (Table 15-2): (1) rate of move-

"^ TABLE 15-2 Classification of Mass Movements and Their Characteristics
"^ FIGURE 15-10 Numerous rockfalls have resulted from •**- FIGURE 15-11 Rockfall in Jefferson County,
frostwedging of these bedded and fractured rocks at Colorado. All eastbound traffic and part of the westbound
Alberta Falls, Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. lane of Interstate 70 were blocked by the rockfall. Heavy
Accumulations of talus can be seen at the base of these rainfall and failure along joints and foliation planes in
outcrops. Precambrian gneiss caused this rockfall.
Rockfalls range in size from small rocks falling from of movement can vary from extremely slow to very
a cliff to massive falls involving millions of cubic meters rapid (Table 15-2).
of debris that destroy buildings, block highways (Fig. Two types of slides are generally recognized: (1)
15-11), and even bury towns. When large blocks of rock slumps or rotational slides, in which movement occurs
fall into restricted bodies of water, they may generate along a curved surface; and (2) rock or block glides,
huge waves capable of tremendous damage. One of the which move along a more-or-less planar surface.
largest of these occurred on July 9, 1958, in Lituya Bay, A slump involves the downward movement of mate-
Alaska. An earthquake dislodged an estimated 30.5 mil- rial along a curved surface of rupture and is character-
lion m3 of rock that fell more than 900 m into the bay, ized by the backward rotation of the slump block (Fig.
causing a surge of water that rose 524 m above the bay's 15-12). Slumps occur most commonly in unconsoli-
level on its opposite side (see Perspective 20-1, Fig. 2). dated or weakly consolidated material and range in size
Rockfalls are a common hazard in mountainous ar- from small individual sets, such as occur along stream
eas where roads have been built by blasting and grading banks, to massive, multiple sets that affect large areas
through steep hillsides of bedrock. Anyone who has ever and cause considerable damage.
driven through the Appalachian Mountains, the Rocky Slumps can be caused by a variety of factors, but the
Mountains, or the Sierra Nevada is familiar with the most common is erosion along the base of a slope, which
"Watch for Falling Rocks" signs posted to warn drivers removes support for the overlying material. This local
of the danger. Slopes particularly prone to rockfalls are steepening may be caused naturally by stream erosion
sometimes covered with wire mesh in an effort to pre- along its banks (Fig. 15-12) or by wave action at the base
vent dislodged rocks from falling to the road below. of a coastal cliff. Slope oversteepening can also be caused
Another tactic is to put up wire mesh fences along the by human activity, such as the construction of highways
base of the slope to catch or slow down bouncing or and housing developments. Slumps are particularly prev-
rolling rocks. alent along highway cuts and fills where they are gen-
erally the most frequent type of slope failure observed.
While many slumps are merely a nuisance, large-scale
Slides
slumps involving populated areas and highways can
A slide involves movement of material along one or cause extensive damage. Such is the case in coastal
more surfaces of failure. The type of material may be southern California where slumping and sliding have
soil, rock, or a combination of the two, and it may break been a constant problem. Many areas along the coast
apart during movement or remain intact. A slide's rate are underlain by poorly to weakly consolidated silts,

Guest Essay BONNIE ROBINSON
rTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTfTTTTTTTTyTT'TTTTT T TTTY T TTTTTTT
CLEANSING THE EARTH-
WASTE MANAGEMENT*
I remember the moment when I became interested
first impacts on human health and the environment, and
in geology. My fifth-grade teacher was discussing the legal and administrative controls on the generation,
theory of continental drift; using a map of the world, handling and disposal of the wastes.
she showed us how North and South America could fit A national E&P waste management program
against Europe and Africa to form a single giant would have far-reaching implications due to the
continent! This intriguing concept made so much complexity of the oil and gas industry, the wide range
sense— it was like putting together the pieces of a giant of environmental settings affected, and the variety of
jigsaw puzzle— and that is how I still view geology. state regulatory programs. Oil and gas production is
From that time, I knew that the sciences were my scattered throughout more than 30 states, where over
re. It was an unusual pursuit
for an African- 26,000 companies are involved in the exploration and
erican girl growing up
an urban environment.
in production of oil and gas. Each year thousands of
I always enjoyed being outdoors and examining maps. new wells are drilled and thousands of well sites are
I was a rockhound, collecting rocks and fossils wherever abandoned. The major wastes generated at these
I went. locations consist of water extracted with the oil and
I majored in geology at Oberlin College and gas, drilling fluids, and a variety of lesser wastes.
broadened my understanding of the field during summer These wastes often contain varying amounts of
internships at the Smithsonian Institution. Geology was potentially hazardous constituents.
fascinating because it linked all of the natural and One of the key issues facing the EPA is how to
physical sciences together with engineering and applied determine the most efficient alternatives for improving
them to the study of the Earth. I learned that geology E&P waste management without significant adverse
influenced other fields of endeavor. For example, proper impacts on oil and gas production. Continued
land-use planning requires knowledge of geology, social domestic production is vital to the nation's interest,
sciences, and other skills. but it must be balanced with adequate environmental
After college I worked in environmental geology at protection.
the U.S. Geological Survey, followed by graduate Knowledge of science and technology, or science
studies at the University of California, Santa Cruz. I literacy, is essential for intelligent decision making
spent the next 13 years as a petroleum geologist, regarding critical national issues. Opportunities exist
working on oil and gas exploration and development for full participation by minorities and women, who
projects throughout the western United States. My are severely underrepresented in science and
interest in environmental issues affecting the technology. It is vital that we encourage, develop, and
petroleum industry led to my desire to work in the utilize this pool of talent. A
field of waste management.
In my position at the Environmental Protection
Oonnie Robinson earned an
Agency (EPA), I am involved in the development of A.B. degree in geology from
the program for improved management of wastes Oberlin College in 1974,
generated by crude oil and natural gas exploration followed by graduate studies at
and production (E&P) activities. The EPA's Office of the University of California at
Santa Cruz. She worked as a
Solid Waste is conducting studies of the characteristics
petroleum geologist in Denver,
of the wastes, waste handling methods and their
Colorado, for 13 years and
"Opinions expressed in this paper are solely those of the author recently joined the U.S.
and do not necessarily represent those of the U.S. Environmental Environmental Protection Agency
Protection Agency. in Washington, D.C.
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAA AAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
Types of Mass Wasting 427

-~- FIGURE 15-12 In a slump,
material moves downward along the
curved surface of a rupture, causing
the slump block to rotate backward.
Most slumps involve unconsolidated
or weakly consolidated material and
are typically caused by erosion
along the slope's base. Surface of rupture
sands, and gravels interbedded with clay layers, some of Southern California lies in a semiarid climate and is
which are weathered ash falls. In addition, southern dry most of the year. When does rain, typically be-
it
California is tectonically active so that many of these tween November and March, large amounts of rain can
deposits are cut by faults and joints, which allow the fall in a short time. Thus, the ground quickly becomes
infrequent rains to percolate downward rapidly, wetting saturated, leading to landslides along steep canyon walls
and lubricating the clay layers. as well as along coastal cliffs (Fig. 15-13). Most of the
, Pacific Palisades
' Santa Monica
Los Angeles
"»» FIGURE 15-13 Undercutting of steep sea cliffs by

Pacific Ocean
wave action resulted in massive slumping in the Pacific
on March 31 and
Palisades area of southern California
April 3, 1958. Highway 1 was completely blocked. Note the
heavy earth-moving equipment for scale.

•^ FIGURE 15-14 Rock glides occur when material moves downslope along a
generally planar surface.
slope failures along the southern California coast are the about 21 km 3 , and it weighed approximately 50 billion
result of slumping. These slumps have destroyed many tons. When the debris from the rock glide finally settled,
expensive homes and forced numerous roads to be it covered an area of 166 km 2 .
closed and relocated. The causes of rock glide probably involved three
this
A rock or block glide occurs when rocks move factors: (1) the massive limestone dipped in the same
downslope along a more-or-less planar surface. Most direction as the local slope; (2) the limestone was un-
rock glides occur because the local slopes and rock lay- derlain by a weak claystone; and (3) its base was un-
ers dip in the same direction, although they can also dercut by the Karkheh River. In addition, the area is
occur along fractures parallel to a slope (Fig. 15-14). seismically active, and it is believed an earthquake prob-
The known rock glide in the world is the pre-
largest ably triggered the slide.
historicSaidmarreh landslide in southwestern Iran (Fig. In addition to slumping, rock glides are also common
15-15). A slab of limestone 305 m thick, 14 km long, occurrences along the southern California coast. At
and 5 km wide became detached from the Kabir Kuh Point Fermin, seaward-dipping rocks with interbedded
ridge and slid down and across the adjacent 8 km wide slippery clay layers are undercut by waves causing nu-
Saidmarreh Valley with enough momentum to climb merous glides (Fig. 15-16a).
over a ridge 460 m high before stopping nearly 18 km Farther south in the town of Laguna Beach, startled
from its source! The volume of the slipped material was residents watched as a rock glide destroyed or damaged

"^ FIGURE 15-15 The world's largest known
rock glide occurred in the Saidmarreh Valley,
some 96 km northwest of Dizful, Iran. An
earthquake is believed to have triggered this
massive prehistoric slide that covered an area of
166 km*.
5 km
Rubble following
rock glide
Karkheh River /
^- / /

(a) (b)
ir FIGURE 15-16 (a) A combination of interbedded clay beds that become slippery
when wet, rocks dipping in the same direction as the slope of the sea cliffs, and
undercutting of the sea cliffs by wave action has caused numerous rock glides and
slumps at Point Fermin, California, (b) The same combination of factors apparently
activated a rock glide farther south at Laguna Beach that destroyed numerous homes
and cars on October 2, 1978. (Photo (a) courtesy of Eleanora I. Robbins, U. S.
Geological Survey.)
50 homes on October 2, 1978 (Fig. 15-16b). Just as at previous winter's heavy rains wet a subsurface clayey
Point Fermin, the rocks at Laguna Beach dip about 25° siltstone, thus reducing its shear strength and helping to
in the same direction as the slope of the canyon walls activate the glide. Although the 1978 glide covered only
and contain clay beds that "lubricate" the overlying about five acres, it was part of a larger ancient slide
rock layers, causing the rocks and the houses built on complex.
them to glide. In addition, percolating water from the Not all rock glides are the result of rocks dipping in

^V v
the same direction as a hill's slope. The rock glide at
"»" FIGURE 15-18 [a) Mudflows are the most fluid of
Frank, Alberta, Canada, on April 29, 1903, illustrates flows and consist of large amounts of water combined with
how nature and human activity can combine to create a at least 50% silt- and clay-sized particles, (b) Mudflow in
situation with tragic results (Fig. 15-17). Estes Park, Colorado.
It would appear at first glance that the coal-mining
town of Frank, lying at the base of Turtle Mountain,
was in no danger from a landslide (Fig. 15-17). After all,
many of the rocks dipped away from the mining valley,

unlike the situations at Saidmarreh, Point Fermin, and
Laguna Beach. The joints in the massive limestone com-
posing Turtle Mountain, however, dip steeply toward
the valleyand are essentially parallel with the slope of
the mountain itself. Furthermore, Turtle Mountain is
supported by weak limestones, shales, and coal layers
that underwent slow plastic deformation from the
weight of the overlying massive limestone. Coal mining
along the base of the valley also contributed to the stress
on the rocks by removing some of the underlying sup-
port. All of these factors, as well as frost action and
chemical weathering that widened the joints, finally re- (a)
sulted in a massive rock glide. Almost 40 million m of

3
rock slid down Turtle Mountain along joint planes, kill-

ing 70 people and partially burying the town of Frank.
Flows
Mass movements which material flows as a viscous
in
fluid movement are termed flows.
or displays plastic
Their rate of movement ranges from extremely slow to
extremely rapid (Table 15-2). In many cases, mass
movements may begin as falls, slumps, or slides and
change into flows further downslope.
Mudflows are the most fluid of the major mass move-
ment types (Fig. 15-18). They consist of at least 50%
silt- and clay-sized material combined with a significant
amount of water (up to 30%). Mudflows are common

in arid and semiarid environments where they are trig-
gered by heavy rainstorms that quickly saturate the rego-
lith, turning it into a raging flow of mud that engulfs
everything in its path. Mudflows can also occur in

mountain regions and in areas covered by volcanic ash
where they can be particularly destructive (see Chapter
4). Because mudflows are so fluid, they generally follow
preexisting channels until the slope decreases or the
channel widens, at which point they fan out.
Mudflows are very dangerous types of mass move-
ments because they typically form quickly, usually move
very rapidly (at speeds up to 80 km per hour), and are
capable of transporting all different sizes of objects. As
urban areas in arid and semiarid climates continue to
expand, mudflows and the damage they create are be-

•^ FIGURE 15-19 Debris flows
contain larger-sized particles than
mudflows and are not as fluid.
Debris flows can be very destructive
in mountainous regions because of
the steep slopes, loose material,and
water available from melting snow.
coming problems. For example, mudflows are very com- wet regolith (Fig. mudflows and debris
15-20). Like
mon in the steep hillsides around Los Angeles where flows, earthflows can be ofany size, and are frequently
they have damaged or destroyed many homes. destructive. They occur, however, most commonly in
In addition to the damage they cause on hillsides, humid climates on grassy soil-covered slopes following
mudflows are also a hazard to structures built along the heavy rains.
bases of steep mountain fronts. This danger arises be- Some clays spontaneously liquefy and flow like water
cause mudflows forming in the mountains follow valleys when they are disturbed. Such quick clays have caused
down the mountainside until they reach the base where serious damage and loss of lives in Sweden, Norway,
they fan out onto the flat valley floor. Any building, eastern Canada, and Alaska (Table 15-1). Quick clays
highway, or railroad tracks in the path of the mudflow are composed of fine silt and clay particles made by the
will be quickly moved or buried. For example, a mud- grinding action of glaciers. Geologists believe these fine
flow in Cajon Pass near Los Angeles carried a locomo- sediments were originally deposited in a marine envi-
tive a distance of more than 600 m before burying it. ronment where their pore space was filled with salt wa-
Debris flows are composed of larger-sized particles ter. The ions in the salt water helped establish strong
than mudflows and do not contain as much water. Con- bonds between the clay particles, thus stabilizing and
sequently, they are usually more viscous than mudflows, strengthening the clay. However, when the clays were
typically do not move as rapidly, and rarely are confined subsequently uplifted above sea level, the salt water was
to preexisting channels. Debris flows can, however, be flushed out by fresh groundwater, reducing the effective-
just as damaging because they can transport large ob- ness of the ionic bonds between the clay particles and
jects (Fig. 15-19). thereby reducing the overall strength and cohesiveness
In semiarid regions, debris flows, like mudflows, are of the clay. Consequently, when the clay is disturbed by
quite destructive, and depending on the amount of water a sudden shock or shaking, it essentially turns to a liquid
present, they commonly intergrade. Debris flows are also and flows.
mountainous regions because of
particularly destructive in An example of the damage that can be done by quick
the combination of steep slopes, great amounts of loose clays occurred in the Turnagain Heights area of Anchor-
debris, and large volumes of water from melting snow. age, Alaska, in 1964 (Fig. 15-21). Underlying most of the
Earthflows move more slowly than either mudflows Anchorage area is the Bootlegger Cove Clay, a massive
or debris flows. An earthflow slumps from the upper clay unit of poor permeability. Because the Bootlegger
part of a hillside, leaving a scarp, and flows slowly Cove Clay forms a barrier preventing groundwater from
downslope as a thick, viscous, tongue-shaped mass of flowing through the adjacent glacial deposits to the sea,

considerable hydraulic pressure builds up behind the Construction of the Alaska pipeline from the oil fields
clay. Some of this water has flushed out the salt water in inPrudhoe Bay to the ice-free port of Valdez raised nu-
the clay and also has saturated the lenses of sand and silt merous concerns over the effect it might have on the
associated with the clay beds. When the 8.5-magnitude permafrost and the potential for solifluction. Some
Good Friday earthquake struck on March 27, 1964, the thought that oil flowing through the pipeline would be
shaking turned parts of the Bootlegger Cove Clay into a warm enough to melt the permafrost, causing the pipe-
quick clay and precipitated a series of massive slides in line to sink further into the ground and possibly rupture.
the coastal bluffs that destroyed most of the homes in the After numerous studies were conducted, scientists con-
Turnagain Heights subdivision. cluded that the pipeline, completed in 1977, could safely
Solifluction is the slow downslope movement of be buried for more than half of its 1,280 km length;
water-saturated surface sediment. Solifluction can occur where melting of the permafrost might cause structural
in any climate where the ground becomes saturated with problems to the pipe, it was insulated and installed
water, but is most common in cold climates where the above ground.
upper surface periodically thaws and freezes. Creep is the slowest type of flow. It is also the most
Permafrost is ground that remains permanently frozen. widespread and significant mass wasting process in
It covers nearly 20% of the world's land surface (Fig. 15- terms of the total amount of material moved downslope
22a). During the warmer season when the upper portion and the monetary damage that it does annually. Creep
of the permafrost thaws, water and surface sediment form involves extremely slow downhill movement of soil or
a soggy mass that flows by solifluction and produces a rock. Although it can occur anywhere and in any cli-
characteristic lobate topography (Fig. 15-22b). mate, it is most effective and significant as a geologic
As might be expected, many problems are associated agent in humid rather than arid or semiarid climates. In
with construction in a permafrost environment. A good fact, it is the most common form of mass wasting in the
example what happens when an uninsulated building
is southeastern United States and the southern Appala-
is constructed directly on permafrost. In this instance, chian Mountains.
heat escapes through the floor, thaws the ground below, Because the rate of movement is essentially impercep-
and turns it into a soggy, unstable mush. Because the tible, we are frequently unaware of creep's existence un-
ground is no longer solid, the building settles unevenly til we notice its effects: tilted trees and power poles,
into the ground, and numerous structural problems re- broken streets and sidewalks, cracked retaining walls or
sult (Fig. 15-23). foundations (Fig.15-24). Creep usually involves the
"^ FIGURE 15-20 {a)Earthflows form tongue-shaped masses of wet regolith that
move slowly downslope. They occur most commonly in humid climates on grassy
soil-covered slopes, {b) An earthflow near L'Anse, Michigan.

"^ FIGURE 15-21
(a) Groundshaking by the 1964
Alaska earthquake turned parts of
the Bootlegger Cove Clay into a
quick clay, causing numerous slides
(b) that destroyed many homes in
the Turnagain Heights subdivision
of Anchorage.

•
ii&
<^*W«M'
Oôntinuo'us
/ zone /
Discontmuou *}&*
zone
(a) (b)
"^ FIGURE 15-22 {a) Distribution of permafrost areas in the Northern Hemisphere.
(b) Solifluction flows near Suslositna Creek, Alaska, show the typical lobate topography
that is characteristic of solifluction conditions.
whole hillside and probably occurs, to some extent, on "^ FIGURE 15-23 This house, located south of
any weathered or soil-covered, sloping surface. Fairbanks, Alaska, has settled unevenly because the
Not only is creep difficult to recognize, it is difficult underlying permafrost in fine-grained silts and sands has
to control. Although engineers can sometimes slow or thawed.
stabilize creep, many times the only course of action is
to simply avoid the area if at all possible or, if the zone

of creep is relatively thin, design structures that can be
anchored into the solid bedrock.
Complex Movements
Recall thatmany mass movements are combinations of
differentmovement types. When one type is dominant,
the movement can be classified as one of the movements
described thus far. If several types are involved, how-
ever, it is called a complex movement.
The most common type of complex movement is the

slide-flow in which there is sliding at the head and then
some type of flowage farther along its course. Most slide-
flow landslides involve well-defined slumping at the

^ FIGURE 15-24 (a) Some
evidence of creep: (A) curved tree
trunks; (B) displaced monuments;
(C) tilted power poles; (D) displaced
and tilted fences; (E) roadways
moved out of alignment;
(F) hummocky surface, (b) Creep
has bent these sandstone and shale
beds of the Haymond Formation
near Marathon, Texas, (c) Trees
bent by creep, Wyoming, (d) Stone
wall tilted due to creep, Champion,
Michigan. (Photo courtesy of David
J. Matty.)
*»- FIGURE 15-25 A complex
Slump block / movement inwhich slumping occurs
Surface of at the head followed by an
rupture earthflow.
head, followed by a debris flow or earthflow (Fig. 15-25). Identifying areas with a high potential for slope fail-
However, any combination of different mass movement ure is important any hazard assessment study; such
in
types can be classified as a complex movement. studies include identifying former landslides as well as
A debris avalanche is a complex movement that often sites of potential mass movement. Because of the effects
occurs in very steep mountain ranges. Debris avalanches of weathering, erosion, and vegetation, the evidence for
typically startout as rockfalls when large quantities of previous mass wasting may be obscured. However,
rock, ice, and snow are dislodged from a mountainside, scarps, open hum-
fissures, displaced or tilted objects, a
frequently as a result of an earthquake. The material mocky surface, and sudden changes in vegetation are
then slides or flows down the mountainside, picking up some of the features indicating former landslides or an
additional surface material and increasing in speed. The area susceptible to slope failure.
1970 Peru earthquake motion the debris avalanche
set in Soil and bedrock samples are also studied, both in the
that destroyed the town of Yungay (see the Prologue). field and laboratory, to assess such characteristics as
composition, susceptibility to weathering, cohesiveness,
and Such studies help geolo-
ability to transmit fluids.
gists and engineers predict slope stability under a variety
» RECOGNIZING AND of conditions.
MINIMIZING THE EFFECTS The information derived from a hazard assessment

study can be used to produce slope stability maps of the
OF MASS MOVEMENTS area. These maps allow planners and developers to
The most important factor in eliminating or minimizing make decisions about where to site roads, utility lines,
the damaging effects of mass wasting is a thorough geo- and housing or industrial developments based on the
logic investigation of the region in question. In this way, relative stability or instability of a particular location. In
former landslides and areas susceptible to mass move- addition, the maps also indicate how extensive an area's
ments can be identified and perhaps avoided (see Per- landslide problem is and the type of mass movement
spective 15-2). By assessing the risks of possible mass that may occur. This information is important for de-
wasting before construction begins, steps can be taken signing slopes or building structures to prevent or min-
to eliminate or minimize the effects of such events. imize slope failure damage.
Recognizing and Minimizing the Effects of Mass Movements 439

Perspective 15-2
THE VAIONT DAM DISASTER

On October 9, 1963, a glacial valley in the Italian more than 70 m km
downstream. The slide
high 1.6
Alps was the siteof the worst dam disaster in history. also set off a blast of wind shook houses, broke
that
More than 240 million m3 of rock and soil slid into windows, and even lifted the roof off one house in the
the Vaiont Reservoir, triggering a destructive flood town of Casso, which is 260 m above the reservoir on
that killed nearly 3,000 people (Fig. 1). To fully the opposite side of the slide; it also set off shock
appreciate the enormity of this catastrophe, consider waves recorded by seismographs throughout Europe.
the following: Within a period of 15 to 30 seconds, Considering the forces generated by the slide, it is a
the slide filled the reservoir with a mass of debris 2 tribute to the designer and construction engineer that
km long and as high as 175 m above the reservoir the dam itself survived the disaster (Fig. 2)!
level. The impact of wave of
the debris created a The dam was built in a glacial valley that is
water that overflowed the dam by 100 m and was still underlain by a thick sequence of folded and faulted
"^ FIGURE 1 Location of the

Vaiont Dam disaster and features
associated with the landslide.
Reservoir water
I I Reservoir area filled
by 1963 slide
Path of wave in reservoir

caused by slide
1963 landslide limit
•••• 1960 landslide limit

limestones and interbedded clay layers and marls that
H '
„ v tfiMi*
are further weakened by jointing (Fig. 3). Signs of
previous slides in the area were obvious, and the few
boreholes in the valley slopes revealed clay seams and
small-scale slide planes. In spite of the geological
evidence of previous mass wasting in the area and
objections to the site by some of the early
investigators, construction of the 265.5 m high Vaiont
Dam began.
A combination of both adverse geological features
and conditions resulting from the dam construction
contributed to the massive landslide. Among the
geological causes were the rocks themselves, which
were weak to begin with and dipped in the same
direction as the valley walls of the reservoir. Fractured
limestones make up the bulk of the rocks and are
interbedded with numerous clay beds that are
particularly prone to slippage. Active solution of the
limestones by slightly acid groundwater further
weakened them by developing and expanding an
extensive network of cracks, joints, fissures, and other
openings.
During the two weeks before the slide occurred,
heavy rains saturated the ground, adding extra weight
and reducing the shear strength of the rocks. In
addition to water from the rains, water from the
reservoir infiltrated the rocks of the lower valley walls,
further reducing their strength. It is believed that the
actual slope failure was caused by an increase of ^ FIGURE 2 Aerial view of the Vaiont Dam.
water pressure that facilitated slippage along the wet,
lubricated clay layers. Around October 1, animals grazing on the slopes of
Soon after the dam was completed, a relatively Mount Toe seemingly sensed danger and moved off
small slide of one million m 3
of material occurred on the hillside. The mayor of Casso ordered the
the south side of the reservoir. Following this slide, it evacuation of the town in anticipation of a landslide
was decided to limit the amount of water in the and water wave from the reservoir.
reservoir and to install monitoring devices throughout By October 8, the creep rate had increased to
the potential slide area. Between 1960 and 1963, the almost 39 cm per day, and engineers realized that it
eventual slide area moved an average of about 1 cm was not individual blocks that were moving, but the
per week. Beginning on September 18, 1963, however, entire slide area,and quickly began lowering the
numerous monitoring stations reported movement had reservoir level. On
October 9, the rate of movement in
increased to about 1 cm per day. It was assumed that the slide area had increased still further, in some
these were individual blocks moving, but in reality it locations up to 80 cm per day, and there were reports
was the entire slide area! that the reservoir level was actually rising. This was to
Heavy rains fell between September 28 and be expected if the south bank was moving into the
October 9, increasing the amount of subsurface water. (continued on next page)

'
Cretaceous Limestone
— »— —
«-"* Principal strike plane
Dashed where marl is present
Malm Formation =
*
— ' Fault
Contains clay interbeds
Dogger Formation
I Lias Formation
-^FIGURE 3 A generalized geologic cross section through the slide area of the
Vaiont Reservoir area. The line of the section is shown in Figure 1.
reservoir and displacing water. Finally, at 10:41 p.m. study should examine the geology of the area, identify
that night, during yet another rainstorm, the south past mass movements, assess their potential for
bank of the Vaiont valley slid into the reservoir. recurrence, and evaluate the effects that the project will
The lesson to be learned from this disaster is that a have on the rocks, including how it will alter their shear
complete and systematic appraisal of an area must be strength over time. Without these precautions, dams will
conducted before major construction begins. Such a continue to fail and lives will needlessly be lost.
The importance of slope stability maps in delineating later destroyed by a landslide (Fig. 15-26c). If a slope
unstable areas is well illustrated by what happened in stability study had been conducted before development
San Clemente, California (Fig. 15-26). After the area began, construction might not have been allowed in un-
had already been developed, a relative slope stability stable areas.
map town was made that classified
of a portion of the Although most large mass movements usually cannot
areas on a scale ranging from relatively stable to unsta- be prevented, geologists and engineers can employ var-
ble. The house indicated by the arrow in Figure 15-26b ious methods to minimize the danger and damage re-
was built on material identified as unstable and was sulting from them. Because water plays such an impor-

FIGURE 15-26 (a) Relative
slope stability map of part of San
Clemente, California, showing areas
delineated according to relative
stability, (b) The house indicated by
the arrow was built on unstable
material, (c) A landslide later
destroyed the home.
,.... }\$wv£mmpm*i*!!*im*
(b)

^J
-^ FIGURE 15-27 (a) Driving

drainpipes that are perforated on
one side into a hillside with the
perforated side up can remove some
subsurface water and thus help
stabilize a hillside, (b) A drainpipe
driven into the hillside at Point
Fermin, California, helps remove
subsurface water and stabilize the
slope.
tant role inmany landslides, one of the most effective Surface waters can be drained and diverted by
and inexpensive ways to reduce the potential for slope ditches, gutters, or culverts designed to direct water
failure or to increase existing slope stability is through away from slopes. Drainpipes perforated along one sur-
surface and subsurface drainage of a hillside. Drainage face and driven into a hillside can help remove subsur-
serves two purposes. It reduces the weight of the mate- face water (Fig. 15-27). Finally, planting vegetation on
rial likely to slide and increases the shear strength of the hillsides helps stabilize slopes by holding the soil to-
slope material by lowering pore pressure. gether and reducing the amount of water in the soil.

Another way to help stabilize a hillside is to reduce its slope and used as fill at the base, thus providing a flat
slope. Recall that overloading or oversteepening by surface for constructionand reducing the slope (Fig.
grading are common causes of slope failure. By reducing 15-28). The second method, which is called benching,
the gradient of a hillside, the potential for slope failure involves cutting a series of benches or steps into a hill-
is decreased. Two common methods are generally em- side.This process reduces the average slope, and the
ployed to reduce a slope's gradient. In the cut-and-fill benches serve as collecting sites for small landslides or
method, material is removed from the upper part of the rockfalls. Benching is most commonly used on steep hill-
"^ FIGURE Two common methods used to help stabilize a hillside and reduce
15-28
its method, material from the steeper upper part of the
slope, {a) In the cut-and-fill
hillside removed, thereby reducing the slope angle, and is used to fill in the base. This
is
provides some additional support at the base of the slope, (b) Benching involves making
several cuts along a hillside to reduce the overall slope.
This material has

been removed
Before
Former slope

Vegetation
planted on slope
Drain pipe Stable bedrock Unstable rock layers
(a) (a)
(b)
"^ FIGURE 15-29 (a) Retaining walls anchored into "^ FIGURE 15-30 (a) Rock bolts secured in bedrock can
bedrock, backfilled with gravel, and provided with help stabilize a slope and reduce landslides, (b) Rock bolts
drainpipes can support a slope's base and reduce landslides are used to help secure rock above the outlet of the west
(b) Steel retaining wall built to stabilize the slope and keep diversion tunnel of the Glen Canyon Dam. As can be seen,
falling and sliding rocks off of the highway. however, some portions of rock still broke away.
sides in conjunction with a system of surface drains to wasting are ignored or not recognized. We end this
divert runoff. chapter with a discussion of the Portuguese Bend land-
In some situations, retaining walls can be constructed slide,one of the most damaging landslides in California
to provide support for the base of the slope (Fig. 15-29). and one in which all of the warning signs of impending
These are usually anchored well into bedrock, backfilled disaster were ignored.
with crushed rock, and provided with drain holes to The Portuguese Bend area of southern California is
prevent the buildup of water pressure in the hillside. part of a large ancient landslide complex. Signs of
Rock bolts, similar to those employed in tunneling former mass wasting such as scarps, fissures, and a gen-
and mining, have been used to fasten potentially unsta- erally hummocky ground surface are obvious on aerial
ble rock masses into the underlying stable bedrock (Fig. photographs and geologic maps of the area (Fig. 15-31).
15-30). This technique has been used successfully on the In spite of such evidence, nothing was done to prevent
hillsides of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and to help secure the the construction of roads and houses in the area during
slopes at the Glen Canyon Dam on the Colorado River. the 1950s.
2
Recognition, prevention, and control of landslide- Movement firstbegan in 1956 when a 1 km area
prone areas is expensive, but not nearly as expensive as began sliding. During the period from 1956 to 1978,
the damage can be when the warning signs of mass movement in Portuguese Bend was essentially continu-

s* Santa Monica
*» FIGURE 15-31 (a) Diagram of the Portuguese Bend
slide area in 1957. The arrows indicate the direction of slide
Los
movements, (b) Aerial view of the Portuguese Bend slide
Angeles area on November 29, 1966, in which some of the features
in (a) can be seen.
•mrrnTt "Pull-away" scarp or trench
Fracture, fissure, or slip surface

~^=-~^=. Swarm of small fractures
Toe of major slide mass
(a)

ous, averaging between 0.3 and 1.3 cm per day. During vating the landslide at Portuguese Bend. One of the
the late 1970s and early 1980s, the rate accelerated to main causes was construction of roads in the area. Large
more than 2.5 cm per day, probably as a result of several quantities of fill from the road construction were
years of above-average rainfall. In all, more than 150 dumped at the top of what became the slide area, and it
homes were destroyed, and the highway at the base of is thought that the extra weight helped to initiate the
the slide had to be relocated several times because of the landslide. In addition, most of the houses had septic
creep, slumping, and rock gliding that occurred. In ad- systems, and the residents watered their lawns, both of
dition, property damage caused by the landslide was which contributed to the lubrication of the subsurface
estimated at more than $10 million. clay layers and the subsequent movement.
The cause of this landslide became the subject of a As a result of the Portuguese Bend event, Los Angeles
lawsuit brought by the homeowners' association against County now requires detailed geological engineering
the County of Los Angeles. After years of litigation, the studies before any hillside home construction can begin.
court ruled in favor of the homeowners, and the county Since the plan was adopted, the percentage of homes
compensated them for damage to their property. A va- damaged or destroyed by landslides has been greatly
riety of factors were apparently responsible for reacti- reduced.
aremost common in semiarid and arid environments

^ CHAPTER SUMMARY and generally follow preexisting channels.
10. Debris flows are composed of larger-sized particles
1. Mass wasting is the downslope movement of and contain water than mudflows. They are
less
material under the influence of gravity. Most mass more viscous and do not flow as rapidly as
movements are aided by weathering and involve
mudflows.
surficial material.
11. Earthflows move more slowly than either debris
2. Several types of mass wasting are geologic hazards
flows or mudflows; they move downslope as thick,
that are frequently responsible for loss of life.
viscous, tongue-shaped masses of wet regolith.
Millions of dollars in damage are caused annually by
12. Quick clays are clays that spontaneously liquefy and
mass wasting. flow like water when they are disturbed.
3. Mass wasting occurs when the gravitational force
13. Solifluction is the slow downslope movement of
acting parallel to a slope exceeds the slope's
water-saturated surface sediment and is most
strength.
common in areas of permafrost.
4. Mass wasting can be caused by many factors
14. Creep, the slowest type of flow, is the imperceptible
including a slope's gradient, weathering of the slope
downslope movement of soil or rock. Creep is the
material, the material's water content, overloading
most widespread of all types of mass wasting.
of the slope, and removal of vegetation. Usually,
15. Complex movements are combinations of different
several of these factors in combination contribute to
types of mass movements in which one type is not
slope failure.
dominant. Most complex movements involve sliding
5. Mass movements are generally classified on the basis and flowing.
of their rate of movement, type of movement, and
16. The most important factor in reducing or
type of material.
eliminating the damaging effects of mass wasting is a
6. Rockfalls are a common mass movement in which
thorough geologic investigation of the area including
rocks free-fall.
mapping, soil and rock analysis, and the
7. Two types of slides are recognized. Slumps are
construction of slope stability maps to outline areas
rotational slides involving movement along a curved
susceptible to mass movements.
surface; they are most common in poorly
consolidated or unconsolidated material. Rock glides
occur when movement takes place along a more or ^ IMPORTANT TERMS
less planar surface; they usually involve solid pieces
of rock. complex movement mudflow
8. Several types of flows are recognized on the basis of creep permafrost
their rate of movement, type of material, and debris avalanche quick clay
amount of water. debris flow rapid mass movement
9. Mudflows consist of mostly clay- and silt-sized earthflow rockfall
particles and contain more than 30% water. They mass wasting rock glide

shear strength slump 12. An ancient landslide at Portuguese Bend, California,
slide solifluction was reactivated by:
slow mass movement a road construction; b. septic systems;
c above-average rainfall; d. all of these;
e. none of these.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 13. Define mass wasting.
14. What are the forces that help to maintain slope
Shear strength includes: stability?
a. the strength and cohesion of material; 15. What roles do climate and weathering play in mass
b. the amount of internal friction between wasting?
grains; c. gravity; d. all of these; 16. In what ways does the ground's water content affect
e. answers (a) and (b). slope stability? Give an example of how excessive
Which of the following is not a factor influencing water content has resulted in slope failure.
mass wasting? 17. How does vegetation affect slope stability? Give
a. gravity; b. weathering; c. slope several examples.
gradient; d. water content; e. none of these. 18. What is overloading and why is it dangerous?
Which of the following factors can actually enhance 19. Give several examples of how the relationship
slope stability? between topography and the underlying geology
a. water content; b. vegetation; affects slope stability.
c. overloading; d. rocks dipping in the same 20. What are rockfalls? Where are they most common
direction as the slope; e. none of these. and why?
Mass wasting can occur: 21. What is the difference between a slump and a rock
a. on gentle slopes; b. on steep slopes; glide? Why are slumps particularly common along
c. in flat-lying areas; d. all of these; road cuts and fills?
e. none of these. 22. Discuss and give examples of two different ways
A type of mass wasting common in mountainous that rock glides might occur.
regions in which talus accumulates is: 23. Differentiate between a mudflow, debris flow, and
a. creep; b. solifluction; c. rockfalls; earthflow.
d. mudflows.
slides; e. 24. Why are quick clays so dangerous?
Movement of material along a surface or surfaces of 25. What precautions must be taken when building in
failure is a: permafrost areas?

a. slide; b. fall; c. flow; d. slip; 26. Why is creep so prevalent, and why does it do so
e. none of these. much damage?
Downslope movement along an essentially planar 27. How can creep be controlled once it has started?
surface is a: 28. What complex movements, and how do they
are
a. slump; b. rockfall; c. earthflow; differ from other types of mass movements?
d. landslide; e. rock glide. 29. What are some of the indications of previous mass
Inwhich area can good examples of slumps, slides, wasting? How can you recognize areas that are
and flows be found? susceptible to mass movement?
a. Wyoming; b. southern California;
c.
e.
Alberta, Canada; d.
all of these.
Anchorage, Alaska;
Which of the following are the most fluid of mass Brabb, E. and B. L. Harrod, eds. 1989. Landslides: Extent
E.,
movements? and economic significance. Brookfield, Va.: A. A. Balkema.
a. earthflows; b. debris flows; Crozier, M. J. 1989. Landslides: Causes, consequences, and
c. mudflows; d. solifluction; e. slumps. environment. Dover, New Hampshire: Croom Helm.
10. The most widespread and costly type of mass Fleming, R. W., and F. A. Taylor. 1980. Estimating the cost of
wasting in terms of total material moved and landslide damage in the United States. U.S. Geological Survey
monetary damage is: Circular 832.
Kiersch, G. A. 1964. Vaiont reservoir disaster. Civil Engineering
a. creep; b. solifluction; c. mudflow;
34: 32-39.
d. debris flow; e. slumping.
McPhee, J. 1989. The control of nature. New York: Farrar,
11. Which of the following features indicate former
Straus &C Giroux.
landslides or areas susceptible to slope failure? Small, R.J., and M. J. Clark. 1982. Slopes and weathering.
a. displaced objects; b. scarps; New York: Cambridge University Press.
c. hummocky surfaces; d. open fissures; Zaruba, Q., and V. Mencl. 1982. Landslides and their control.
e. all of these. 2d ed. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Publishing Co.

CHAPTER 16
RUNNING WAT E R
^ OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
RUNNING WATER
Sheet Flow versus Channel Flow-
Stream Gradient
Velocity and Discharge
T" Guest Essay: Managing Our Water
Resources
STREAM EROSION
TRANSPORT OF SEDIMENT LOAD
STREAM DEPOSITION
Braided Streams and Their Deposits
Meandering Streams and Their Deposits
Floodplain Deposits
"^ Perspective 16-1: Predicting and
Controlling Floods
Deltas
Alluvial Fans
DRAINAGE BASINS AND DRAINAGE
PATTERNS
BASE LEVEL
THE GRADED STREAM
DEVELOPMENT OF STREAM VALLEYS
SUPERPOSED STREAMS
STREAM TERRACES
INCISED MEANDERS
T^ Perspective 16-2: Natural Bridges
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Grand Sable Falls in Alger County, Michigan.

(Photo courtesy of R. V Dietrich.)
PROLOGUE icecaps to the equatorial regions of a planet that
becoming progressively drier. When Mariner 4 flew
was
past Mars on July 15, 1965, however, it sent back
In 1877, the Italian astronomer

images indicating that no canals were present;
apparently, they were simply an optical illusion.
Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli viewed
Although no Martians or their works were
Mars through his telescopeand was convinced that he
discovered, Mariner 4 and the subsequent Viking
saw straight lines. In his report he called these lines
missions did reveal evidence for running water.
canali, the Italian word for channel, but it was
Currently, liquid water cannot exist on the Martian
translated into English as "canal."During the 1890s,
surface because the atmospheric pressure is too low. If
Percival Lowell, who founded the Lowell Observatory
any water were present, it would rapidly vaporize.
near Flagstaff, Arizona, published numerous maps
showing interconnecting canals on Mars. Many Mars does, however, show clear evidence of volcanism
(see Fig. 2-12), although it is doubtful that any of the
astronomers could not see Lowell's canals, but others
volcanoes are still active. Nevertheless, just as on
thought they could. By the early 1900s, the public had
Earth, Martian volcanoes no doubt emitted carbon
accepted the idea that intelligent beings had
dioxide and water vapor by outgassing (see Fig. 12-3).
constructed the canals to divert water from the polar
Furthermore, the gravitational attraction of Mars is
sufficient to retain these gases, so most of the water
that originated during its early history may still be
,*r some form. The polar icecaps of Mars
there in
FIGURE 16-1 Outflow channels extending from areas are
of chaotic terrain (CT) on Mars. Arrows show inferred composed of frozen carbon dioxide and frozen water,
directions of flow. and large quantities of water ice are probably present
in the pore spaces of the surface deposits.
"^ FIGURE 16-2 Runoff channels on Mars. Although

runoff channels resemble dry channels called arroyos in the
southwestern United States, they may not have been formed
by running water.
\ -
Prologue 451
Studies of Mariner and Viking images reveal areas where the water no doubt ponded and its surface
called chaotic terrane that appear to consist of loosely froze. The water beneath very likely percolated
piled rubble. Winding valleys, termed outflow downward and froze once again. The surface ice
channels, extend from some of these areas of chaotic probably sublimated (vaporized without going
terrane (Fig. 16-1). These channels are 10 to 100 km through a liquid phase), fell as snow, melted, and
wide, some are more than 2,000 km long, and within percolated down into the surface deposits where it
them are a number of features indicating fluid flow. refroze.
Apparently, the channels formed when huge quantities Much smaller networks of runoff channels are
of subsurface ice suddenly melted, perhaps because of remarkably similar to the dry channels called arroyos
volcanic activity. The overlying rock then subsided, found in the southwestern United States (Fig. 16-2).
forming the chaotic terrane, and the water was Nevertheless, the Martian channels do not possess
released at the surface as flash floods. Judging from features unequivocally associated with running water.
the size of these outflow channels, the flash floods Thus, even though the runoff channels resemble
probably exceeded any known on Earth. channels on Earth, running water may not have been
What became of these flash flood waters? The responsible for their origin.
outflow channels terminate at closed depressions
tricity used in North America is generated by falling

» INTRODUCTION water at hydroelectric stations (Fig. 16-5). Streams have
Among the terrestrial planets, the Earth is unique in been, and continue to be, important avenues of com-
having abundant liquid water. Both Mercury and the merce. Much of the interior of North America was first
Earth's moon are too small to retain any water, and explored by following such large streams as the St.
Venus, because of runaway greenhouse effect, is too

its Lawrence, Mississippi, and Missouri rivers.
hot to retain surface water. Mars has some frozen water

and trace amounts of water vapor in its atmosphere (see
the Prologue). In marked contrast, 71% of the Earth's
^ THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
surface is covered by water, and a small but important Although the quantity of water in streams is small at any
quantity of water vapor is present in its atmosphere. one time, during the course of a year very large volumes
The volume of water on Earth is estimated at 1.36 of water move through stream channels. In fact, water is
billion km 3most of which (97.2%) is in the oceans.
, continually recycled from the oceans, through the atmo-
About 2% is frozen in glaciers, and the remaining 0.8% sphere, to the continents, and back to the oceans. This
constitutes all the water in streams, lakes, swamps, continual recycling of water is called the hydrologic cy-
groundwater, and the atmosphere (Fig. 16-3). Thus, cle (Fig. 16-6). (The hydrologic cycle will also be rele-
only a tiny portion of the total water on Earth is in vant to our discussions of groundwater in Chapter 17
streams, but running water is nevertheless the most im- and glaciers in Chapter 18.)
portant erosional agent modifying the Earth's surface. The hydrologic cycle, which is powered by solar ra-
Despite the importance of running water as an agent diation, is possible because water changes phases easily
of erosion, sediment transport, and deposition, its role is under Earth surface conditions. Huge quantities of wa-
limited in some by glacial ice,
areas. In areas covered ter evaporate from the oceans each year as the surface
such as Greenland and Antarctica, running water is cur- waters are heated by solar energy. The amount of ocean
rently not important. Some parts of deserts are also little water evaporated yearly corresponds to a layer about 1
affected by running water. Even in most desert regions, m thick from all the oceans. Approximately 85% of all
however, the effects of running water are manifest, al- water that enters the atmosphere is derived from the
though the channels are dry most of the time (Fig. 16-4). oceans; the remaining 15% comes from evaporation of
In addition to its significance as a geologic agent, water on land.
running water important for many other reasons as
is When water evaporates, the vapor rises into the at-
well. It is a source of fresh (nonsaline) water for indus- mosphere where the complex processes of condensation
try, domestic use, and agriculture. About 8% of the elec- and cloud formation occur. About 80% of the precipi-
452 Chapter 16 Running Water

/
1
sess ae SBXBUF.
~tr-T - --..-
..- zam "Tie
^-<re3 process or
------ -.-.-.:.-*- -.;-.-- ;-.: :-v.- -.-=-.. t.
? /;-; j 1
--•-<:- 1
'• ; :-'.- --;-— -. . — -.-.-. -..- - ;;n
.. _,_ .„ . , .„ . , ... ... ....... _ ... " _ _. : '

"
r.-.r.-r. :- -— .
r- ;-.; --— .- , r . ~r
rq r ;r,; -fr.j
Groundwater to rivers
and oceans
"*"' FIGURE 16-6 The hydrologic cycle.
flow, on the other hand, occurs in almost all streams.

"^ FIGURE 16-7 (a) In laminar flow, streamlines are all
The primary control on the type of flow is velocity;
parallel to one another, and little or no mixing occurs
roughness of the surface over which flow occurs also between adjacent layers in the fluid, (b) In turbulent flow,
plays a role. Laminar flow occurs when water flows very streamlines are complexly intertwined, indicating mixing
slowly as when groundwater moves through the tiny between adjacent layers in the fluid. Most flow in streams is
pores in sediments and soil. In streams, however, the turbulent.
flow is usually fast enough and the channel walls and

Water surface
bed rough enough so that flow is fully turbulent. Lam-
inar flow is so slow, and generally so shallow, that it
causes little or no erosion. Turbulent flow is much more
energetic and thus is capable of considerable erosion
and sediment transport.
(a)
Sheet Flow versus Channel Flow

The amount of runoff in any area during a rainstorm
depends on its infiltration capacity, the maximum rate
at which soil or other surface materials can absorb wa-
ter. Infiltration capacity depends on several factors, in-
cluding the intensity and duration of rainfall. Loosely

packed, dry soils absorb water faster than tightly
'"•'"
FIGURE 16-9 In a stream, flow velocity varies as a
"^ FIGURE 16-8 gradient of this stream is 2
The average result of friction with the banks and bed. The maximum
flow velocity is near the center and top of a stream in a
m/kra. Gradient can be calculated for any segment of a
straight channel. The lengths of the arrows in this
stream as shown in this example. Notice that the gradient is
illustration are proportional to the velocity.
steepest in the headwaters area and decreases in a
downstream direction.
Streams receive water from several sources, including

sheet flow and rain falling directly into stream channels.
packed, wet soils. Hard, dry surfaces, such as those that
Farmore important, however, is the water supplied by
develop during droughts, also have low infiltration ca-
soilmoisture and groundwater, both of which flow
pacities. Therefore, when they do receive rain, there is
downslope and discharge into streams (Fig. 16-6). In
still considerable runoff.
humid areas where groundwater is plentiful, streams
If rain is absorbed as fast as it falls, no surface runoff
may maintain a fairly stable flow year round, even dur-
occurs. However, should the infiltration capacity be ex-
ing dry seasons, because they are continually supplied
ceeded, or should surface materials become saturated,
by groundwater. In contrast, the amount of water in
excess water collectson the surface and, if a slope exists,
streams of arid and semiarid regions fluctuates widely
moves downhill. Even on steep slopes such flow is ini-
because such streams depend more on infrequent rain-
tially slow, and hence little or no erosion occurs. As the
storms and surface runoff for their water supply.
water moves downslope, however, it accelerates and
may move by sheet flow, a more-or-less continuous film
of water flowing over the surface. Such flow is not con- Stream Gradient
and it accounts for sheet erosion, a
fined to depressions,
Streams flow downhill from a source area to a lower
particular problem on some agricultural lands (see
elevationwhere they empty into another stream, a lake,
Chapter 6).
or the sea.* The slope over which a stream flows is its
In channel flow, surface runoff is confined to long,
gradient. For example, if the source (headwaters) of a
troughlike depressions. Channels vary in size from rills
stream is 1,000 m above sea level and the stream flows
containing a trickling stream of water to the Amazon
500 km to the sea, it drops 1,000 m vertically over a
River of South America, which is 6,450 km long and up
horizontal distance of 500 km (Fig. 16-8). Its gradient is
to 2.4 wide and 90 m deep. Channelized flow is
km
described by various terms including rill, brook, creek,
stream, and river, most of which are distinguished by downstream
'The flow in certain desert streams diminishes in a
size and volume. The term stream carries no connota- direction by evaporation and infiltration until the streams disappear.
tion of size and is used here to refer to all runoff con- Some streams in regions with numerous caverns may disappear
fined to channels regardless of size. below the ground.

Broad, shallow
channel
— FIGURE 16-10 All three of

these channels have the same
cross-sectional area, but each has a
different shape. The semicircular
channel has the least perimeter in
contact with the water and thus
Cross-sectional 10 m2 causes the least frictional resistance
area to flow. If other variables, such as
channel roughness, are the same in
all of these channels, flow velocity
Perimeter in contact 12 m will be greatest in the semicircular
with water
channel.
calculated by dividing the vertical drop by the horizon- semicircular channels flows more rapidly because it en-
tal distance; in this example, it is 1,000 m/500 km = 2 counters less frictional resistance. In many streams the
m/km. maximum flow velocity occurs near the surface at the
Gradients vary considerably, even along the course of center of the channel; it occurs slightly below the surface
a single stream. Generally, streams are steeper in their because of frictional resistance from the air above.
upper reaches where their gradients may be tens of However, in sinuous (meandering) channels, the line of
meters per kilometer, but in their lower reaches the gra- maximum flow velocity switches from one side of the
dient may be as little as a few centimeters per kilometer. channel to the other and corresponds to the channel
Some streams mountains of the western United
in the center only along straight reaches (Fig. 16-11).
States have particularly steep gradients of several hun-
dred meters per kilometer.
"^ FIGURE 16-11 In a sinuous (meandering) channel,
flow velocity varies from one side of the channel to the
other. As the water flows around curves, it flows fastest near
Velocity and Discharge the outer bank. The dashed line in this illustration follows
the path of maximum flow velocity.
Stream velocity and discharge are closely related vari-
ables. Velocity is simply a measure of the downstream
distance traveled per unit of time. Velocity is usually
expressed in feet per second ( ft/sec) or meters per second
(m/sec) and varies considerably among streams and even
within the same stream.
Variations in flow velocity occur not only with dis-
tance along a stream channel but also across a channel's
width. For example, flow velocity is slower and more
turbulent near a stream bed or stream banks than it is
farther from these boundaries. The bed and banks cause

frictional resistance to flow, whereas the water some
distance away is unaffected by friction and thus has a
higher velocity (Fig. 16-9).
Other controls on velocity include channel shape and
roughness. Broad, shallow channels and narrow, deep
channels have proportionally more water in contact
with their perimeters than do channels with semicircular
cross sections (Fig. 16-10). Consequently the water in
Running Water 457

Guest Essay E. BURTON KEMP III
MANAGING OUR WAT E R

RESOURCES
My interest in geology began when I was a senior in groundwater levels and supply potential, and
high school. At that time, the petroleum industry was hazardous toxic waste contamination. These studies
and
at a high point. In particular, overseas exploration have led to such projects as the evaluation and design
development were beginning to expand dramatically. of an emergency dewatering system to prevent
The possibility of extensive travel to foreign countries, excessive uplift during dewatering of a critical contn
coupled with the potential for a comfortable structure in eastern New Orleans; groundwater
was attractive to me. At the same time, I
livelihood, evaluation and development programs in east and
had always had an interest in the natural and physical southwest Texas; design of a groundwater monitoring
sciences. Therefore, geology seemed to be a perfect program for a hazardous holding pond in
choice for me: it was a natural physical science, and it north-central Louisiana; detailed analysis of the
offered me the opportunity to travel, seek my fortune, subsurface for hazardous toxic waste analysis at
and satisfy my interest in naturally occurring several industrial facilities in Louisiana, Arkansas, and
phenomena. South Carolina; and evaluation of the potential for
My original intent was to pursue a career in the groundwater contamination at a proposed High Level
petroleum industry; however, at the time of my Nuclear Waste Repository in central Mississippi.
graduation from undergraduate school, the and gasoil These studies included studying, examining, and
industry was in one of the cyclic downturns to which it monitoring the effects that changes in groundwater
is prone. After much thought, I decided that a change in levels and chemistry have on our environment.
would be prudent. I shifted my emphasis
direction Finally, through participation in detailed studies
toward more engineering-related areas of study and the Louisiana Coastal Zone marshes and wetlands,
began a career as an engineering geologist with the U.S. have been able to help define land loss rates, make
Army Corps of Engineers. I also elected to pursue predictions on future areas where land loss problems
graduate studies with emphasis on engineering geology will increase or diminish, and isolate areas where
and its many related fields such as geomorpholgy, losses are minimal and offer the best potential to
hydrogeology, environmental geology, and the reduce future losses or create new marshes. These
application of geology to engineering structures. coastal zone studies will make it possible to reduce
During my career, I have been privileged to losses within our valuable wetlands and help presi
participate in a number of investigations, studies, these natural resources.
projects, and activities that have been extremely These studies and investigations, as well as
rewarding, from both a professional and a personal participation on numerous committees, boards, revi
viewpoint. Specifically, I participated in the initial site panels, study groups, and seminars, have afforded me
investigations and final design for a number of large the opportunity to work closely with many other
projects such as dams, control structures, and disciplines in conserving, protecting, and improving our
navigation locks. Cooper Dam in northeast Texas; natural environment. I feel strongly that geology is a
Caddo Dam in northwest Louisiana; Old River very dynamic and rewarding field and will continue to
Control Auxiliary Structure in central Louisiana; Lock be equally exciting and challenging in the future, a
and Dam Numbers 1 through 5 on the Red River
Waterway in north-central Louisiana; and the Lake
Pontchartrain &C Vicinity Hurricane Protection Project
in southeast Louisiana are some examples of these XL. Burton Kemp III earned an
projects. These structures are used to control floods M.S. in geology from Tulane
and hurricane tidal surges, thus reducing property University Graduate School. He
damage and the potential for loss of life. They also has worked in the area of
engineering geology for more
help maintain our nation's waterways so that
than 30 years and is currently a
waterborne commerce can move efficiently.
with the U.S.
district geologist
I have also been engaged in several ongoing
Army Corps of Engineers for the
groundwater studies involving foundation effects, New Orleans District.
LAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
*w TABLE 16-1
^ FIGURE 16-12 The solid load of a stream consists of "^ FIGURE 16-13 Streams such as the Snake River in
particles up to the size of boulders. (Photo courtesy of Idaho receive some of their sediment load by mass wasting
B. M. C. Pape.) processes. (Photo courtesy of R. V. Dietrich.)
The solid sediment carried in streams ranges from sand and gravel, the impact of these particles abrades
clay-sized particles to large boulders (Fig. 16-12). Much exposed rock surfaces. One obvious manifestation of
of this sediment finds way into streams by mass wast-
its abrasion is the occurrence of potholes in the beds of
ing (Fig. 16-13), but much is derived directly from the streams These circular to oval holes occur
(Fig. 16-14).
stream bed and banks. For example, the power of run- where eddying currents containing sand and gravel swirl
ning water, called hydraulic action, is sufficient to set around and erode depressions into solid rock.
particles in motion. Everyone has seen the results of
hydraulic action, although perhaps not in streams. For
example, if the flow from a garden hose is directed onto
^ TRANSPORT OF SEDIMENT LOAD
loose soil, a hole is soon gouged out by hydraulic action. Streams transport a solid load of sedimentary particles
Another process of erosion in streams is abrasion, in and a dissolved load consisting of ions taken into solu-
which exposed rock is worn and scraped by the impact tion by chemical weathering. Sedimentary particles are
of solid particles. If running water contains no sediment, transported either as suspended load or as bed load.
little or no erosion will result, but if it is transporting Suspended load consists of the smallest particles, such as
silt and clay, which are kept suspended by fluid turbu-
lence (Fig. 16-15). Such particles are deposited only

-»- FIGURE 16-14 Potholes in the bed of the Chippewa
where turbulence is minimal as in lakes or the quiet
River in Ontario, Canada.
offshore waters of the sea.
Bed load consists of the coarser particles such as sand
and gravel (Fig. 16-15). Fluid turbulence is insufficient
to keep such large particles suspended, so they move
along the stream bed. Part of the bed load can be sus-
pended temporarily, however. For example, an eddying
current may swirl across a stream bed and lift sand
grains into the water. These particles move forward at
approximately the flow velocity, but at the same time
they settle toward the stream bed where they come to
rest, to be moved again later by the same process. This
process of intermittent bouncing and skipping along the
stream bed is called saltation (Fig. 16-15).
Particles too large to be suspended even temporarily
are transported by rolling or sliding (Fig. 16-15). Obvi-

Surface of stream
Rolling and sliding Stream bed

"^ FIGURE 16-15 Methods of sediment transport by
running water. The velocity profile at the right indicates that
the water flows fastest near the surface and slowest along
the stream bed.
ously, greater flow velocity is required to move particles

of these sizes. The maximum-sized particles that a
stream can carry define its competence, a factor related
to flow velocity. Figure 16-16 shows the velocities re-
quired to erode, transport, and deposit particles of var-
ious sizes. As expected, high velocity is necessary to erode
and transport gravel-sized particles, whereas sand is
eroded and transported at lower velocities. Notice, how-
ever, that high velocity is needed to erode clay because
clay deposits are very cohesive: the tiny clay particles
adhere to one another and can be disrupted only by en-
ergetic flow conditions. Once eroded, however, very little
energy isneeded to keep the clay particles in motion.
Capacity is a measure of the total load a stream can
carry. It varies as a function of discharge; with greater

discharge, more sediment can be carried. Capacity and
competence may seem quite similar, but they are actu-
ally related to different aspects of stream transport. For
example, a small, swiftly flowing stream may have the
competence to move gravel-sized particles but not to
transport a large volume of sediment. Thus, it has a low
capacity. A large, slow-flowing stream, on the other
hand, has a low competence, but may have a very large
suspended load, and hence a large capacity.
^ STREAM DEPOSITION
Streams can transport sediment a considerable distance
from the source area. For example, some of the sediments
Mexico by the Mississippi River
deposited in the Gulf of
came from such distant sources as Pennsylvania, Min-
nesota, and Wyoming. Along the way, deposition may
occur in a variety of environments, such as stream chan-
nels, the floodplains adjacent to channels, and the points
where streams flow into lakes or the seas or flow from
mountain valleys onto adjacent lowlands.
"*•» FIGURE 16-18 A meandering stream, the Flathead "^ FIGURE 16-19 The cut bank of a meandering stream.
River near Kalispell, Montana.
when a stream is supplied with excessive sediment, meandering channel when it flows into an area of more
which over time is deposited as sand and gravel bars resistant materials. Streams fed by melting glaciers are
within its channel. During high-water stages, these bars also commonly braided because the melting glacial ice
are submerged, but during low-water stages, they are yields so much sediment (see Chapter 18).
exposed and divide a single channel into multiple chan-
nels (Fig. 16-17). Braided streams have broad, shallow
Meandering Streams and Their Deposits
channels. They are generally characterized as bed load
transport streams, and their deposits are composed Meandering streams possess a single, sinuous channel
mostly of sheets of sand and gravel (Fig. 16-17). with broadly looping curves called meanders (Fig. 16-
Braided streams are common in arid and semiarid re- 18). Such stream channels are semicircular in cross sec-
gions where there is little vegetation and erosion rates are tion along straight reaches, but at meanders they are
high. Streams with easily eroded banks are also likely to markedly asymmetric, being deepest near the outer
become braided. In fact, a stream that is braided where bank, which commonly descends vertically into the
its banks are easily eroded may have a single, sinuous or channel. The outer bank is called the cut bank because
flow velocity and turbulence are greatest on that side of
the channel where it is eroded (Fig. 16-19). In contrast,
flow velocity is at a minimum near the inner bank,
** FIGURE 16-20 Two small point bars in a meandering
which slopes gently into the channel.
stream.
As a consequence of the unequal distribution of flow
velocity across meanders, the cut bank is eroded and
deposition occurs along the opposite side of the channel.
The net effect is meander migrates laterally, and
that a
the channel maintains a more or less constant width
because erosion on the cut bank is offset by an equal
amount of deposition on the opposite side of the chan-
nel. The deposit formed in this manner is a point bar; it
consists of cross-bedded sand or, in some cases, gravel
(Fig. 16-20). Point bars are the characteristic deposits
that accumulate within meandering stream channels.
It is not uncommon meanders to become so sin-
for
uous that the thin neck of land separating adjacent me-
anders is eventually cut off during a flood. The valley
floors of meandering streams are commonly marked by

*** FIGURE 16-21 Four stages in
the origin of an oxbow lake. In (a)
and (b), the meander neck becomes
narrower, (c) The meander neck is
cut off, and part of the channel is
abandoned, (d) When it is
completely isolated from the main

channel, the abandoned meander is
an oxbow lake.
crescent-shaped oxbow lakes, which are actually cutoff streams commonly have a floodplain, but this feature is
meanders (Fig. 16-21). These oxbow lakes may persist usually proportional to the size of the stream; thus,
as lakes for some time, but are eventually filled with small streams have narrow floodplains, whereas the
organic matter and fine-grained sediment carried by lower Mississippi and other large streams have flood-
floods. Once filled, oxbow lakes are called meander plains many kilometers wide. Streams restricted to deep,
scars. narrow valleys usually have little or no floodplain. '
One immediate effect of meander cutoff is an increase Some floodplains are composed mostly of sand and
in flow velocity; following the cutoff, the stream aban- gravel that were deposited as point bars. When a mean-
dons part of its old course and flows a shorter distance, dering stream erodes its cut bank and deposits on the
thus increasing its gradient. Numerous
cutoffs would, of opposite bank, it migrates laterally across its floodplain.
course, significantly shorten ameandering stream, but As lateral migration occurs, a succession of point bars
such streams usually establish new meanders elsewhere develops by lateral accretion (Fig. 16-22b). That is, the
when old ones are cut off. deposits build laterally as a consequence of repeated ep-
isodes of sedimentation on the inner banks of meanders.
Many floodplains are dominated by vertical accretion
Floodplain Deposits
of fine-grained sediments. When a stream overflows its
Most streams periodically receive more water than their banks and floods, the velocity of the water spilling onto
channel can carry, so they spread across low-lying, rel- the floodplain diminishes rapidly because of greater fric-
atively flat areas called floodplains adjacent to their tional resistance to flow as the water spreads out as a
channels (Fig. 16-22a) (see Perspective 16-1). Even small broad, shallow sheet. In response to the diminished ve-
Stream Deposition 463

Perspective 16-1
PREDICTING AND
CONTROLLING FLOODS
Occasionally, a stream receives more water than its
channel can handle, and it floods, occupying part or

all of its floodplain. To monitor stream behavior, the
U.S. Geological Survey maintains more than 11,000
stream gauging stations, and various state agencies
also monitor streams. Data collected at gauging
stations can be used to construct a hydrograph
showing how a stream's discharge varies over time
(Fig. 1). Hydrographs are useful in planning irrigation
and water supply projects, and they give planners a
better idea of what to expect during flood events.
Stream gauge data are also used to construct
flood-frequency curves (Fig. 2). To construct such a
i i i I i i i I i i i I i i i i i i i i i i i
curve, the peak discharges are first arranged in order

Feb. 13lFeb. ulFeb. 15lFeb. 161 Feb. 17lFeb. 18lFeb. 19
of volume; the flood with the greatest discharge has a
magnitude rank of 1, the second largest is 2, and so
-^" FIGURE 1 Hydrograph for Sycamore Creek near
on (Table 1). The recurrence interval— that is, the time
Ashland City, Tennessee, for the February 1989 flood. (From
period during which a flood of a given magnitude or U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations
larger can be expected over an average of many Report 89-4207.)
**f FIGURE 2 Flood-frequency

curve for the Rio Grande near
Lobatos, Colorado. The curve was
constructed from the data in Table 1. 350-
40 I 60 I 801100
30 50 70 90
Recurrence interval (years)
464 Chapter 1 6 Running Water

"» TABLE 1 Some of the Data and Recurrence Intervals for the Rio Grande near Lobatos, Colorado
Year Discharge (m 3 /sec) Rank Recurrence Interval
1900 133 23 3.35

1901 103 35 2.20
1902 16 69 1.12
1903 362 2 38.50
1904
— FIGURE 16-22 (a) The broad,
flat area adjacent to the channel of
a stream is its floodplain.
(b) Floodplain deposits forming by

lateral accretion of point bars. (b)
locity, ridges of sandy alluvium called natural levees are

Deltas
deposited along the margins of the stream channel (Fig.
16-23). Natural levees are built up by repeated deposi- The fundamental process of delta formation is rather
tion of sediment during numerous These natural
floods. simple: when a stream flows into another body of water,
levees separate most of the floodplain from the stream its flow velocity decreases rapidly and deposition occurs.
channel, so floodplains are commonly poorly drained As a result of such deposition, a delta forms, causing the
and swampy. In fact, tributary streams may parallel the local shoreline to build out, or prograde (Fig. 16-24).
main stream for many kilometers until they find a way Deltas in lakes are common, but marine deltas are much
through the natural levee system (Fig. 16-23). larger and far more complex.
The flood waters spilling from a main channel carry The simplest prograding deltas exhibit a characteris-
large quantities of fine-grained sediment beyond the tic vertical sequence in which bottomset beds are suc-
natural levees and onto the floodplain. During the cesssively overlain by foreset beds and topset beds (Fig.
waning stages of a flood, the flood waters may flow 16-24a). Such sequences develop when a stream enters
very slowly or not at and the suspended silt and clay
all, another body of water, and the finest sediments are car-
eventually settle as layers of mud. Thus, floodplain mud ried some distance beyond the river mouth, where they
deposits build upward by deposition during successive settle from suspension and form bottomset beds. Nearer
flood events. the river mouth, foreset beds are formed as sand and silt

Y
"»" FIGURE 16-23 Three stages in the

formation of vertical accretion deposits on a
floodplain. [a] Stream at low-water stage.
(b) Flooding stream and deposition. Many
such episodes of flooding form natural levees.
[e] After flooding.
are deposited in gently inclined layers. The topset beds Many small deltas in lakes have the three-part divi-
consist of coarse-grained sediments deposited in a net- sion described above, but large marine deltas are usually-
work of distributary channels traversing the top of the much more complex. Depending on the relative impor-
delta. In effect, streams lengthen their channels as they tance of stream, wave, and tidal processes, three major
extend across prograding deltas (Fig. 16-24). types of marine deltas are recognized (Fig. 16-25).

^ FIGURE 16-24 (a) Internal
structure of the simplest type of
prograding delta, (b) A small delta
in which bottomset, foreset, and
topset beds are visible.
Stream-dominated deltas, such as the Mississippi River Coal can form in several depositional environments,
delta, consist of long fingerlike sand bodies, each depos- such as the fresh water marshes between distributary
ited in a distributary channel that progrades far sea- channels of deltas (Fig. dom-
16-24a). Such marshes are
ward. Such deltas are commonly called bird's-foot del- inated by nonwoody plants whose remains accumulate
tas because the projections resemble the toes of a bird. to form peat, the first stage in the origin of coal (see
In contrast, the Nile delta of Egypt is wave-dominated, Chapter 7). If peat is buried, the volatile components of
although it also possesses distributary channels; the sea- the plants are driven off leaving mostly carbon that
ward margin of the delta consists of a series of barrier eventually forms coal.
islands formed by reworking of sediments by waves, and Delta progradation is one way in which potential res-
the entire margin of the delta progrades seaward. Tide- ervoirs for oil and gas form. Because of their porosity
dominated deltas, such as the Ganges-Brahmaputra of and permeability and association with organic-rich ma-
Bangladesh, are continually modified into tidal sand bod- rine sediments, distributary sand bodies commonly con-
ies that parallel the direction of tidal flow (Fig. 16-25). tain oil and gas. Much of theoil and gas production of

"^ FIGURE 16-25 (a) The Mississippi River delta of the U.S. Gulf Coast is
stream-dominated, and (b) the Nile Delta of Egypt is wave-dominated, (c) The
Ganges-Brahmaputra delta of Bangladesh is tide-dominated.
Alluvial Fans
the Gulf Coast of Texas comes from buried delta depos-
its. Some of the older deposits of the Niger River delta of Alluvial fans are lobate depositson land (Fig. 16-26).
Africa and the Mississippi River delta are also known to They form best on lowlands adjacent to highlands in
contain vast reserves of oil and gas. arid and semiarid regions where little or no vegetation

the canyon onto the lswland area, it quickly spreads
out, its velocity diminishes, and deposition ensues.
The alluvial fans that develop by the process just de-

scribed are mostly accumulations of sand and gravel, a
large proportion of which is deposited by streams. In
some cases, however, the water flowing through a
mountain canyon picks up so much sediment that it
becomes a viscous mudflow (see Chapter 15). Conse-
quently, mudflow deposits make up a large part of many
alluvial fans.
* DRAINAGE BASINS AND

DRAINAGE PATTERNS
Thousands of streams, most of which are parts of larger
drainage systems, flow either directly or indirectly into
the oceans. A stream such as the Mississippi River con-
sists of a main stream and all of the smaller tributary
streams that supply water to it. The Mississippi and all
of its any other drainage system for that

tributaries, or
matter, carry surface runoff from an area known as the
drainage basin (Table 16-1). Individual drainage basins
are separated from adjacent ones by topographically
higher areas called divides (Figs. 16-27 and 16-28).
Some divides are rather modest rises, such as that sep-
arating the Great Lakes' drainage basin from that of the
Mississippi River, whereas others, such as the Continen-
tal Divide along the crest of the Rocky Mountains, are
more impressive.
Various drainage patterns are recognized based on
the regional arrangement of channels in a drainage sys-
tem. The most common is dendritic drainage, which
"^ FIGURE 16-27 Small drainage basins separated from

one another by divides.
(b)
"^ FIGURE 16-26 {a) Alluvial fans form where a stream

discharges from a mountain canyon onto an adjacent
lowland, {b) Alluvial fans adjacent to the Black Mountains
in Death Valley, California.
exists to stabilize surface materials. When periodic rain-

storms occur, surface materials are quickly saturated
and runoff begins. During a particularly heavy rain, all
of the surface flow in a drainage area is funneled into a
mountain canyon leading to an adjacent lowland. The
stream is confined in the mountain canyon so that it
cannot spread laterally. However, as it discharges from

^ FIGURE 16-28 The drainage
basin of the Amazon River covers
more than 6,000,000 km 2 .
consistsof a network of channels resembling tree are strongly controlled by geologic structures, particu-
branching (Fig. 16-29a). Dendritic drainage develops on larly regional joint systems that intersect at right angles.
gently sloping surfaces where the materials respond Rectangular drainage develops because streams more
more or less homogeneously to erosion. Areas of flat- easily erode and establish channels along the traces of
lying sedimentary rocks and some terrains of igneous or joints.
metamorphic rocks usually display a dendritic drainage In some parts of the eastern United States, such as
pattern. Virginia and Pennsylvania, erosion of folded sedimen-
In marked contrast to dendritic drainage in which tary rocks develops a landscape of alternating parallel
tributaries join larger streams at various angles, rectan- ridges and valleys. The ridges consist of more resistant
gular drainage is characterized by channels with right strata,such as sandstone, whereas the valleys overlie less
angle bends and tributaries that join larger streams at resistant strata such as shale. Main streams follow the
right angles (Fig. 16-29b). The positions of the channels trends of the valleys. Short tributaries flowing from the
Drainage Basins and Drainage Patterns 471

FIGURE 16-29 Examples of
drainage patterns, (a) Dendritic
drainage, (b) Rectangular drainage.
(c) Trellis drainage, (d) Radial
drainage, (e) Deranged drainage.
adjacent ridges join the main stream at nearly right an- it developed recently and has not yet formed an organized
gles, hence the name trellis drainage (Fig. 16-29c). drainage system. In areas in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and
In radial drainage, streams flow outward in all direc- Michigan that were glaciated until about 10,000 years
tions from a central high area (Fig. 16-29d). Radial ago, the previously established drainage systems were
drainage develops on large, isolated volcanic mountains, obliterated by glacial ice. Following the final retreat of the
such as Mount Shasta in California (see Fig. 4-16), and glaciers, drainage systems became established, but have
where the Earth's crust has been arched up by the in- not yet become fully organized.
trusion of plutons such as laccoliths.

In some areas streams flow in and out of swamps and
lakes with irregular flow directions. Drainage patterns
^ BASE LEVEL
characterized by such irregularity are called deranged (Fig. Streams require a slope on which to flow, so they can
16-29e). The presence of deranged drainage indicates that erode downward only to the level of the body of water

Rock resistant
to erosion
Ultimate base //
level
^ FIGURE 16-30 In both (a)

and (£>), sea level is ultimate base
level. In (a) a resistant rock layer
forms a local base level,while in
(a) (b)
(b) a lake is a local base level.
into which they flow. A stream flowing into the sea, for present on the Northern Hemisphere continents, sea
example, cannot erode its valley lower than sea level — if level was more than 100 m lower than at present. Ac-
it could, it would have to flow uphill to reach the sea.* cordingly, streams deepened their valleys by adjusting to
Thus, there exists a lower limit to which streams can a new, lower base level, as did the Nile River of Egypt
erode called base level (Fig. 16-30). Theoretically, a (see Perspective 7-1). In addition, many streams ex-
stream could erode its entire valley to very near sea level, tended their valleys onto the exposed continental
so sea level is commonly referred to as ultimate base shelves. Rising sea level at the end of the Pleistocene
level. Streams never reach ultimate base level, however,
because they must have some gradient in order to main-
tain flow. •^ FIGURE 16-31 Niagara Falls on the New
In addition to ultimate base level, streams have local York/Ontario, Canada border. The resistant rock forming
the escarpment over which the falls plunge forms a local
or temporary base levels. For example, a lake or another
base level.
stream can serve as a local base level for the upstream
segment of a stream (Fig. 16-30b). Likewise, where a
stream flows across particularly resistant rock, a water-
fall may develop, forming a local base level. The escarp-
ment over which Niagara Falls plunges is a good exam-

ple of a local or temporary base level (Fig. 16-31).
When sea level rises or falls with respect to the land,
or the land over which a stream flows is uplifted or
subsides, changes in base level occur. For example, dur-
ing the Pleistocene Epoch when extensive glaciers were
'Streams flowing into depressions below sea level, such as Death

Valley in California, have a base level corresponding to the lowest
point of the depression and are not limited by sea level (see Chapter
19).
Base Level 473

neers are well aware th/t the process of building a dam
and impounding a reservoir creates a local base level
Ultimate (Fig. 16-32a). Where a stream enters a reservoir, its flow

base level velocity diminishes rapidly and deposition occurs; thus,
reservoirs are eventually filled with sediment unless they
are dredged. Another consequence of building a dam is
that the water discharged at the dam is largely sediment

free, but it still possesses energy to transport sediment.
Commonly, such streams simply acquire a new sediment
load by vigorously eroding downstream from the dam.
Draining a lake along a stream's course may seem
like a smallchange that is well worth the time and ex-
-— -T pense to expose dry land for agriculture or commercial

development. However, unless one anticipates the
Profile of stream after
stream's probable response, dire consequences can re-
lake is drained
sult. Remember that a lake is a temporary base level, so
draining it lowers the base level for that part of the
^ FIGURE 16-32 {a) The process of constructing a dam stream above the lake, and the stream will very likely
and impounding a reservoir creates a local base level. A respond by rapid downcutting (Fig. 16-32b).
stream deposits much of its sediment load where it flows
into a reservoir, (b) A stream adjusts to a lower base level

when a lake is drained. ^ THE GRADED STREAM
A stream's longitudinal profile shows the elevations of a
channel along its length as viewed in cross section (Fig.
caused base and the streams responded by
level to rise,
16-33). The longitudinal profiles of many streams show
depositing sediments and backfilling previously formed
a number of irregularities such as lakes and waterfalls,
valleys.
which are local base levels (Fig. 16-33a). Over time such
Streams adjust to human intervention, but not always
irregularities tend to be eliminated by stream processes;
in anticipated or desirable ways. Geologists and engi-
where the gradient is steep, erosion decreases it, and
where the gradient is too low to maintain sufficient flow
""»' FIGURE 16-33 {a) An ungraded stream has velocity for sediment transport, deposition occurs,
irregularities in its longitudinal profile, (b) Erosion and steepening the gradient. In short, streams tend to de-
deposition along the course of a stream eliminate velop a smooth, concave longitudinal profile of equilib-
irrregularities and cause it to develop the smooth, concave
rium, meaning that all parts of the system are dynami-
profile typical of a graded stream.
cally adjusting to one another (Fig. 16-33b).
Streams possessing an equilibrium profile are said to
be graded streams; that is, a delicate balance exists be-
Stream profile
tween gradient, discharge, flow velocity, channel char-
acteristics, and sediment load such that neither signifi-
cant erosion nor deposition occurs within the channel.
Such a delicate balance is rarely attained; thus, the con-
cept of a graded stream is an ideal. Nevertheless, many
streams do indeed approximate the graded condition,
although usually only temporarily.
Erosion
Even though the concept of a graded stream is an
ideal, we can generally anticipate the responses of a
graded stream to changes altering its equilibrium. For
example, a change in base level would cause a stream to
adjust as previously discussed. Increased rainfall in a
stream's drainage basin would result in greater dis-
(b) charge and flow velocity. In short, the stream would

now possess greater energy — energy that must be dissi- A valley may begin where runoff has sufficient energy
pated within the stream system by, for example, a to dislodge surface materials and excavate a small rill.
change in channel shape. A change from a semicircular Once formed, a rill collects moresurface runoff and be-
to a broad, shallow channel would dissipate more en- comes deeper and wider until a full-fledged valley develops
ergy by friction. On the other hand, the stream may (Fig. 16-36). Several processes are involved in the origin
respond by active downcutting in which it erodes a and evolution of valleys, including downcutting, lateral
deeper valley and effectively reduces its gradient until it erosion, mass wasting, sheet wash, and headward erosion.
is once again graded. Downcutting occurs when a stream possesses more
Vegetation inhibits erosion by having a stabilizing ef- energy than it requires to transport its sediment load, so
fect on and other loose surface materials. Thus, a
soil some of its excess energy cuts its valley deeper (Fig.
decrease in vegetation in a drainage basin might lead to 16-36a). downcutting were the only process operat-
If
higher erosion rates, causing more sediment to be washed ing, valleyswould be narrow and steep sided as in Fig-
into a stream than it can effectively carry. Accordingly, ure 16-35. In most cases, however, the valley walls are
the stream may respond by deposition within its channel, undercut by the stream. Such undermining, termed lat-
which increases the stream's gradient until it is suffi- eral erosion, creates unstable conditions so that part of
ciently steep to transport the greater sediment load. a bank or valley wall may move downslope by any one
or a combination of mass wasting processes (Fig. 16-
13). Furthermore, sheet wash and erosion of rill and
^ DEVELOPMENT OF gully tributaries carry materials

into the main stream.
from the valley walls
STREAM VALLEYS In addition to becoming deeper and wider, stream

Valleys are common landforms, and with few exceptions valleys are commonly lengthened as well. Valleys are
they form and evolve as a consequence of stream erosion, lengthened in an upstream direction by headward ero-
although other processes, especially mass wasting, also sion as drainage divides are eroded by entering runoff
contribute. The shapes and sizes of valleys vary consid- water (Fig. 16-37a). In some cases headward erosion
erably; some are small, steep-sided gullies, whereas oth- eventually breaches the drainage divide and diverts part
ers are broad and have gently sloping valley walls. Some of the drainage of another stream by a process called
steep-walled, deep valleys of vast proportions are called stream piracy (Fig. 16-37b). Once stream piracy has oc-
canyons. The Grand Canyon of Arizona, for example, is curred, both drainage systems must adjust; one now has
an interconnected system of canyons eroded by the Col- more water, greater discharge, and greater potential to
orado River and its tributaries (Fig. 16-34). Particularly erode and transport sediment, whereas the other is di-
narrow and deep valleys are gorges (Fig. 16-35). minished in all of these aspects.
^ FIGURE 16-34 The Grand Canyon in Arizona is a -^- FIGURE 16-35 The Black Canyon of the Gunnison
steep-walled and
vast system of canyons eroded by the Colorado River and River in Colorado is a gorge because it is
its tributaries. (Photo courtesy of L. E. Andrews.) deep.
Development of Stream Valleys 475

— FIGURE 16-36 Valley
development, {a) If valleys formed
mostly by downcutting, they would
be narrow and steep sided.
(b) Valleys are deepened by
downcutting, but most of them are
also widened by lateral erosion,
mass wasting, and sheet wash.
^ SUPERPOSED STREAMS
Streams flow downhill in response to gravity, so their
courses are determined by preexisting topography. Yet a
number of streams seem, at first glance, to have defied
this fundamental control. For example, the Delaware,
Potomac, and Susquehanna rivers in the eastern United
States have valleys that cut directly through ridges lying
in their paths. The Madison River in Montana meanders
northward through a broad valley, then enters a narrow
canyon cut into bedrock that leads to the next valley
where the river resumes meandering.
All of the streams cited above are superposed. In or-
der to understand how superposition occurs, it is nec-
essary to know the geologic histories of these streams. In
the case of the Madison River, the valleys it now occu-
pies were once filled with sedimentary rocks so that the
river flowed on a surface at a higher level (Fig. 16-38).
As the river eroded downward, it was superposed di-
rectlyupon a preexisting knob of more resistant rock,
and instead of changing its course, it cut a narrow,
steep-walled canyon called a water gap.
Superposition also accounts for the fact that the Del-
aware, Potomac, and Susquehanna rivers flow through
water gaps. During the Mesozoic Era, the Appalachian
Mountain region was eroded to a sediment-covered plain
across which numerous streams flowed generally east-
•^ FIGURE 16-37 Two stages in stream piracy, (a) In the

first lower elevation extends its
stage, the stream at the
channel by headward erosion. In (b) it has captured some of
the drainage of the stream flowing at the higher elevation.

yw FIGURE 16-38 The origin of a superposed stream, (a) A stream begins cutting
down into horizontal strata. (£>) A removed by erosion, exposing the
horizontal layer is
underlying structure. The stream flows across resistant beds that form the ridges.
ward. During the Cenozoic Era, however, regional uplift day floodplain (Fig. 16-39). In some cases, a stream has
commenced, and as a consequence of the uplift, the several steplike surfaces above its present-day floodplain,
streams began eroding downward and were superposed indicating that stream terraces formed several times.
on resistant strata, thus forming water gaps (Fig. 16-38). Although all stream terraces result from erosion, they
are preceded by an episode of floodplain formation and
^ STREAM TERRACES deposition of sediment. Subsequent erosion causes the

stream to cut downward until it is once again graded
Adjacent to many streams are erosional remnants of (Fig. 16-40). Once the stream again becomes graded, it
floodplains formed when the streams were flowing at a begins eroding laterally and establishes a new floodplain
higher level. These erosional remnants are stream ter- at a lower level. Several such episodes account for the
races. They consist of a fairly flat upper surface and a multiple terrace levels seen adjacent to some streams
steep slope descending to the level of the lower, present- (Figs. 16-39 and 16-40).
-•- FIGURE 16-39 Stream

terraces adjacent to the Madison
River in Montana.
Stream Terraces 477

Floodplain. many stream terrace*, greater runoff in a stream's drain-
age basin can also result in the formation of terraces.
Recall that one of the variables controlling velocity is
discharge. Thus, a stream can erode downward with no

change in base level and form terraces.
^ INCISED MEANDERS
Some streams are restricted to deep, meandering can-
yons cut into solid bedrock, where they form features
called incised meanders. For example, the San Juan
River in Utah occupies a meandering canyon more than
390 meters deep (Fig. 16-41). Such streams, being re-
stricted by solid rock walls, are generally ineffective in
eroding laterally; thus, they lack a floodplain and oc-
cupy the entire width of the canyon floor. Some incised
meandering streams do erode laterally, thereby cutting
off meanders and producing natural bridges (see Per-
spective 16-2).
It is not difficult to understand how a stream can cut
downward into solid rock, but forming a meandering
pattern in bedrock is another matter. Because lateral
erosion is one must
inhibited once downcutting begins,
infer that the meandering course was established when
the stream flowed across an area covered by alluvium.
For example, suppose that a stream near base level has
established a meandering pattern. If the land over which
the stream flows is uplifted, erosion is initiated, and the
meanders become incised into the underlying bedrock.
Uplift does not account for all incised meanders. A
-^ FIGURE 16-40 Origin of stream terraces, {a) A stream
stream far above base level can establish a meandering
has a broad floodplain adjacent to its channel, (b) The
pattern provided that it flows over a gently sloping sur-
stream erodes downward and establishes a new floodplain at
a lower level. Remnants of its old floodplain are stream face. As in the last case, however, the meandering pat-
terraces, (c) Another level of terraces originates as the tern is already established before erosion into bedrock
stream erodes downward again. occurs.
Stream terraces are commonly cut into previously de-

^ FIGURE 16-41 Goose Necks of the San Juan River.
posited sediment, but some are cut into solid bedrock.

Where they are cut into bedrock, the terrace surface is
generally covered by a thin veneer of sediment. In many

stream valleys, terraces are paired, meaning that they
occur at the same elevation on opposite sides of the
channel (Fig. 16-40b and c).
Renewed erosion and the formation of stream ter-

races are usually attributed to a change in base level.
Either uplift of the land over which a stream flows or
lowering of sea gradient and in-
level yields a steeper
creased flow velocity, thus initiating an episode of down-
cutting. When the stream reaches a level at which it is
once again graded, downcutting ceases.
Although changes in base level no doubt account for

Perspective 16-2
- Af*.
NATURAL BRIDGES
The term natural bridge has been used to describe a
variety of features including spans of rock resulting
from wave erosion, the partial collapse of cavern
roofs, and weathering and erosion along closely
spaced, parallel joints as in Arches National Park in
Utah (see Perspective 14-1). Here, however, we are
concerned only with natural bridges that span a valley
eroded by running water.
The best place to observe this type of natural bridge
is in Natural Bridges National Monument in
southwestern Utah. Three natural bridges are present

within the monument, and all originated in the same
way. Of these three, Sipapu Bridge is the largest (Fig. 1);
it stands 67 m above White Canyon and has a span of ^ FIGURE 1 Sipapu Bridge in Natural Bridges National
81.5 m. Monument, Utah. (Photo courtesy of Sue Monroe.)
The process by which these natural bridges were
formed is well understood, and, as a matter of fact, it the stream flow was diverted.As we discussed
is still going on. In the first stage, a meandering previously, oxbow lakes are formed by a similar
stream was incised into solid bedrock (Fig. 2). In process (Fig. 16-21). The only significant difference is
Natural Bridges National Monument, this rock unit is that the streams that form natural bridges are incised.
which consists of sandstone
the Cutler Formation, Natural bridges are temporary features. Once
formed from windblown sand deposited during the formed, they are destroyed by other processes. For
Permian Period. When local meandering streams example, rocks fall from the undersides of bridges,
became incised, lateral erosion created a thin wall of their surfaces are weathered and eroded, and
rock between adjacent meanders that was eventually eventually they collapse. The monument contains
breached (Fig. 2). As the breach was subsequently several examples of such collapsed bridges, but new
enlarged, the stream abandoned its old meander and ones are in the process of forming.
-*r FIGURE 2 Origin of a natural bridge, (a) A meandering stream flows across a gently
sloping surface, (b) Incised meanders develop as the stream erodes down into solid rock.
(c) A thin wall of rock between meanders is eventually breached, forming a natural bridge.
CHAPTER SUMMARY large marine deltas are more complex. Marine
deltas are characterized as stream-, wave-, or
Water is continually evaporated from the oceans, tide-dominated.
rises as water vapor, condenses, and falls as 14. Alluvial fans are lobate alluvial deposits on land that
precipitation. About 20% of all on
precipitation falls consist mostly of sand and gravel. They form best in
land and eventually returns to the oceans, mostly by arid regions where erosion rates are high.
surface runoff. 15. Sea level is ultimate base level, the lowest level to
Running water moves by either laminar or turbulent which streams can erode. However, streams
flow. In the former, streamlines parallel one another, commonly have local base levels such as lakes, other
whereas in the latter they are complexly intertwined. streams, or the points where they flow across
Most flow in streams is turbulent. particularly resistant rocks.
Runoff can be characterized as either sheet flow or 16. Streams tend to eliminate irregularities in their
channel flow. Channels of all sizes are called channels so that they develop a smooth, concave
streams. profile of equilibrium. Such streams are graded. In a
Gradient generally varies from steep to gentle along graded stream, a balance exists between gradient,
the course of a stream, being steep in upper reaches discharge, flow velocity, channel characteristics, and
and gentle in lower reaches. sediment load so that little or no deposition occurs
Flow velocity and discharge are related. A change in within the channel.
one of these parameters causes the other to change 17. Stream valleys develop by a combination of
as well. processes including downcutting, lateral erosion,
A stream and its tributaries carry runoff from its mass wasting, sheet wash, and headward erosion.
drainage basin. Drainage basins are separated from 18. Many streams flowing through valleys cut into
one another by divides. ridges directly in their paths are superposed,
Streams erode by hydraulic action, abrasion, and meaning that they once flowed on a higher surface
dissolution of soluble rocks. and eroded downward into resistant rocks.
The coarser part of a stream's sediment load is 19. Renewed downcutting by a stream possessing a
transported as bed load, and the finer part as floodplain commonly results in the formation of
suspended load. Streams also transport a dissolved stream terraces, which are remnants of an older
load of ions in solution. floodplain at a higher level.
Competence measure of the maximum-sized
is a 20. Incised meanders are generally attributed to renewed
particles that a stream can carry and is related to downcutting by a meandering stream such that it
velocity. Capacity is a function of discharge and is a now occupies a deep, meandering valley.
measure of the total load transported by a stream.
10. Braided streams are characterized by a complex of
dividing and rejoining channels. Braiding occurs
when sediment transported by the stream is
IMPORTANT TERMS
deposited within channels as sand and gravel bars. abrasion hydraulic action
11. Meandering streams have a single, sinuous channel alluvial fan hydrologic cycle
with broad looping curves. Meanders migrate alluvium incised meander
laterally as the cut bank is eroded and point bars base level infiltration capacity
form on the inner bank. Oxbow lakes are cutoff bed load meandering stream
meanders in which fine-grained sediments and braided stream natural levee
organic matter accumulate. delta oxbow lake
12. Floodplains are rather flat areas paralleling stream discharge point bar
channels. They may be composed mostly of point dissolved load runoff
bar deposits formed by lateral accretion or mud divide stream
accumulated by vertical accretion during numerous drainage basin stream terrace
floods. drainage pattern superposed stream
13. Deltas are alluvial deposits at a stream's mouth. floodplain suspended load
Many small deltas in lakes conform to the three-part graded stream velocity
division of bottomset, foreset, and topset beds, but gradient

REVIEW QUESTIONS a. suspended load; b. _ drainage capacity;
c. stream profile; d. _ bed load; e. channel
Trellis drainage develops on: pattern.
a. natural levees; b. granite; c. fractured 14 A stream can lengthen its channel by:
basalt; d. sedimentary rock layers;
tilted a. runoff; b. headward erosion;
e. horizontal layers of volcanic rocks. c. vertical accretion; d. hydraulic action;
Mounds of sediment deposited on the margin of a e. downcutting.
stream are: 15 Infiltration capacity is the:
a. natural levees; b. oxbow lakes; a. which a stream erodes; b.
rate at distance
c. bottomset beds; d. incised meanders; a stream flows from its source to the ocean;
e. alluvial fans. c. maximum rate at which surface materials can
The direct impact of running water is: absorb water; d. vertical distance a stream can
a. bed load; b. saltation; c. hydraulic erode below sea level; e. variation in flow
action; d. meander cutoff; e. base level. velocity across a stream channel.
Most of the fresh water on Earth is in: 16. A stream with a cross-sectional area of 250 m" and
a. the groundwater system; b. the a flow velocity of 1.5 m/sec has a discharge of
atmosphere; c. lakes; d. streams; m 3
/sec.
e. glaciers. a 500; b 125; c 375; d 1,000;
The vertical drop of a stream in a given horizontal 200.
distance is its: 17 Which of the following controls flow velocity in
a. discharge; b. gradient; c. velocity; streams?
d. base level; e. drainage pattern. a. channel shape; b. gradient; c. channel
The drainage pattern resembles the roughness; d. answers (a) and (b); e. all of
branching of a tree. these.
a. rectangular; b. trellis; c. dendritic; 18. The feature separating one drainage basin from
d. deranged; e. radial. anether is a(an):
Sediment transport by intermittent bouncing and a. divide; b. natural levee; c. alluvial
skipping along a stream bed is: fan; d valley; e. point bar.
saltation; b. dissolved load;
a.
19. A drainage pattern in which streams flow in and out
c. capacity; d. suspended load; of lakes with irregular flow directions is:
e. alluvium. a radial; b. longitudinal; c. deranged;

The capacity of a stream is a measure of its:
d. rectangular; e. graded.
a volume of water; b. velocity; c. total
20. In which of the following would you expect to find
load of sediment; d. discharge; e ability to
mudflow deposits?
erode. point bar; incised
a. delta; b. c.
A meandering stream is one having: meanders; d. alluvial fan; e. floodplain.
a. numerous sand and gravel bars in its channel;
21. Why is the Earth the only planet that has abundant
b. a single, sinuous channel; c. a broad,
liquid water?
shallow channel; d. a deep, narrow valley;
22. How do solar radiation, the changing phases of
e. long, straight reaches and waterfalls.
water, and runoff cause the recycling of water from
10. In which of the following do foreset beds occur?
the oceans to the atmosphere and back to the
a. alluvial fans; b. point bars;
oceans?
c floodplains; d deltas; e natural
23. What is the difference between laminar and
levees.
turbulent flow, and why is flow in streams usually
11 Which of the following is a local base level?
turbulent?
a. lake; b. ocean; c. floodplain
24. Explain what infiltration capacity is and why it is
d point bar; e. alluvial fan.
important in considering runoff.
12. Erosional remnants of floodplains that are higher
than the current level of a stream are: 25. A stream 2,000 m above sea level at its source flows
a oxbow lakes; b cut banks; c. stream 1,500 km to the sea. What is its gradient? Do you
terraces; d. incised meanders; e. natural think the gradient that you calculated would be
bridges. accurate for all segments of this stream?

13. All of the sediment carried by saltation and rolling 26. How do channel shape and roughness control flow
and sliding along a stream bed is the: velocity?

27. Is the statement "the steeper the gradient, the greater 43. How do paired "Stream terraces form?
the flow velocity" correct? Explain. 44. How is it possible for a stream near base level to
28. If what can
a stream possesses rectangular drainage, erode a deep meandering valley?
you about the underlying rocks of the region?
infer
29. How do streams erode and acquire a sediment load?
30. Explain the concepts of stream competence and
capacity.
Baker, V. R. 1982. The channels of Mars. Austin, Texas:
31 What do braided streams look like, and what do University of Texas Press.
they transport and deposit? Beven, K., and P. Carling, eds. 1989. Floods. New York: John
32 How is it possible for a meandering stream to erode Wiley &c Sons.
laterally yet maintain a more or less constant Chorley, R. J., ed. 1971. Introduction to fluvial processes.
channel width? London: Methuen.

How do oxbow lakes and meander scars form? Crickmay, C. H. 1974. The work of the river. London:
Macmillan.
Explain how floodplains can develop by both lateral
Frater, A., ed. 1984. Great rivers of the world. Boston: Little,
and vertical accretion.
Brown.
35 Howdoes a stream-dominated delta differ from a
Knighton, D. 1984. Fluvial forms and processes. London:
wave-dominated delta? Edward Arnold.
36. What are alluvial fans and where are they best Leopold, L. B., M. G. Wolman, and Miller. 1964. Fluvial
J. P.
developed? processes in geomorphology. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman
37. What two depositional processes predominate on &Co.
alluvial fans? McPhee, J. 1989. The control of nature. New York. Farrar,
38. Sea level is ultimate base level for most streams. If Straus, & Giroux.
sea level drops with respect to the land, how would Morisawa, M. 1968. Streams: Their dynamics and morphology.
a stream respond?
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Petts, G., and I. Foster. 1985. Rivers and landscape. London:
39. Why do streams tend to eliminate irregularities in
Edward Arnold.
their channels?
Rachocki, A. 1981. Alluvial fans. New York: John Wiley &
40. What is a graded stream, and why are streams rarely
Sons.
graded except temporarily? Schumm, S. A. 1977. The fluvial system. New York: John Wiley
41 How do headward erosion and stream piracy & Sons.
lengthen a stream channel?
42 Illustrate how a stream can be superposed and form
a water gap.

CHAPTER 17
GROUND WAT E R
^ OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
GROUNDWATER AND THE
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY
THE WATER TABLE
GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT
SPRINGS, WATER WELLS, AND
ARTESIAN SYSTEMS
Springs
Water Wells
"^ Perspective 17-1: Mammoth Cave
National Park, Kentucky
Artesian Systems
GROUNDWATER EROSION AND
DEPOSITION
Sinkholes and Karst Topography
Caves and Cave Deposits
MODIFICATIONS OF THE
GROUNDWATER SYSTEM AND
THEIR EFFECTS
Lowering of the Water Table
Saltwater Incursion
Subsidence
Groundwater Contamination
"**r Perspective 17-2: Radioactive Waste
Disposal
HOT SPRINGS AND GEYSERS
Geothermal Energy
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy. The tilting

is partly the result of subsidence due to the
removal of groundwater.
gT K^^«CTE3KJg«r»^nr»rTK3*3Ka^^ »m . ^ K^C^'yrrv
PROLOGUE information booths redirected unsuspecting tourists
away from Mammoth Cave. It was in this
environment that Floyd Collins grew up.
For more than two weeks in February Seven years before his tragic death, Collins had
discovered Crystal Cave on the family farm and
1925, Floyd Collins, an unknown
farmer and cave explorer, became a household word
opened it up for visitors. But like most of the caves in
(Fig. 17-1). News about the attempts to rescue him
from a narrow subsurface fissure near Mammoth

Cave, Kentucky, captured the attention of the nation.
The saga of FloydCollins is rooted in what is
known Cave War of Kentucky. The
as the Great
western region of Kentucky is riddled with caves
formed by groundwater weathering and erosion.
Many of them were developed as tourist attractions to
help supplement meager farm earnings. The largest
and best known is Mammoth Cave (see Perspective
17-1). So spectacular is Mammoth, with its numerous
caverns, underground rivers, and dramatic cave
deposits, that it soon became the standard by which
all other caves were measured.
As Mammoth Cave drew more and more tourists,

rival cave owners became increasingly bold in
attempting to lure visitors to their caves and curio

shops. Signs pointing the way to Mammoth Cave
frequently disappeared, while "official" cave
"^ FIGURE 17-1 {a) Location of the cave in which Floyd

Collins was trapped, (b) Collins looking out of a fissure near
the cave where he ultimately died, (c) Cross section showing
the fissure where Collins was trapped, the rescue shaft that
was sunk, and the lateral tunnel that finally reached him.
(O
Prologue 485
the area, Crystal Cave attracted few tourists — they attempts led by Floyd's brother Homer continued.
visited Mammoth Cave instead. Perhaps it was the Three days after he had become trapped, a harness
thought of discovering a cave rivaling Mammoth or was put around Collins's chest and rescuers tried to
even connecting to it that drove Collins to his fateful pull him free. numerous attempts to yank him
After
exploration of Sand Cave on January 30, 1925. out, workers abandon that plan because
had to
As Collins inched his way back up through the Collins was unable to bear the pain. Meanwhile at the
narrow fissure he had crawled down, he dislodged a surface, a carnival-like atmosphere had developed as
small oblong piece of limestone from the ceiling that hordes of up to 20,000 people converged on the
immediately pinned his left ankle. Try as he might, he scene, and the National Guard had to be called out to
was trapped in total darkness 17 m below ground. As maintain order.

he lay half on his left side, Collins's left arm was Two days after the attempt to pull Collins out of
partially wedged under him, while his right arm was the fissure failed, part of the passageway used by
held fast by an overhanging ledge. During his rescuers collapsed, sealing Collins's fate. The only
struggles to free himself, he dislodged enough and
silt hope now was to dig a vertical relief shaft from which
small rocks to bury his legs, further immobilizing him a lateral tunnel could be dug to reach Collins. For 12
and adding to his anguish. more days, volunteers using picks and shovelsdug the
The next day several neighbors reached Collins and shaft. Finally on February 16, rescuers reached the
were able to talk to him, feed him, encourage him, chamber where Collins lay entombed. There was no
and try to make him more comfortable, but they sign of life. With the news of his death, Floyd
could not get him out. Word of his plight quickly Collins's place in American folklore was secured. His
spread and the area soon swarmed with reporters. body was finally brought out and buried near Crystal
Eventually, volunteers were able to excavate an area Cave, where it is appropriately marked by a beautiful
around Collins's upper body, but could not free his stalagmite and pink granite headstone.
pinned legs. While an anxious country waited, rescue
As the world's population and industrial development

^ INTRODUCTION expand, the demand for water, particularly groundwater,
will increase. Not only is it important to locate new
Groundwater— the waterstored in the open spaces within
groundwater sources, but, once found, these sources must
underground rocks and unconsolidated material— is a
essential to the lives of all
be protected from pollution and managed properly to en-
valuable natural resource that is
sure that users do not withdraw more water than can be
people. importance to humans is not new. Groundwa-
Its
replenished. Consequently, geologists trained in ground-
ter have always been important in the western
rights
water exploration and management are in great demand.
United States, and many legal battles have been fought
If we wish to maintain adequate supplies of clean
over them. Groundwater also played a crucial role in the
groundwater in the future, we must ensure that the
development of the U.S. railway system during the nine-
groundwater supply is intelligently managed. To do this,
teenth century when railroads had to have a reliable source
a knowledge of where groundwater occurs, how it
of water for their steam locomotives. Much of the water
moves, and how it becomes polluted is essential.
used by the locomotives came from groundwater tapped
by wells.
Today, the study of groundwater and its movement ^ GROUNDWATER AND
has become increasingly important as the demand for
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
fresh water by agricultural, industrial, and domestic us-
ers has reached an all-time high. More than 65% of the Groundwater represents approximately 22% (8.4 mil-
groundwater used in the United States each year goes for lion km 3of the world's supply of fresh water (see Fig.
)
irrigation, with industrial use second, followed by do- 16-3). This amount is about 36 times greater than the
mestic needs. Such demands have severely depleted the total for all of the streams and lakes of the world (see
groundwater supply in many areas and led to such prob- Chapter 16) and equals about one-third the amount
lems as ground subsidence and saltwater contamination. locked upin the world's ice caps (see Chapter 18). If the
In other areas, pollution from landfills, toxic waste, and world's groundwater were spread evenly over the
agriculture has rendered the groundwater supply unsafe. Earth's surface, it would be about 10 m deep.
486 Chapter 17 Groundwater

Pore space rocks, other types of porosity can include cracks, frac-
tures, faults, and vesicles in volcanic rocks (Fig. 17-2).
Porosity varies among different rock types and is de-
pendent on the size, shape, and arrangement of the ma-
terialcomposing the rock (Table 17-1). Most igneous
and metamorphic rocks as well as many limestones and
dolostones have very low porosity because they are com-
posed of tightly interlocking crystals. However, their po-
rosity can be increased if they have been fractured or
weathered by groundwater. This is particularly true for
massive limestone and dolostone whose fractures can be
enlarged by acidic groundwater.
By contrast, detrital sedimentary rocks composed of
well-sorted and well-rounded grains can have very high
porosity because any two grains touch only at a single
point, leaving relatively large open spaces between the
grains (Fig. 17-2a). Poorly sorted sedimentary rocks, on
the other hand, typically have low porosity because finer
grains fill in the space between the larger grains, reduc-
"^^
ing the porosity (Fig. 17-2b). In addition, the amount of
FIGURE 17-2 A rock's porosity is dependent on the
cement between grains can also decrease porosity.
size,shape, and arrangement of the material composing the
rock, {a) A well-sorted sedimentary rock has high porosity Although porosity determines the amount of ground-
while (b) a poorly sorted one has low porosity, (c) In soluble water a rock can hold, it does not guarantee that the
rocks such as carbonates, porosity can be increased by water can be extracted. The capacity of a material for
solution, while (d) crystalline rocks can be rendered porous transmitting fluids is its permeability. Permeability is de-
by fracturing.
pendent not only on porosity, but also on the size of the
pores or fractures and their interconnections. For exam-
ple, deposits of silt or clay are typically more porous than
sand or gravel. Nevertheless, shale has low permeability
Groundwater is one reservoir of the hydrologic cycle. because the pores between its clay particles are very
The major source of groundwater is precipitation that in- small, and the molecular attraction between the clay and
filtrates the ground and moves through the soil and pore the water is great, thereby preventing movement of the
spaces of rocks (see Fig. 16-6). Other sources include wa-
ter infiltrating from lakes and streams, recharge ponds,
and wastewater treatment systems. As the groundwater "•- TABLE 17-1 Porosity
moves through soil, sediment, and rocks, many of its im-
purities, like disease-causing microorganisms, are filtered
out. Not all soils and rocks are good filters, however, and
some serious pollutants are not removed. Groundwater
eventually returns to the surface reservoir when it enters
lakes, streams, or the ocean.
* POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY

Porosity and permeability are important physical prop-
erties of rocks, sediment, and soil and are largely respon-
sible for the amount, availability, and movement of
groundwater. Water soaks into the ground because the
soil, sediment, or rock has open spaces or pores. Porosity
is volume that is pore

the percentage of a material's total
space.While porosity most often consists of the spaces
between particles in soil, sediments, and sedimentary
water. In contrast, the pore spaces between grains in sand- material that it is mof ing through and halts its down-
stone and conglomerate are much larger, and the molecular ward progress. This region is the zone of aeration, and
attraction on the water is therefore low. Chemical and bio- its water is called suspended water (Fig. 17-3). The pore
chemical sedimentary rocks, such as limestone and dolos- spaces in this zone contain both water and air. Extend-
tone, and many igneous and metamorphic rocks that are ing irregularly upward a few centimeters to several
highly fractured can also be very permeable provided that meters from the base of the zone of aeration is the cap-
the fractures are interconnected. In fact, many areas, such illary fringe.Water moves upward in this region from
as northern Georgia, depend on fractured crystalline rocks the zone of saturation below because of surface tension.
for their groundwater supply. Such movement is analogous to the upward movement
A permeable layer transporting groundwater is called of water through a paper towel.
an aquifer, from the Latin aqua meaning water. The Beneath the zone of aeration lies the zone of saturation
most effective aquifers are deposits of well-sorted and in which all of the pore spaces are filled with groundwater
well-rounded sand and gravel. Limestones in which frac- (Fig. 17-3). The base of the zone of saturation varies from
tures and bedding planes have been enlarged by solution place to place, but usually extends to a depth where an
are also good aquifers. Shales and many igneous and impermeable layer is encountered or to a depth where
metamorphic rocks, however, are typically imperme- confining pressure closes all open space.
able. Rocks such as these and any other materials that The surface separating the zone of aeration from the
prevent the movement of groundwater are called underlying zone of saturation is the water table (Fig.
aquicludes. 17-3). In general, the configuration of the water table is
a subdued replica of the overlying land surface; that is,
^ THE WATER TABLE it has its highest elevations beneath hills and its lowest
elevations in valleys. In most arid and semiarid regions,

When some of it evapo-
precipitation occurs over land, however, the water table is quite flat and is below the
rates, some of it is away by runoff in streams,
carried level of river valleys.
and the remainder seeps into the ground. As this water Several factors contribute to the surface configura-
moves down from the surface, some of it adheres to the tion of a region's water table. These include regional
^ FIGURE 17-3 The zone of

aeration contains both air and
water within its open space, while
all of the open space in the zone of
saturation is filled with
groundwater. The water table is the

surface separating the zones of
aeration and saturation. Within the
capillary fringe, water rises upward
by surface tension from the zone of
saturation into the zone of aeration.

** FIGURE 17-4 Groundwater
moves downward due to the force
of gravity. It moves through the
zone of aeration to the zone of
saturation where some of it moves
along the slope of the water table
and the rest of it moves through the
zone of saturation from areas of
high pressure toward areas of low
pressure.
differences in theamount of rainfall, permeability, and methods, it has been demonstrated that groundwater ve-
the rate of groundwater movement. During periods of and depends on many factors. Ve-
locity varies greatly
high rainfall, groundwater tends to rise beneath hills locities ranging from 250 m per day in some extremely
because it cannot flow fast enough into the adjacent permeable material to less than a few centimeters per year
valleys to maintain a level surface. During droughts, in nearly impermeable material have been measured. In
however, the water table falls and tends to flatten out most ordinary aquifers, however, the average velocity of
because it is not being replenished. groundwater is a few centimeters per day.
^ GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT ^ SPRINGS, WATER WELLS,

Groundwater moves very slowly through the pore spaces AND ARTESIAN SYSTEMS
of Earth materials.It moves fastest in the central area of Adding water to the zone of saturation is called re-
the pore space and decreases in velocity to zero along the charge, and it causes the water table to rise. Water may
edges because of friction and the molecular attraction be added by natural means, such as rainfall or melting
between the water molecules and the material through snow, or artificially at recharge basins or wastewater
which it moves. treatment plants (Fig. 17-5). If groundwater is dis-
Gravity provides the energy for the downward move- charged without sufficient replenishment, the water ta-
ment of groundwater. Water entering the ground moves ble drops. Groundwater discharges naturally whenever
through the zone of aeration to the zone of saturation
(Fig. 17-4). When water reaches the water table, it con-
tinues to move through the zone of saturation from ar- "•» FIGURE 17-5 A recharge basin in Nassau County"
eas where the water table is high toward areas where it New York.
is lower, such as streams, lakes, or swamps (Fig. 17-4).
Only some of the water follows the direct route along

the slope of the water table. Most of it takes longer
curving paths downward and then enters a stream, lake,
or swamp from below. This occurs because groundwa-
ter moves from areas of high pressure toward areas of
lower pressure within the saturated zone. Below the wa-

ter table, groundwater is under greater pressure beneath
a hillthan at the same elevation beneath a valley.
The rate at which groundwater flows can be deter-
mined in several ways. The most common method is to
add dye to the groundwater in a well and measure how
long the dye takes to appear in the groundwater at an-
other well a known distance away. Using this and other
Springs, Water Wells, and Artesian Systems 489

the water table intersects the ground surface as at a way (Fig. 17-6). Where percolating groundwater reaches
spring or along a stream, lake, or swamp. Groundwater the water table or an impermeable layer, it flows later-
can also be discharged artificially by pumping water ally, and if this flow intersects the Earth's surface, the
from wells. water discharges onto the surface as a spring (Fig. 17-7).
The Mammoth Cave area in Kentucky, for example, is
underlain by fractured limestones that have been en-
Springs
larged into caves by solution activity (see Perspective
A spring is where groundwater flows or seeps
a place where
17-1). In this geologic environment, springs occur
out of the ground. Springs have always fascinated peo- the fractures and caves intersect the ground surface al-
ple because the water flows out of the ground for no lowing groundwater to exit onto the surface. Springs
apparent reason and from no readily identifiable source. most commonly occur along valley walls where streams
It is not surprising that springs have long been regarded have cut valleys below the regional water table.
with superstition and revered for their supposed medic- Springs can also develop wherever a perched water ta-
inal value and healing powers. Nevertheless, there is ble intersects the Earth's surface (Fig. 17-8). A perched
nothing mystical or mysterious about springs. water table may occur wherever a local aquiclude occurs
Although springs can occur under a wide variety of within a larger aquifer, such as a lens of shale within a
geologic conditions, they all form in basically the same sandstone. As water migrates through the zone of aera-
"»- FIGURE 17-6 Springs form

wherever laterally moving Springs
groundwater intersects the Earth's
surface, (a) Most commonly, they
form when percolating water
reaches an impermeable layer and
migrates laterally untilit seeps out
at the surface. Springs also can

(£>)
occur in areas underlain by

fractured soluble rocks such as
limestones where groundwater
moves freely through underground
cavities until it reaches the surface
and flows out.
Water Springs
table

tion, it is stopped by the local aquiclude, and a localized
zone of saturation "perched" above the main water table
is created. Water moving laterally along the perched water
table may intersect the Earth's surface to produce a spring.
Water Wells
A water well is made by digging or drilling into the zone
of saturation. Although most water wells today are
drilled, some are still dug, particularly in areas where the
water table is very close to the surface. Once the zone of
saturation is reached, water percolates into the well and
fills it water table. Most wells must be
to the level of the
pumped groundwater to the surface.
to bring the
When a well is pumped, the water table in the area "^ FIGURE 17-7 Periodic Spring, near Afton, Wyoming.
around the well is lowered, because water is removed
from the aquifer faster than it can be replenished. A
cone of depression thus forms around the well, varying
in size according to the rate and amount of water being ever, may create a large cone of depression that lowers
withdrawn (Fig. 17-9). If water is pumped out of a well the water table sufficiently to cause shallow wells in the
faster than it can be replaced, the cone of depression immediate area to go dry (Fig. 17-9). Such a situation is
grows until the well goes dry. This lowering of the water not uncommon and frequently results in lawsuits by the
table normally does not pose a problem for the average owners of the shallow dry wells. Furthermore, lowering
domestic well provided that the well is drilled suffi- of the regional water table is becoming a serious prob-
ciently deep into the zone of saturation. The tremendous lem in many areas, particularly in the southwestern
amounts of water used by industry and irrigation, how- United States where rapid growth has placed tremen-
"•- FIGURE 17-8 If a localized

aquiclude, such as a shale layer,
occurs within an aquifer, a perched
Localized
water table may result with springs
aquiclude
occurring where the perched water
table intersects the Earth's surface.
Springs
Zone of saturation

Perspective 17-1
MAMMOTH CAVE NATIONAL

PARK, KENTUCKY
Within the limestone region of western Kentucky lies the easily overshadowing the other caves in the area. Over
largest cave system in the world. In 1941, approximately the next 150 years, the discovery of new passageways
51,000 acres were set aside and designated as Mammoth and caverns helped establish Mammoth Cave as the
Cave National Park. In 1981 it became a World world's premier cave and the standard against which
Heritage Site. Recently, the National Park Service has all others were measured (see the Prologue).
been considering closing Mammoth Cave because of the Mammoth Cave formed in much the same way as
health hazard created by raw sewage and contaminated all other caves (Fig. 17-18). Groundwater flowing
groundwater in the area. through the St. Genevieve Limestone eroded a

From ground level, the topography of the area is complex network of openings, passageways, and
unimposing with numerous sinkholes, lakes, valleys, and caverns. Flowing through the various caverns is the
disappearing streams. Beneath the surface, however, are Echo River, a system of subsurface streams that
more than 230 km of interconnecting passageways eventually joins the Green River at the surface.
whose spectacular geologic features have been enjoyed The colorful cave deposits are the primary reason
by numerous cave explorers and tourists alike. millions of tourists have visited Mammoth Cave. Here
Based on carbon 14 dates from some of the many can be seen numerous stalactites, stalagmites, and
artifacts found in the cave (such as woven cord and columns, as well as spectacular travertine flowstone
wooden bowls), Mammoth Cave had been explored deposits (Fig. 1). Other attractions include the Giant's
and used by Native Americans for more than 3,000 Coffin, a 15 m and giant
collapse block of limestone,
years prior to its rediscovery in 1799 by a bear hunter rooms such as Mammoth Dome, which about 58 m
is
named Robert Houchins. During the War of 1812, high (Fig. 2). The cave is also home to more than 200
approximately 180 metric tons of saltpeter (a species of insects and other animals, including about
potassium nitrate mineral), used in the manufacture of 45 blind species; some of these can be seen on the
gunpowder, were mined from Mammoth Cave. At the Echo River Tour, which conveys visitors 5 km along
end of the war, the saltpeter market collapsed, and the underground stream.
Mammoth Cave was developed as a tourist attraction,
"••" FIGURE 1 Frozen Niagara is a spectacular example ^r* FIGURE 2 Looking up Mammoth Dome, the largest
:>f massive travertine flowstone deposits. room in Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.
— FIGURE 17-9 A cone of
depression forms whenever water is
withdrawn from a well. If water is
withdrawn faster than it can be

replenished, the cone of depression
will grow in depth and
circumference, lowering the water
table in the areaand causing nearby
Cone of depression
shallow wells to go dry.
dous demands on the groundwater system. Unrestricted well was drilled in a.d. 1126 and is still flowing today.
withdrawal of groundwater cannot continue indefi- The term artesian, however, can be applied to any sys-
nitely, and the rising costs and decreasing supply of tem in which groundwater is confined and builds up
groundwater should soon limit the growth of this region high hydrostatic (fluid) pressure. Water in such a well is
of the United States. able to rise above the level of the aquifer if a well is
People in rural areas and those without access to a drilled through the confining layer, thereby reducing the
municipal water system are well aware of the problems pressure and forcing the water upward (Fig. 17-11). For
of locating an adequate groundwater supply. The distri- an artesian system to develop, three geologic conditions
bution and type of rocks present, their porosity and must be present (Fig. 17-12): (1) the aquifer must be
permeability, fracture patterns, and so on are all factors confined above and below by aquicludes to prevent wa-
that determine whether a water well will be successful terfrom escaping; (2) the rock sequence is usually tilted
(Fig. 17-10). and exposed at the surface, enabling the aquifer to be
recharged; and (3) there is sufficient precipitation in the
recharge area to keep the aquifer filled.
Artesian Systems
The elevation of the water table in the recharge area
The word artesian comes from the French town and and the distance of the well from the recharge area de-
province of Artois (called Artesium during Roman termine the height to which artesian water rises in a
times) near Calais, where the first European artesian well. The surface defined by the water table in the re-
•*r FIGURE 17-10 Many factors

determine whether a water well will
be successful. Wells A and E were
drilled to the same depth. Well A
Perched
water
was successful because it tapped a
perched water table, whereas well E
did not. To be successful, it will
have to be drilled below the water
table like well C. Well B tapped a
fracture below the water table and
was successful, whereas well D
missed the fractures and was dry.
ei^
Fractured crystalline
basement rock

artesian-pressure surfece. Friction, however, slightly re-
duces the pressure of the aquifer water and consequently
the level to which artesian water rises. This is why the
pressure surface slopes.
An artesian well will flow freely at the ground surface
only if the wellhead is at an elevation below the artesian-
pressure surface. In this situation, the water flows out of
the well because it rises toward the artesian-pressure
surface,which is at a higher elevation than the wellhead.

In a nonflowing artesian well, the wellhead is above the
artesian-pressure surface, and thus the water will rise in
the well only as high as the artesian-pressure surface.
In addition to artesian wells, many artesian springs
also exist. Such springs can occur if a fault or fracture
intersects the confined aquifer allowing water to rise
above the aquifer. Oases in deserts are commonly arte-

sian springs.
Because the geologic conditions necessary for arte-
sian water can occur in a variety of ways, artesian sys-
^ FIGURE 17-11 Artesian well at Deep Well Ranch, tems are quite common in many areas of the world un-
South Fork of the Madison River, Gallatin County, derlain by sedimentary rocks. One of the best-known
Montana. artesian systems in the United States underlies South
Dakota and extends southward to central Texas. The
majority of the artesian water from this system is used
charge area, called the artesian-pressure surface, is indi- for irrigation. The aquifer of this artesian system, the
cated by the sloping dashed line in Figure 17-12. If there Dakota Sandstone, is recharged where it is exposed
were no friction in the aquifer, well water from an ar- along the margins of the Black Hills of South Dakota.
tesian aquifer would rise exactly to the elevation of the The hydrostatic pressure in this system was originally
— FIGURE 17-12 An artesian

system must have an aquifer
confined above and below by
aquicludes, the aquifer must be
exposed at the surface, and there
must be sufficient precipitation in
the recharge area to keep the
aquifer filled. The elevation of the Artesian-pressure
water table recharge area,
in the surface
which is indicated by a sloping
dashed line (the artesian-pressure
surface), defines the highest level to
which well water can rise. If the
elevation of a wellhead is below the
elevation of the artesian-pressure
surface, the well will be free-flowing
because the water will rise toward
the artesian-pressure surface, which
is at a higher elevation than the
wellhead. If the elevation of a
wellhead is at or above that of the
artesian-pressure surface, the well
will be nonflowing.

~^~ FIGURE 17-13 The distribution of the major limestone and karst areas of the world.
great enough produce free-flowing wells and to op-

to weathering them chemically. In an area underlain by
erate waterwheels. The extensive use of water for irri- soluble rock, groundwater is the principal agent of ero-
gation over the years, however, has reduced the pressure sion and thus is responsible for the formation of many
in many of the wells so that they are no longer free- major features of the landscape.
flowing and the water must be pumped. Limestone, a common sedimentary rock composed
Another example of an important artesian system is the primarily of the mineral calcite (CaC0 3 ), underlies large
Floridan aquifer system. Here Tertiary-aged carbonate areas of the Earth's surface (Fig. 17-13). Although lime-
rocks are riddled with fractures, caves, and other openings stone is practically insoluble in pure water, it readily
that have been enlarged and interconnected by solution dissolves if a small amount of acid Carbonic
is present.
activity. These carbonates are exposed at the surface in the acid (H 2 C0 3 is a ) that forms when carbon
weak acid
northwestern and central parts of the state where they are dioxide combines with water (H 2 + C0 2 -» H 2 C0 3 )
recharged, and they dip toward both the Atlantic and Gulf (see Chapter 6). Because the atmosphere contains a small
coasts where they are covered by younger sediments. The amount of carbon dioxide (0.03%), and carbon dioxide
carbonates are interbedded with shales forming a series of is also produced in soil by the decay of organic matter,
confined aquifers and aquicludes. This artesian system is most groundwater is slightly acidic. When groundwater
tapped in the southern part of the state where it is an percolates through the various openings in limestone, the
important source of fresh water and one that is being rap- slightly acidic water readily reacts with the calcite to dis-
idly depleted. solve the rock by forming soluble calcium bicarbonate,

which is carried away in solution (see Chapter 6).
^ GROUNDWATER EROSION
AND DEPOSITION Sinkholes and Karst Topography
When rainwater begins seeping into the ground, it im- In regions underlain by soluble rock, the ground surface
mediately starts to react with the minerals it contacts, may be pitted with numerous depressions that vary in
Groundwater Erosion and Deposition 495

in this way are a serious hazard, particularly in popu-
lated areas. In regions prone to sinkhole formation, the
depth and extent of underlying cave systems must be
mapped before any development to ensure that the un-
derlying rocks are thick enough to support planned
structures.
A karst topography is one that has developed largely
by groundwater erosion (Fig. 17-15). The name karst is
derived from the plateau region of the border area be-

tween Yugoslavia and northeastern Italy where this type
of topography is well developed. In the United States,
regions of karst topography include large areas of south-
western Illinois, southern Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee,
northern Missouri, Alabama, and central and northern
Florida (Fig. 17-13).
Karst topography is characterized by numerous caves,
springs, sinkholes, solution valleys, and disappearing
streams (Fig. 17-15). When adjacent sinkholes merge,
they form a network of larger, irregular, closed depres-
sions called solution valleys. Disappearing streams are
another feature of areas of karst topography. They are so
named because they typically flow only a short distance
at the surfaceand then disappear into a sinkhole. The
water continues flowing underground through various
fractures or caves until it surfaces again at a spring or
other stream.
Karst topography can range from the spectacular high
relief landscapes of China to the subdued and pock-
marked landforms of Kentucky (Fig. 17-16). What is
common to all karst topography, however, is that thick-

(b)
bedded, readily soluble rock is present at the surface or
*w FIGURE 17-14 (a) This sinkhole formed on May 8
just below the and enough water is present for so-
soil,
and 9, 1981, inWinter Park, Florida, due to a drop in the
water table after prior dissolution of the underlying lution activity to occur. Karst topography is, therefore,
limestone. The sinkhole destroyed a house, numerous cars, typically restricted to humid and temperate climates. At
and the municipal swimming pool. It has a diameter of 100 the present, however, some of the best karst topography
m and a depth of 35 m. {b) This sinkhole in a rural area can be found in arid and semiarid regions such as Bexar
near Montevallo, central Alabama, formed on December 2,
County, Texas, and the Carlsbad Caverns region in New
1972. Its diameter is 130 m, and its depth is 45 m.
Mexico. The examples of karst topography in these re-
gions are relicts that originally formed when the climate
was more humid.
sizeand shape. These depressions, called sinkholes or
merely sinks, mark areas where the underlying rock is
Caves and Cave Deposits
soluble (Fig. 17-14). Sinkholes usually form in one of
two ways. The first is when the soluble rock below the Caves are some of the most spectacular examples of the
soil is dissolved by seeping water. Natural openings in combined effects of weathering and erosion by ground-
the rock are enlarged and filled in by the overlying soil. water. As groundwater percolates through carbonate
As the groundwater continues to dissolve the rock, the rocks (limestone and dolostone), it and en-
dissolves
soil is eventually removed, leaving depressions that are larges original fractures and openings form a complex
to
typically shallow with gently sloping sides. interconnecting system of crevices, caves, caverns, and
Sinkholes also form when a cave's roof collapses, underground streams. A cave is usually defined as a nat-
usually producing a steep-sided crater. Sinkholes formed urally formed subsurface opening that is generally con-

Solution valleys
Springs
Karst valley
Disappearing
streams
Deeply intrenched
permanent stream
•^ FIGURE 17-15 Some of the

Cave features of karst topography.
nected to the surface and is large enough for a person to States.Most of them are small, but some are quite large
enter. A cavern is a very large cave or a system of inter- and spectacular. Some of the more famous caves in the
connected caves. United States are Mammoth Cave, Kentucky (see Per-
More than 17,000 caves are known in the United spective 17-1); Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico; Lewis
"^ FIGURE 17-16 (a) The Stone Forest, 126 km southeast of Kunming, People's
Republic of China, is a high relief karst landscape formed by the dissolution of
carbonate rocks, (b) Solution valleys, sinkholes, and sinkhole lakes dominate the
subdued karst topography east of Bowling Green, Kentucky.
'"
M
Groundwater Erosion and Deposition 497

•^ FIGURE 17-17 Some of the
spectacular cave deposits of
Meramec Caverns, Missouri.
and Clark Caverns, Montana; Wind Cave and Jewel same manner and are collectively known as dripstone.
Cave, South Dakota; Lehman Cave, Nevada; and Mer- As water seeps through a cave, some of the dissolved
amec Caverns, Missouri, which Jesse James and his out- carbon dioxide in the water escapes, and a small amount
law band often used as a hideout (Fig. 17-17). of calcite is precipitated. In this manner, the various
Caves and caverns form as a result of the dissolution dripstone deposits are formed.
of carbonate rocks (limestone, dolostone, and occasion- Stalactites are icicle-shaped structures hanging from
ally marble) by weakly acidic groundwater (Fig. 17-18). cave ceilings that form as a result of precipitation from
Groundwater percolating through the zone of aeration dripping water (Fig. 17-19). With each drop of water, a
slowly dissolves the carbonate rock and enlarges its frac- thin layer of calcite is deposited over the previous layer,
tures and bedding planes. Upon reaching the water ta- forming a cone-shaped projection that grows downward
ble, the groundwater migrates toward the region's sur- from the ceiling. While many stalactites are solid, some
face streams (Fig. 17-4). As the groundwater moves are hollow and are appropriately called soda straws.
through the zone of saturation, it continues to dissolve The water that drips from a cave's ceiling also pre-
the rock and gradually forms a system of horizontal cipitates a small amount of calcite when it hits the floor.
passageways through which the dissolved rock is carried As additional calcite is deposited, an upward growing
to the streams. As the surface streams erode deeper val- projection called a stalagmite forms (Fig. 17-19). If a
leys, the water table drops in response to the lower el- stalactiteand stalagmite meet, they form a column.
evation of the streams. The water that flowed through Groundwater seeping from a crack in a cave's ceiling
the system of horizontal passageways now percolates may form a vertical sheet of rock called a drip curtain,
down to the lower water table where a new system of while water flowing across a cave's floor may produce
passageways begins to form. The abandoned channel- travertine terraces (Fig. 17-18).
ways now form an interconnecting system of caves and
caverns that may continue to enlarge as groundwater per-
colates through them and dissolves the surrounding rock. » MODIFICATIONS OF THE
As the caves increase in size, they may become unstable GROUNDWATER SYSTEM AND
and collapse, littering the floor with fallen debris.
When most people think of caves, they think of the
THEIR EFFECTS
seemingly endless variety of colorful and bizarre-shaped Groundwater is a valuable natural resource that is rap-
deposits found in them. Although a great many different idly being exploited with little regard to the effects of
types of cave deposits exist, most form in essentially the overuse and misuse. Currently, about 20% of all water

^ FIGURE 17-18 The formation of caves, (a) As groundwater percolates through
the zone of aeration and flows through the zone of saturation, it dissolves the carbonate
rocks and gradually forms a system of passageways, (b) Groundwater moves along the
surface of the water table, forming a system of horizontal passageways through which
dissolved rock is carried to the surface streams and thus enlarging the passageways.
(c) As the surface streams erode deeper valleys, the water table drops, and the
abandoned channelways form an interconnecting system of caves and caverns.
Modifications of the Groundwater System and Their Effects 499

1
•"" FIGURE 17-19 Stalactites are

the icicle-shaped structures seen
hanging from the ceiling, while the
upward-pointing structures on the
cave floor are stalagmites. Several
columns are present where the
stalactites and stalagmites have met
in this chamber of Luray Caves,
Virginia.
used in the United States is groundwater. This percent- from irrigated lands can be triple what they would be
age is increasing, however, and unless this resource is without irrigation.
used more wisely, sufficient amounts of clean ground- While the High Plains aquifer has contributed to the
water will not be available in the future. Modifications high productivity of the region, it cannot continue pro-
of the groundwater system may have many conse- viding the quantities of water that it has in the past. In
quences including (1) lowering of the water table, which some parts of the High Plains, from 2 to 100 times more
causes wells to dry up; (2) loss of hydrostatic pressure, water is being pumped annually than is being recharged.
which causes once free-flowing wells to require pump- Consequently, water is being removed from the aquifer
ing; (3) saltwater encroachment; (4) subsidence; and (5) faster than it is being replenished, causing the water
contamination of the groundwater supply. table to drop significantly in many areas (Fig. 17-20).
What will happen to this region's economy if long-
term withdrawal of water from the High Plains aquifer
Lowering of the Water Table
greatly exceeds its recharge rate such that it can no
Withdrawing groundwater at a significantly greater rate longer supply the quantities of water necessary for irri-
than it is replaced by either natural or artificial recharge gation? Solutions range from going back to farming
can have serious effects. For example, the High Plains without irrigation to diverting water from other regions
aquifer one of the most important aquifers in the
is such as the Great Lakes. Farming without irrigation
United States. Underlying most of Nebraska, large parts would result in greatly decreased yields and higher costs
of Colorado and Kansas, portions of South Dakota, and prices for agricultural products, while the diversion
Wyoming, and New Mexico, as well as the panhandle of water from elsewhere would cost billions of dollars
regions of Oklahoma and Texas, it accounts for approx- and the price of agricultural products would still rise.
imately 30% of the groundwater used for irrigation in
the United States (Fig. 17-20). Irrigation from the High
Saltwater Incursion
Plains aquifer is largely responsible for the high agricul-
tural productivity of this region. A significant percent- The excessive pumping of groundwater in coastal areas
age of the nation's corn, cotton, and wheat is grown can result in saltwater incursion such as occurred on
here,and half of our beef cattle are raised in this region. Long Island, New York, during the 1960s. Along coast-
Large areas of land (more than 14 million acres) are lines where permeable rocks or sediments are in contact
currently irrigated with water pumped from the High with the ocean, the fresh groundwater, being less dense
Plains aquifer. Irrigation is so popular because yields than seawater, forms a lens-shaped body above the un-

^ FIGURE 17-20 Areal extent
of the High Plains aquifer and "
changes in the water table,
predevelopment to 1980.
derlying salt water (Fig. 17-21a). The weight of the fresh tained fresh water. When this occurs, wells become con-
water exerts pressure on the underlying salt water. As taminated with water and remain contaminated until
salt
long as rates of recharge equal rates of withdrawal, the recharge by fresh water restores the former level of the
contact between the fresh groundwater and the seawater fresh groundwater water table.
willremain the same. If excessive pumping occurs, how- Saltwater incursion is a major problem in many rap-
ever, adeep cone of depression forms in the fresh ground- idly growing coastal communities. As the population in
water (Fig. 17-21b). Because some of the pressure from these areas grows, greater demand for groundwater cre-
the overlying fresh water has been removed, salt water ates an even greater imbalance between recharge and
migrates upward to fill the pore space that formerly con- withdrawal. Natural recharge of the groundwater sys-

Ocean filtrate the groundwater supply may also be constructed
Both of these methods are successfully used
(Fig. 17-5).
on Long Island, which has had a saltwater incursion

problem for several decades.
Subsidence
As excessive amounts of groundwater are withdrawn
Fresh groundwater Salty groundwater from poorly consolidated sediments and sedimentary
rocks, the water pressure between grains is reduced, and
(a)
the weight of the overlying materials causes the grains to
Ocean pack closer together, resulting in subsidence of the
ground. Subsidence is becoming a major hazard in many
areas and can cause damage to buildings, water lines,
utility lines, and roads.
As more and more groundwater is pumped to meet the

increasing needs of agriculture and population growth,
subsidence is becoming more prevalent. The San Joaquin
Valley of California is a major agricultural region that
relies largely on groundwater for irrigation. Between
Fresh groundwater Salty groundwater
1925 and 1975, groundwater withdrawals in parts of the
(b)
valley caused subsidence of almost 9 m (Fig. 17-22).
Ocean Other examples of subsidence in the United States in-
clude New Orleans, Louisiana, and Houston, Texas,

both of which have subsided more than 2 m, and Las
Vegas, Nevada, which has subsided 8.5 m (Table 17-2).
Elsewhere in the world, the tilt of the Leaning Tower
of Pisa is groundwater withdrawal. The
partly due to
tower started tilting soon after construction began in
1173 because of differential compaction of the founda-
tion. During the 1960s, the city of Pisa withdrew ever-
larger amounts of groundwater, causing the ground to
subside further; as a result, the tilt of the tower in-
"^ FIGURE 17-21 Saltwater incursion, (a) Because fresh
creased until it was considered in danger of falling over.
water not as dense as salt water, it forms a lens-shaped
is
body above the underlying salt water, (b) If excessive

However, strict control of groundwater withdrawal and
pumping occurs, a cone of depression develops in the fresh stabilization of the foundation have reduced the amount
groundwater, and a cone of ascension forms in the of tilting to about 1 mm per year, ensuring that the
underlying salty groundwater that may result in saltwater tower should stand for several more centuries.
contamination of the well, (c) Pumping water back into the
groundwater system through recharge wells can help lower
A spectacular example of subsidence occurred in
the interface between the fresh groundwater and the salty

Mexico which is built on a former lake bed. As
City,
groundwater and reduce saltwater incursion. groundwater is removed for the ever-increasing needs of
the city, the fine-grained lake sediments are compacting,
and Mexico City is slowly and unevenly subsiding. Its
opera house has settled more than 3 m, and half of the
tem is further decreased as large areas of the ground are first floor is now below ground level. Other parts of the
covered by roads and buildings, which prevent water city have subsided more than 6 m, creating similar prob-
from infiltrating the soil. lems for other structures (Fig. 17-23).
To counteract the effects of saltwater incursion, re- Withdrawal of groundwater is not the only cause of
charge wells are often drilled to pump water back into surface subsidence. The extraction of oil can also cause
the groundwater system (Fig. 17-21c). Recharge ponds subsidence. Long Beach, California, has subsided 9 m as
that allow large quantities of fresh surface water to in- a result of 34 years of oil production. More than $100

1955
"^" FIGURE 17-22The dates on this power pole

amount of subsidence the San
dramatically illustrate the
Joaquin Valley has undergone since 1925. Due to
withdrawal of groundwater for agricultural needs and the 1963
ensuing compaction of sediment, the ground subsided
almost 9 m between 1925 and 1975.
million of damage was done to the pumping, transpor-

tation,and harbor facilities in this area because of sub-
sidence and encroachment of the sea (Fig. 17-24). Once
secondary recovery wells began pumping water back
into the oil reservoir and stabilizing it, subsidence vir-
tually stopped.
~^~ TABLE 17-2 Subsidence of Cities and Regions

Groundwater Cofttamination
A major problem facing our society is the safe disposal
of the numerous pollutant by-products of an industrial-
ized economy. We are becoming increasingly aware that
our streams, lakes, and oceans are not unlimited reser-
voirs for waste, and that we must find new safe ways to
dispose of pollutants.
The most common sources of contamination are sew-
age, landfills, toxic waste disposal sites (see Perspective
17-2), and agriculture. Once pollutants get into the
groundwater system, they will spread wherever ground-
water travels, which can make containment of the con-
tamination difficult. Furthermore, because groundwater
moves very slowly, it takes a very long time to cleanse a
groundwater reservoir once it has become contaminated.
In many areas, septic tanks are the most common
way of disposing of sewage. A septic tank slowly re-
leases sewage into the ground where it is decomposed by
oxidation and microorganisms and filtered by the sedi-
ment as it percolates through the zone of aeration. In
most situations, by the time the water from the sewage
reaches the zone of saturation, it has been cleansed of
any impurities and is safe to use (Fig. 17-25a). If, how-

ever, thewater table is very close to the surface or if the
rocks are very permeable, water entering the zone of
^ FIGURE 17-23 The right side of this church (Our

saturation may still be contaminated and unfit to use.
Landfills are also potential sources of groundwater
Lady of Guadalupe) in Mexico City has settled slightly more
than a meter. (Photo courtesy of R. V. Dietrich.)
contamination (Fig. 17-25b). Not only does liquid waste
seep into the ground, but rainwater also carries dis-
^ FIGURE 17-24 The

withdrawal of petroleum from the
oil field in Long Beach, California,
resulted inup to 9 m
of ground
subsidence because of sediment
compaction. It was not until
secondary recovery wells began
pumping water back into the
reservoir to replace the petroleum
that ground subsidence essentially
ceased. (2 to 29 feet = 0.6 to 8.8
meters)

Drain pipes
Septic tank
•*r FIGURE 17-25 (a) A septic

system slowly releases sewage into
the zone of aeration. Oxidation,
bacterial degradation, and filtering
by the sediments usually remove all
of the natural impurities before they
reach the water table. If, however,
the rocks are very permeable or the
water table is too close to the septic
Zone of aeration system, contamination of the
groundwater can result, (b) Unless
there is an impermeable barrier
Average water between a landfill and the water
table
table, pollutants can be carried into
the zone of saturation and
Zone of saturation contaminate the groundwater
(b) supply.
solved chemicals and other pollutants downward into Company dumped approximately 19,000 tons of chem-
the groundwater reservoir. Unless the landfill is carefully icalwaste into the Love Canal. In 1953 it covered one of
designed and lined below by an impermeable layer such the dump sites with dirt and sold it for one dollar to the
as clay, many toxic and cancer-causing compounds will Niagara Falls Board of Education, which built an ele-
find their way into the groundwater system. For exam- mentary school and playground on the site. Heavy rains
ple, paints, solvents, cleansers, pesticides, and battery and snow during the winter of 1976-1977 raised- the
acid are just a few of the toxic household items that end water table and turned the area into a muddy swamp in
up in landfills and can pollute the groundwater supply. the spring of 1977. Mixed with the mud were thousands
Toxic waste sites in which dangerous chemicals are of different toxic, noxious chemicals that formed pud-
either buried or pumped underground are an increasing dles in the playground, oozed into people's basements,
source of groundwater contamination. The United States and covered gardens and lawns. Trees, lawns, and gar-
alone must dispose of several thousand metric tons of dens began to die, and many of the residents of the area
hazardous chemical waste per year. Unfortunately, much suffered from serious illnesses. The cost of cleaning up
of this waste has been, and still is being, improperly the Love Canal site and relocating its residents will even-
dumped and is contaminating the surface water, soil, and tually exceed $100 million, and the site and neighbor-
groundwater. hood are now vacant.

Examples of indiscriminate dumping of dangerous Toxic wastes are also disposed of by injecting them
and toxic chemicals can be found in every state. Perhaps into deep wells. These wells extend below all fresh water
the most famous is the Love Canal, near Niagara Falls, aquifers and are completely isolated from them to en-
New York. During the 1940s, the Hooker Chemical sure that existing or potential water supplies are not

Perspective 17-2
RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISPOSAL

One of the problems of the nuclear age is finding safe until around the year 2030, at which time its entrance
storage sites for the radioactive waste from nuclear shafts will be sealed and backfilled.
power plants, the manufacture of nuclear weapons, The canisters holding the waste are designed to
and the radioactive by-products of nuclear medicine. remain leakproof for at least 300 years, so there is
Radioactive waste can be grouped into two categories: some possibility that leakage could occur over the
low-level and high-level waste. Low-level wastes are next 10,000 years. The DOE believes, however, that
low enough in radioactivity that, when properly the geology of the area will prevent radioactive
handled, they do not pose a significant environmental isotopes from entering the groundwater system. Under
threat. Most low-level wastes can be safely buried in an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulation,
controlled dump sites where the geology and a radioactive dump
site must be located so that the
groundwater system are well known and careful travel time forgroundwater from the site to the
monitoring is provided. outside environment is at least 1,000 years.
High-level radioactive waste, such as the spent The radioactive waste at the Yucca Mountain
uranium fuel assemblies used in nuclear reactors and repository will be buried in a volcanic tuff at a depth
the material used in nuclear weapons, is extremely of about 300 m. The water table in the area will be
dangerous because of high amounts of radioactivity; it an additional 200 to 420 m below the dump site.
therefore presents a major environmental problem. Thus, the canisters will be stored in the zone of
Currently, more than 15,000 metric tons of spent aeration, which was one of the reasons Yucca
uranium fuel are awaiting disposal, and the Mountain was selected. Only about 15 cm of rain fall
Department of Energy (DOE) estimates that by the in this area per year, and only a small amount of this
year 2000 the nation will have produced almost percolates into the ground. Most of the water that
50,000 metric tons of highly radioactive waste that does seep into the ground evaporates before it
must be disposed of safely. migrates very far. Thus, the rock at the depth the
Near the end of 1987, Congress authorized the canisters are buried will be very dry, helping prolong
DOE to study the feasibility of using Yucca Mountain the lives of the canisters.
in southern Nevada as the nation's first high-level Geologists believe that the radioactive waste at
radioactive waste dump Such a facility must
(Fig. 1). Yucca Mountain is most likely to contaminate the
be able to isolate high-level waste from the environment if it is in liquid form; if liquid, it could
environment for at least 10,000 years, which is the seep into the zone of saturation and enter the
minimum time such waste will remain dangerous. The groundwater supply. But because of the low moisture
Yucca Mountain site will have a capacity of 70,000 in the zone of aeration, there is little water to carry
metric tons of waste and will not be completely filled the waste downward, and it will take well over 1,000
contaminated. Monitoring wells are usually drilled into must find a way to dispose of them safely and prevent
the aquifers to ensure that the waste is not migrating the contamination of our groundwater supply.
upward. One of the problems associated with deep well
disposal, however,
tential to initiate
is that such injections have the po-
earthquakes (see Chapter 10).
^HOT SPRINGS AND GEYSERS
Other sources of groundwater pollution include toxic The subsurface rocks in regions of recent volcanic ac-
chemicals from fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides that hot for thousands of years. Ground-
tivity usually stay
are sprayed on fields and eventually percolate down- water percolating through these rocks is heated and, if
ward into the groundwater supply. As more chemicals returned to the surface, forms hot springs or geysers.
come into industrial, agricultural, and domestic use, we Yellowstone National Park in the United States, Ro-

Interior view of Yucca Mountain
Volcanic rock
Storage tunnels
300 m deep
Emplacement Excavation Storage pile of
truckramp equipment rock removed
Exhaust ramp during excavation
I
tunnels
. 300 m
Metal
alloy High
/
level
/
/
(not to
sca e i
lining radioactive Stainless-

waste steel
container
Volcanic rock
Water table -
"^FIGURE 1 The location of Nevada's Yucca Mountain and a schematic diagram of the
proposed high-level radioactive waste dump.
years to reach the zone of saturation. In fact, the DOE saturation. This area of the country was much more
estimates that the waste will take longer than 10,000 humid between 2 million and 10,000 years ago (see
years to move from the repository to the water table. Chapter 18).
One of the concerns of some geologists is that the While it appears that Yucca Mountain meets all of
climate will change during the next 10,000 years. If the requirements for a safe high-level radioactive
the region should become more humid, more water waste dump, the site is still controversial, and further
will percolate through the zone of aeration. This will studiesmust be conducted to ensure that the
increase the corrosion rate of the canisters and could groundwater supply in this area is not rendered
cause the water table to rise, thereby decreasing the unusable by nuclear waste.
travel time between the repository and the zone of
torua, New Zealand, and Iceland are all famous for springs in the United States, more than 1,000 are in the
theirhot springs and geysers. They are all sites of recent Far West, while the rest are in the Black Hills of South
volcanism, and consequently their subsurface rocks and Dakota, the Ouachita region of Arkansas, Georgia, and
groundwater are very hot. the Appalachian region (Fig. 17-27).
A hot spring (also called a thermal spring or warm Hot springs are also common in other parts of the
spring) is a spring in which the water temperature is world. One of the most famous is at Bath, England,
warmer than the temperature of thehuman body (37°C) where shortly after the Roman conquest of Britain in
17-26). Some hot springs,
(Fig. however, are much hot- a.d. 43, numerous bathhouses and a temple were built
with temperatures ranging up to the boiling point in

ter, around the hot springs (Fig. 17-28).
many instances. Of the approximately 1,100 known hot The heat for most hot springs comes from magma or
Hot Springs and Geysers 507

some hot springs, h6*wever, is circulated deep into the
Earth, where it is warmed by the normal increase in
temperature, the geothermal gradient. For example, the
spring water of Warm Springs, Georgia, is heated in this
manner. This hot spring was a health and bathing resort
long before the Civil War; later with the establishment
of the Georgia Warm Springs Foundation, it was used to
help treat polio victims.
Geysers are hot springs that intermittently eject hot
water and steam with tremendous force. The word
comes from the Icelandic geysir which means to gush or
rush forth.One of the most famous geysers in the world
isOld Faithful in Yellowstone National Park in Wyo-
ming (Fig. 17-29). With a thunderous roar, it erupts a
"" FIGURE 17-26 Hot springs are springs with a water column of hot water and steam every 30 to 90 minutes.
temperature greater than 37°C. This hot spring is in West Other well known geyser areas are found in Iceland and
Thumb Geyser Basin, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. New Zealand.
Geysers are the surface expression of an extensive
underground system of interconnected fractures within
cooling igneous rocks. The geologically recent igneous hot igneous rocks (Fig. 17-30). Groundwater percolat-
activity in the western United States accounts for the ing down into the network of fractures is heated as it
large number of hot springs in that region. The water in comes into contact with the hot rocks. Since the water
-»-FI
dissolve more rapidly in warm water than in cold water.
Due to this high mineral content, the waters of many hot
springs are believed by some to have medicinal proper-
ties.Numerous spas and bathhouses have been built
throughout the world at hot springs to take advantage
of these supposed healing properties.
When the highly mineralized water of hot springs or
geysers cools at the surface, some of the material in
solution is precipitated, forming various types of depos-
its. The amount and type of precipitated mineral depend
on the solubility and composition of the material

through which the groundwater flows. If the groundwa-
ter contains dissolved calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ), then
travertine or calcareous tufa (both ofwhich are varieties
of limestone) are precipitated. Spectacular examples of
hot spring travertine deposits are found at Mammoth
Hot Springs in Yellowstone National Park and at Pam-
ukhale in Turkey (Fig. 17-31). Groundwater containing
dissolved silica will, upon reaching the surface, precip-
itate a soft, white, hydrated mineral called siliceous sin-
ter or geyserite, which can accumulate around a geyser's
opening (Fig. 17-32).
Geothermal Energy
Energy that is harnessed from steam and hot water
trapped within the Earth's crust is called geothermal
energy. It is a desirable and relatively nonpolluting al-
ternate form of energy. Approximately 1 to 2% of the

world's current energy needs could be met by geother-
mal energy. In those areas where it is plentiful, however,
^ FIGURE 17-28 One of the many bathhouses in Bath,
geothermal energy can supply most, if not all, of the
England, that were built around hot springs shortly after the
Roman conquest in a.d. 43.
•^ FIGURE 17-29 Old Faithful Geyser in Yellowstone
National Park, Wyoming, is one of the world's most famous
geysers, erupting approximately every 30 to 90 minutes. _
near the bottom of the fracture system is under greater
pressure than that near the top, it must be heated to a
higher temperature before it will boil. Thus, when the
deeper water is heated to very near the boiling point, a
temperature or a drop in pressure, such as

slight rise in
from escaping gas, will cause it to instantly change to
steam. The expanding steam quickly pushes the water
above it out of the ground and into the air, thereby pro-
ducing a geyser eruption. After the eruption, relatively
cool groundwater starts to seep back into the fracture
system where it is heated to near its boiling temperature
and the eruption cycle begins again. Such a process ex-

plains how geysers can erupt with some regularity.
Hot spring and geyser water typically contains large
quantities of dissolved minerals because most minerals
Hot Springs and Geysers 509

'**'FIGURE 17-30 The formation of a geyser.
(a)Groundwater percolates downward into a network of
interconnected openings and is heated by the hot igneous
rocks. The water near the bottom of the fracture system is
under greater pressure than that near the top and
consequently must be heated to a higher temperature before
it will boil, {b) Any rise in temperature of the water above
its boiling point or a drop in pressure will cause the water
to change to steam, which quickly pushes the water above it

upward and out of the ground, producing a geyser eruption.
heated from geothermal wells. Direct heating in this

manner is significantly cheaper than fuel oil or electrical
heating and much cleaner.
The city of Rotorua in New Zealand is world famous
for its volcanoes, hot springs, geysers, and geothermal
fields. Since the first well was sunk by hand in the 1930s,
more than 800 wells have been drilled to tap the hot
water and steam below. Many homes in Rotorua have
their own well for heating, hot water, and even steam
barbecuing. Geothermal energy in Rotorua is used in a
variety of ways: home, commercial, and greenhouse
heating; powering refrigeration plants for air condition-
ing; water distillation; the manufacture of cane furni-
ture; and for various research activities at the Forest
Research Institute.
In the United States, the commercial geothermal
first
electrical generating plant was

1960 at The Gey-
built in
sers, about 120 km north of San Francisco, California
(Fig. 17-33). Here, wells were drilled into the numerous
near-vertical fractures underlying the region. As pres-
"***" FIGURE 17-31 Minerva Terrace at Mammoth Hot

Springs in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, formed
gneous when calcium carbonate-rich hot spring water cooled,
precipitating travertine deposits.
energy needs, sometimes at a fraction of the cost of

other types of energy. Some of the countries currently
using geothermal energy in one form or another include
Iceland, the United States, Mexico, Italy, New Zealand,
Japan, the Philippines, and Indonesia.
Geothermal energy has been successfully used in Ice-
land since 1928. In Reykjavik, Iceland's capital, steam
and hot water from wells drilled in geothermal areas are
pumped into buildings for heating and hot water. Fruits
and vegetables are grown year-round in hot houses

^ FIGURE 17-32 Liberty Cap in "^ FIGURE 17-33 The Geysers, Sonoma County,
Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, California. Plumes of steam can be seen rising from several
is a geyserite mound produced by steam-generating plants.
repeated geyser eruptions. Each
eruption of hot silica-rich water
precipitated a small amount of
geyserite, eventually building up this
large mound.
sure on the rising groundwater decreases, the water ment have begun. While geothermally generated electric-
changes to steam that is piped directly to electricity- ity is a generally clean source of power, it can also be
generating turbines. The present electrical generating ca- expensive because most geothermal waters are acidic and
pacity at The Geysers is about 2,000 megawatts, which very corrosive. Consequently, the turbines must either be
is enough to supply about two-thirds of the electrical built of expensive corrosion-resistant alloy metals or fre-
needs of the San Francisco Bay area. quently replaced. Furthermore, geothermal power is not
As oil reserves decline, geothermal energy is becoming The steam and hot water removed for geo-
inexhaustible.
an attractive alternative, particularly in parts of the west- thermal power cannot be easily replaced, and eventually
ern United States, such as the Salton Sea area of southern pressure in the wells drops to the point at which the geo-
California, where geothermal exploration and develop- thermal field must be abandoned.
^CHAPTER SUMMARY A material that transmits groundwater is an aquifer

and one that prevents the movement of groundwater
1. The water stored in the pore spaces of subsurface is an aquiclude.
rocks and unconsolidated material is called The water table is the surface that separates the zone
groundwater. of aeration (in which pore spaces are filled with both
2. Groundwater is part of the hydrologic cycle and air and water) from the zone of saturation (in which
represents approximately 22% of the world's supply all pore spaces are filled with water).
of fresh water. Groundwater moves very slowly through the pore
3. Porosity is the percentage of a rock, sediment, or spaces of rocks, sediment, or soil (zone of aeration)
soil consisting of pore space. Permeability is the and moves through the zone of saturation to outlets
ability of a rock, sediment, or soil to transmit fluids. such as streams, lakes, and swamps.
Chapter Summary 511

6. A spring occurs wherever the water table intersects spring water well
the Earth's surface. Some springs are the result of a stalactite zone of aeration
perched water table, that is, a localized aquiclude stalagmite zone of saturation
within an aquifer and above the regional water water table
table.
7. Water wells are made by digging or drilling into the
zone of saturation. When water is pumped out of a
well, a cone of depression forms. If water is pumped
^ REVIEW QUESTIONS
out faster than it can be recharged, the cone of
depression deepens and enlarges and may locally
1. What is the correct order, from highest to lowest, of
groundwater usage in the United States?
drop to the base of the well, resulting in a dry well.
a. agricultural, industrial, domestic;
8. Artesian systems are those in which confined
b. industrial, domestic, agricultural;
groundwater builds up high hydrostatic pressure.
c. domestic, agricultural, industrial;
Three conditions must generally be met before an
d. agricultural, domestic, industrial;
artesian system can form: the aquifer must be
e. industrial, agricultural, domestic.
confined above and below by aquicludes; the aquifer
is usually tilted and exposed at the Earth's surface so
2. What percentage of the world's supply of fresh
water is represented by groundwater?
it can be recharged; and precipitation must be
a 5; b 18; c 22; d 43; e 50.
keep the aquifer filled.
sufficient to
9. Karst topography results from groundwater,
3. The capacity of a material to transmit fluids is:
a. porosity; b. permeability;
weathering, and erosion and is characterized by
c. solubility; d. aeration quotient;
sinkholes, solution valleys, and disappearing streams.
e. saturation.
10. Caves form when groundwater in the zone of
saturation weathers and erodes soluble rock such as
4. The water table is a surface separating the:
a. zone of porosity from the underlying zone of
limestone. Cave deposits, called dripstone, result
from the precipitation of calcite. permeability; b. capillary fringe from the
underlying zone of aeration; c. capillary fringe
11. Modifications of the groundwater system can cause
serious problems. Excessive withdrawal of
from the underlying zone of saturation; d. zone
of aeration from the underlying zone of saturation;
groundwater can result in dry wells, loss of
hydrostatic pressure, saltwater encroachment, and
e. zone of saturation from the underlying zone
of aeration.
ground subsidence.
12. Groundwater contamination is becoming a serious
5. Groundwater:
problem and can result from sewage, landfills, toxic a. moves slowly through the pore spaces of
waste, and agriculture.
Earth materials; b. moves fastest through the
central area of a material's pore space; c. can
13. Hot springs and geysers may occur where
groundwater is heated by hot subsurface volcanic move upward against the force of gravity;
rocks. Geysers are hot springs that intermittently

d. moves from areas of high pressure toward
areas of low pressure; e. all of these.
hot water and steam.
eject
14. Geothermal energy comes from the steam and hot
6. A perched water table:
a. occurs wherever there is a localized aquiclude
water trapped within the Earth's crust. It is a
within an aquifer; b. is frequently the site of
relatively nonpolluting form of energy that is used as
springs; c. lacks a zone of aeration;
a source of heat and to generate electricity.
d. answers (a) and (b); e. answers (b) and
IMPORTANT TERMS 7. An artesian system is one in which:

a. water is confined; b. water can rise above
aquiclude groundwater the level of the aquifer when a well is drilled;
aquifer hot spring c. water must be pumped; d. answers (a)
artesian system karst topography and (c); e.answers (a) and (b).
capillary fringe perched water table 8. Which of the following is not an example of
cave permeability groundwater erosion?
column porosity a. karst topography; b. stalactites;
cone of depression recharge c. sinkholes; d. caves; e. caverns.
dripstone saltwater 9. What percentage of the water used in the United
geothermal energy incursion States is provided by groundwater?
geyser sinkhole a 50; b 40; c 30; d 20; e 10.

10. Rapid withdrawal of groundwater can result in: 23. Why are some artesian wells free-flowing while
a. a cone of depression; b. ground others must be pumped?
subsidence; c. saltwater incursion; d. loss of 24. How does groundwater weather and erode?
hydrostatic pressure; e. all of these. 25. List the surface features of karst topography and
11. In which area are you least likely to find hot springs explain how they form.
or geysers? 26. How do caves and their various features form?
a. eastern Canada; b. western United States; 27. Discuss the various effects that excessive
c. Iceland; d. New Zealand; e. none of groundwater removal may have on a region. Give
these. some examples.
12. The water in hot springs and geysers: 28. Discuss the various ways that a groundwater system
a. is believed to have curative properties; may become contaminated.
b. is noncorrosive; c. contains large 29. What is the difference between a thermal spring and
quantities of dissolved minerals; d. answers (a) a geyser?
and (b); e. answers (a) and (c). 30. In what ways has geothermal energy been used?
13. Which of not a geothermal site?
the following is
a. Rotarua, New Zealand; b. Reykjavik,

Iceland; c. Yellowstone National Park; ÂDDITIONAL READINGS
Wyoming; d. The Geysers, California;
Dolan, R., and H. G. Goodell. 1986. Sinking cities. American
e. Omaha, Nebraska. Scientist 74, no. 1: 38-47.
14. Which of the following is not a cave deposit? Fetter, C. W. 1988. Applied hydrogeology. 2d ed. Columbus,
a. stalagmite; b. room; c. dripstone; Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co.
d. stalactite; e. none of these. Fincher, J. 1990. Dreams of riches led Floyd Collins to a
15. Discuss the role of groundwater in the hydrologic nightmarish end. Smithsonian 21, no. 2: 137-49.
cycle. Freeze, R. A., and J. A. Cherry. 1979. Groundwater. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
16. How can a rock be porous and yet not be
Jennings, J. N. 1983. Karst landforms. American Scientist 71,
permeable?
no. 6: 578-86.
17. What types of materials make good aquifers and
. 1985. Karst geomorphology. 2d ed. Oxford, England:
aquicludes?
Basil Blackwell.
18. Why is the water table a subdued replica of the Monastersky, R. 1988. The 10,000-year test. Science News 133:
surface topography? What causes the water table 139-41.
level to fluctuate? Price, M. 1985. Introducing groundwater. London: Allen &c
19. Why does groundwater move so much slower than Unwin.
surface water? Rinehart, J. S. 1980. Geysers and geothermal energy. New
20. Where are springs likely to occur? York: Springer-Verlag.
21. How does a perched water table differ from a Sloan, B., ed. 1977. Caverns, caves, and caving. New
Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.
regional water table?
22. What is a cone of depression and why is it so
important?

CHAPTER 18
GLACIERS AND
G L AC I AT O N
I
^ OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
GLACIERS AND THE HYDROLOGIC
CYCLE
THE ORIGIN OF GLACIAL ICE
TYPES OF GLACIERS
THE GLACIAL BUDGET
RATES OF GLACIAL MOVEMENT
GLACIAL EROSION AND TRANSPORT
Erosional Landforms of Valley Glaciers
U-Sbaped Glacial Troughs
Hanging Valleys
Cirques, Aretes, and Horns
Erosional Landforms of Continental Glaciers
GLACIAL DEPOSITS
Landforms Composed of Till
End Moraines
Lateral and Medial Moraines
Drumlins
Landforms Composed of Stratified Drift
Outwash Plains and Valley Trains

Karnes and Eskers
Glacial Lake Deposits
PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION
"^ Perspective 18-1: Glacial Lake Missoula
and the Channeled Scablands
Pleistocene Climates
Pluvial and Proglacial Lakes
"^ Perspective 18-2: A Brief History of the
Great Lakes
Changes in Sea Level
GLACIERS AND ISOSTASY
CAUSES OF GLACIATION
The Milankovitch Theory
Short-Term Climatic Events
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Climbers ascending Ingraham Glacier on

Mount Rainier, Washington.
^^ ^>ra^^3aagg^^
PROLOGUE most of the problems. Particularly hard hit were
Iceland and the Scandinavian countries, but at times
much of northern Europe was affected (Fig. 18-1).
Following the Great Ice Age, which Growing seasons were shorter during many years,
resulting in food shortages and a number of famines.
ended about 10,000 years ago, a
general warming trend occurred that was periodically
interrupted by short relatively cool periods. One such
cool period, from about a.d. 1500 to the mid- to
"^ FIGURE 18-1 (a) During the Little Ice Age, many of
late- 1800s, was characterized by the expansion of
the glaciers in Europe, such as this one in Switzerland,
small glaciers in mountain valleys and the persistence
extended much farther down their valleys than they do at
of sea ice at high latitudes for longer periods than had present.The Unterer Grindelwald painted in 1826 by
occurred previously. This interval of nearly four Samuel Birmann (1793-1847). (b) This mid-1600s painting
centuries is known as the Little Ice Age. by Jan-Abrahamsz Beerstraten titled The Village of
The climatic changes leading to the Little Ice Age Nieukoop in Winter shows the canals of Holland frozen.
These canals rarely freeze today.
actually began by about a.d. 1300. During the
preceding centuries, Europe had experienced rather
mild temperatures, and the North Atlantic Ocean was
warmer and more storm-free than it is at the present.
During this time, the Vikings discovered and settled
Iceland, and by a.d. 1200, about 80,000 people
resided there. They also discovered Greenland and
North America and established two colonies on the
former and one on the latter. As the climate
deteriorated, however, the North Atlantic became
stormier, and sea ice occurred further south and
persisted longer each year. As a consequence of poor
sea conditions and political problems in Norway, all
shipping across the North Atlantic ceased, and the
colonies in Greenland and North America eventually
disappeared.
During the Little Ice Age, many of the small
glaciers in Europe and Iceland expanded and moved
far down their valleys, reaching their greatest historic
extent by the early 1800s. A small ice cap formed in
Iceland where none had existed previously, and
glaciers in Alaska and the mountains of the western
United States and Canada also expanded to their
greatest limits during historic time. Although glaciers
caused some problems in Europe where they advanced
across roadways and pastures, destroying some villages
in Scandinavia and threatening villages elsewhere, their
overall impact on humans was minimal. Far more

important from the human perspective was that during
much of the Little Ice Age the summers in northern
latitudes were cooler and wetter.
Although worldwide temperatures were a little
lower during this time, the change in summer
conditions rather than cold winters or glaciers caused
Prologue 515
Iceland's population declined from its high of 80,000 Exactly when Age ended is debatable.
the*Little Ice
in 1200 to about 40,000 by 1700. Between 1610 and Some authorities put the end at 1880, whereas others
1870, sea ice was observed near Iceland for as much think it ended as early as 1850. In any case, during
as three months a year, and each time the sea ice the late 1800s, the sea ice was retreating northward,
persisted for long periods, poor growing seasons and glaciers were retreating back up their valleys, and
food shortages followed. summer weather became more stable.
m.^^ i^^.^ -g m. -
-
g.^ -ic^g^^^ m ^L T
-
. ^
fc . ^- •
^ ^ ^'SK-^^-^^ ^ ^^gî
'
- -
^ INTRODUCTION
Most people have some idea of what a glacier is, but
many confuse glaciers with other masses of snow and
ice. A glacier is a mass of ice composed of compacted
and recrystallized snow that flows under its own weight

on land. Accordingly, sea ice as in, for example, the
north polar region is not glacial ice, nor are drifting
icebergs glaciers even though they may have derived
from glaciers that flowed into the sea. Snow fields in
high mountains may persist in protected areas for years,

but these are not glaciers either because they are not
actively moving.
At the present time, glaciers cover nearly 15 million
km 2 or about one-tenth of the Earth's land surface (Ta-
,
ble 18-1). Numerous glaciers exist in the mountains of

the western United States, especially Alaska, western
Canada, the Andes in South America, the Alps of Eu-
rope, the Himalayas of Asia, and other high mountains.
^ TABLE 18-1 Present-Day Ice-Covered Areas

"^ FIGURE 18-2 Iceberg calving from the Margerie
Glacier in Glacier Bay National Park, Alaska.
=» THE ORIGIN OF GLACIAL ICE

Ice is a mineral in every sense of the word; it has a
crystalline structure and possesses characteristic physi-
cal and chemical properties. Accordingly, geologists
consider glacial ice to be rock, although it is a type of
rock that is easily deformed. It forms in a fairly straight-
forward manner (Fig. 18-3). When an area receives

more winter snow than can melt during the spring and
summer seasons, a net accumulation occurs. Freshly
fallen snow consists of about 80% air and 20% solids,
but it compacts as it accumulates, partly thaws, and

refreezes; in the process, the original snow layer is con- When accumulated snow and ice reach a critical thick-
verted to a granular type of ice called firn. Deeply buried ness of about 40 m, the pressure on the ice at depth is
firn is further compacted and is finally converted to gla- sufficient to cause deformation and flow, even though it
cial ice, consisting of about 90% solids (Fig. 18-3). remains solid. Once the critical thickness is reached and
^ FIGURE 18-3 The conversion

of freshly fallen snow to firn and
glacial ice.
The Origin of Glacial Ice 517

'**'
FIGURE 18-5 Movement of a glacier by a
combination of plastic flow and basal slip. If a glacier is
solidly frozen to the underlying surface, it moves only by

plastic flow.
» TYPES OF GLACIERS
Geologists generally recognize two basic types of gla-
ciers: valley and continental. A valley glacier, as its
name implies, is confined to a mountain valley or per-

haps to an interconnected system of mountain valleys
(b) (Fig. 18-6). Large valley glaciers commonly have several
"•'" FIGURE 18-4 The Margerie Glacier in Alaska can
(a) smaller tributary glaciers, much as large streams have
At lower latitudes glaciers exist only at
exist at sea level, (b) from higher to lower
tributaries. Valley glaciers flow
high elevations as this one on Mount Cook, New Zealand. elevations and are invariably small in comparison to
(Photo courtesy of R. V. Dietrich.)
continental glaciers, even though some may be more
than 100 km long, several kilometers wide, and several
hundred meters thick.
flow begins, the moving mass of ice becomes a glacier. In Continental glaciers, also called ice sheets, cover vast
polar regions where little summer melting of snow oc- areas (at least 50,000 km 2 ) and are unconfined by to-
curs, glaciers can exist at or very near sea level, but at pography (Fig. 18-7). In contrast to valley glaciers,
lower latitudes they are found only at higher elevations which flow downhill within the confines of a valley,
(Fig. 18-4). continental glaciers flow outward in all directions from
Plastic flow,which causes permanent deformation, a central area of accumulation. Valley glaciers flow in
occurs in response to pressure and is the primary way the direction of an existing slope, whereas the direction
that glaciers move. They may also move by basal slip, a continental glacier flows is determined by variations in
which occurs when a glacier slides over the underlying ice thickness. Currently, only two continental glaciers
surface (Fig. 18-5). Basal slip is facilitated by the pres- exist,one in Greenland and the other in Antarctica.
ence of meltwater that reduces frictional resistance be- Both are more than 3,000 m thick in their central areas,
tween the underlying surface and the glacier. become thinner toward their margins, and cover all but
518 Chapter 18 Glaciers and Glaciation

"•* FIGURE 18- T The Antarctic ice sheet, one of two
continental glaciers existing at present.
» THE GLACIAL BUDGET

Just as a savings account grows and shrinks as funds are
deposited and withdrawn, glaciers expand and contract
in response to accumulation and wastage. Their behavior
can be described in terms of a glacial budget, which is
essentially a balance sheet of accumulation and wastage.
The upper pan of a valley glacier is a zone of accumu-
lation where additions exceed losses, and the glacier's
surface is perennially covered by snow. In contrast, the
lower pan of the same glacier is
a zone of wastage, where
losses from melting, sublimation, and calving of icebergs
exceed the rate of accumulation (Fig. 18-9).
"** FIGURE 18-6 A large valley glacier in Alaska. Notice
At the end of winter, a glacier's surface is usually
the tributaries to the large glacier.
completely covered with
accumulated seasonal
the
snowfall. During spring and summer, however, the snow
begins to melt, first at lower elevations and then pro-
the highest mountains (Fig. 18-8). During the Pleis- gressively higher up the glacier. The elevation to which
tocene Epoch, such glaciers covered large pans of the snow recedes during a wastage season is called the'firn
Northern Hemisphere continents. Many of the erosional limit (Fig. 18-9). One can zones of
easily identify the
and depositional landforms in much of Canada and the accumulation and wastage by noting the position of the
northern tier of the United States formed as a conse- firn limit.
quence of Pleistocene glaciation. Observations of a single glacier reveal that the posi-
Although valley and continental glaciers are easily dif- tion of the firn limit usually changes from year to year.
ferentiated by their size and location, an intermediate va- If it does not change or shows only minor fluctuations,
riety called an ice cap is also recognized. Ice caps are sim- the glacier is said to have a balanced budget; that is,
ilar to, but smaller than, continental glaciers and cover less additions in the zone of accumulation are exactly bal-
than 50,000 km 2 Some ice caps form when valley glaciers
. anced by losses in the zone of wastage, and the distal
grow and overtop the divides and passes between adjacent end or terminus of the glacier remains stationary. When
valleys and coalesce to form a continuous ice cap. They the firn limit moves down the glacier, the glacier has a
also form on fairly flat terrain including some of the is- positive budget; its additions exceed its losses, and its
lands of the Canadian Arctic and Iceland. terminus advances (Fig. 18-10b). If the budget is nega-
The Glacial Budget 519

i
70°
L H7S«_^grE'!sworth
60° «5°
Mts.
#po(e
'
2000
Mirny
^ FIGURE 18-8 The two

existing continental glaciers.
{a) Antarctica is almost completely
covered by an averaging
ice sheet Ungiaciated surface
about 2,160 m thick and reaching Land ice
a maximum thickness of about Ice shelf
4,000 m. {b) The Greenland ice
sheet has a maximum thickness
of approximately 3,350 m. (a)
tive, the glacier recedes— its terminus retreats up the

glacial valley (Fig. 18-10c). But even though a glacier's
terminusmay be receding, the glacial ice continues to
move toward the terminus by plastic flow and basal slip.
If a negative budget persists long enough, however, a
glacier recedes and thins to the point at which it no
longer flows, thus becoming a stagnant glacier.
Although we used a valley glacier as our example, the
same budget considerations control the flow of conti-
nental glaciers as well. For example, the entire Antarctic
ice sheet is in the zone of accumulation, but it flows into
the ocean where wastage occurs.
» RATES OF GLACIAL MOVEMENT

In general, valley glaciers move more rapidly than con-
tinental glaciers, but the rates for both vary, ranging
from centimeters to tens of meters per day. Valley gla-
ciers moving down steep slopes flow more rapidly than

glaciers of comparable size on gentle slopes, assuming
that all other variables are the same. The main glacier in
a valley glacier system contains a greater volume of ice
and thus has a greater discharge and flow velocity than

"^ FIGURE 18-9 The glacial budget is the annual balance Zone of
between additions in the zone of accumulation and losses in accumulation
the zone of wastage. Ice and rock debris are progressively
buried by newly formed ice in the zone of accumulation, but
Annual snow line \
(firn limit)
eventually reach the surface in the zone of wastage as the
overlying ice melts.
Zone of
wastage
its tributaries (Fig. 18-6). Temperature exerts a seasonal

control on valley glaciers because although plastic flow
remains rather constant year-round, basal slip is more
important during warmer months when meltwater is
more abundant.
Flow rates also vary within the ice itself. For example,
flow velocity generally increases in the zone of accumu-
lation until the firn limit is reached; from that point, the
Zone of -^ FIGURE 18-10 Response of a

wastage accumulation hypothetical glacier to changes in its
budget, {a) If the losses in the zone
of wastage, shown by stippling,
equal additions in the zone of
accumulation, shown by
crosshatching, the terminus of the
glacier remains stationary, (b) Gains
exceed losses, and the glacier's
terminus advances, (c) Losses
exceed gains, and the glacier's
terminus retreats, although the
glacier continues to flow.
Rates of Glacial Movement 521

•^ FIGURE 18-12 Crevasses and an ice fall in a glacier in
Alaska.
through a glacier at a velocity several times faster than

the normal flow. Although surges are best documented
"•" FIGURE 18-11 Flow velocity in a valley glacier varies in valley glaciers, they occur in ice caps and continental
both horizontally and vertically. Velocity is greatest at the glaciers as well. During a surge, a glacier's terminus may
top-center of the glacier. Friction with the walls and floor of
advance several kilometers during a year. The causes of
the glacial trough causes the flow to be slower adjacent to
surges are not fully understood, but some of them have
these boundaries. The length of the arrows in the figure is
proportional to the velocity. occurred following a period of unusually heavy precip-
itation in the zone of accumulation. Others developed
when excessive amounts of snow and ice were dislodged
from mountain peaks and fell onto the upper parts of
glaciers.
velocity becomes progressively slower toward the gla-
Continental glaciers ordinarily flow at a rate of cen-
cier's terminus. Valley glaciers are similar to streams, in
timeters to meters per day. Nevertheless, even a rather
that the valley walls and floor cause frictional resistance
and modest rate of a meter or so per day has a great cumu-
to flow. Thus, the ice in contact with the walls floor
some away lative effect after several decades. One reason continen-
moves more slowly than the ice distance
(Fig. 18-11).
tal glaciers move comparatively slowly is that they exist
at higher latitudesand are frozen to the underlying sur-
Notice in Figure 18-11 that the flow velocity in-
face most of the time, which limits the amount of basal
creases upward until the top few tens of meters of ice are
reached, but or no additional increase occurs after

little
slip. Some basal slip does occur even beneath the Ant-
arctic ice sheet, but most of its movement is by plastic
that point. This upper ice constitutes the rigid part of the
flow. Nevertheless, some parts of continental glaciers
glacier that is moving as a consequence of basal slip and
upper 40 m manage to achieve extremely high flow rates. For exam-
plastic flow below. The fact that this or so
demonstrated ple, near the margins of the Greenland ice sheet, the ice
of ice behaves as a brittle solid is clearly
is forced between mountains in what are called outlet
by large fractures called crevasses that develop when a
glaciers. In some of these outlets, flow velocities exceed-
valley glacier flows over a step in its valley floor where
the slope increases or where it flows around a corner
ing 100 m per day have been recorded.
(Fig. 18-12). In either case, the glacial ice is stretched

(subjected to tension), and large crevasses develop, but ^ GLACIAL EROSION
they extend downward only to the zone of plastic flow.
In some cases, a valley glacier descends over such a steep
AND TRANSPORT
precipice that crevasses break up the ice into a jumble of Glaciers are currently limited in areal extent, but during
blocks and spires, and an ice fall develops (Fig. 18-12). the Pleistocene Epoch, they covered much larger areas
The flow rates of valley glaciers are also complicated and were thus more important than their present distri-
by glacial surges, which are bulges of ice that move bution would indicate. Glaciers are moving solids that

»" FIGURE 18-14 Origin of a roche moutonnee. As the
icemoves over a hill, it smooths the "upstream" side by
abrasion and shapes the "downstream" side by plucking.
^ FIGURE 18-13 A glacial erratic near Hammond, New form called a roche moutonnee, which is French for
York. (Photo courtesy of R. V. Dietrich.) "rock sheep." As shown in Figure 18-14, a glacier
smooths the "upstream" side of an obstacle, such as a
small hill, and plucks pieces of rock from the "down-
can erode and transport huge quantities of materials, stream" side by repeatedly freezing and pulling away
especially unconsolidated sediment and soil. In many from the obstacle.
areas of Canada and the northern United States, glaciers Sediment-laden glacial ice can effectively erode by
transported boulders, some of huge proportions, for abrasion. For example, bedrock over which sediment-
long distances before depositing them. Such boulders laden glacial ice has moved commonly develops a glacial
are called glacial erratics (Fig. 18-13). polish, a smooth surface that glistens in reflected light
Important erosional processes associated with gla- (Fig. 18-15a). Abrasion also yields glacial striations,
ciers include bulldozing, plucking, and abrasion. Bull- consisting of rather straight scratches on rock surfaces
dozing, although not a formal geologic term, is fairly (Fig. 18-15b). Glacial striations are rarely more than a
self-explanatory: a glacier simply shoves or pushes un- few millimeters deep, whereas glacial grooves are simi-
consolidated materials in its path. Plucking, also called lar but much larger and deeper (Fig. 18-16). Abrasion
quarrying, occurs when glacial ice freezes in the cracks also thoroughly pulverizes rocks so that they yield an
and crevices of a bedrock projection and eventually aggregate of clay- and silt-sized particles having the con-
pulls it loose. One manifestation of plucking is a land- sistency of flour, hence the name rock flour. Rock flour
W FIGURE 18-15 (a) Glacial polish on quartzite near Marquette, Michigan.

Monument, California.
(b) Glacial striations in basalt at Devil's Postpile National
Glacial Erosion and Transport 523

-~- FIGURE 18-16 Glacial
grooves on Kelly's Island in Lake
Erie.
is so common in streams discharging from glaciers that is derived from the surface over which they move and is
the water generally has a milky appearance. transported in the lower part of the ice sheet. In con-
Continental glaciers can derive sediment from moun- trast, valley glaciers carry sediment in all parts of the ice,
tains projecting through them, and windblown dust set- but it is concentrated at the base and along the margins
tles on their surfaces. Otherwise, most of their sediment (Fig. 18-17). Some of the marginal sediment is derived
by abrasion and plucking, but much of it is supplied by
mass wasting processes. The sediments carried along the
» FIGURE 18-17 Sediment is transported in all parts of
margins and center become lateral and medial moraine
deposits, respectively, as discussed later in this chapter
a valley glacier. The sediment carried along the margins is
lateral moraine; where two lateral moraines coalesce, they (Fig. 18-17).
form a medial moraine.
Erosional Landforms of Valley Glaciers
Some of the world's most inspiring scenery is produced

by valley glaciers. Many mountain ranges are scenic to
begin with, but when modified by valley glaciers, they
take on a unique aspect of jagged, angular peaks and
ridges in the midst of broad valleys (Fig. 18-18). Many
landforms resulting from valley glaciation are easily rec-
ognized. Such features enable us to appreciate the tre-
mendous erosive power of moving ice.
U-Shaped Glacial Troughs

A U-shaped glacial trough is one of the most distinctive
features of valley glaciation (Fig 18-18c). Mountain val-
leys eroded by running water are typically V-shaped in

cross section; that is, they have valley walls that descend
steeply to a narrow valley bottom (Fig. 18-18a). In con-
trast, valleys scoured by glaciers are deepened, widened,
and straightened such that they possess very steep or

U-shaped
glacial trough
•^ FIGURE 18-18 Erosional landforms produced by valley glaciers, (a) A mountain

area before glaciation. (b) The same area during the maximum extent of the valley
glaciers, (c) After glaciation.
vertical walls, but have broad, rather flat valley floors; — FIGURE 18-19 A U-shaped glacial trough in
thus, they exhibit a U-shaped profile (Fig. 18-19). northwestern Montana.
Many glacial troughs contain triangular-shaped
truncated spurs, which are cutoff or truncated ridges
that extend into the preglacial valley (Fig. 18-18c).
Another common feature is a series of steps or rock
basins in the valley floor where the glacier eroded rocks
of varying resistance; many of the basins now contain
small lakes.
During the Pleistocene, when glaciers were extensive,
sea level was about 130 m lower than at present, so
glaciers flowing into the sea eroded their valleys to much
greater depths than they do now. When the glaciers
melted at the end of the Pleistocene, sea level rose, and
the ocean filled the lower ends of the glacial troughs so
that now they are long, steep-walled embayments called
fiords (Fig. 18-20).

-^ FIGURE 18-20 Milford Sound, a fiord in New
Zealand. (Photo courtesy of George and Linda Lohse.
Fiords are restricted to high latitudes where glaciers

can be maintained even at low elevations, such as
Alaska, western Canada, Scandinavia, Greenland,
southern New Zealand, and southern Chile. Lower sea
level during the Pleistocene was not entirely responsible
for the formation of all fiords. Unlike running water,
glacierscan erode a considerable distance below sea
500 m thick can stay in contact
level. In fact, a glacier
with the sea floor and effectively erode it to a depth of

about 450 m before the buoyant effects of water cause
the glacial ice to float! The depth of some fiords is im-
"^ FIGURE 18-21 Yosemite Falls in Yosemite National
pressive; some in Norway and southern Chile are about
Park, California plunge from a hanging valley. (Photo
1,300 m deep. courtesy of Sue Monroe.)
Hanging Valleys
Although waterfalls can form in several ways, some of

Cirques, Aretes, and Horns
the world's highest and most spectacular are found in
recently glaciated areas. For example, Yosemite Falls Perhaps the most spectacular erosional landforms in ar-
in Yosemite National Park, California, plunge 435 m eas of valley glaciation occur at the upper ends of glacial
vertically, cascade down a steep slope for another 205 troughs and along the divides separating adjacent glacial
m, and then fall vertically 97 m, for a total descent of troughs. Valley glaciers form and move out from steep-
737 m (Fig. 18-21). The falls plunge from a hanging walled, bowl-shaped depressions called cirques at the
valley, which is a tributary valley whose floor is at a upper end of their troughs (Fig. 18-1 8c). Cirques are
higher level than that of the main valley. Thus, where the on three sides, but one side is
typically steep-walled
two valleys meet, the mouth of the hanging valley is open and leads into the glacial trough. Some cirques
perched far above the main valley's floor (Fig. 18-18c). slope continuously into the glacial trough, but many
Accordingly, streams flowing through hanging valleys have a lip or threshold at their lower end (Fig. 18-22).
plunge over vertical or very steep precipices. Although the details of cirque origin are not fully un-
Although not all hanging valleys form by glacial ero- derstood, they apparently form by erosion of a preex-
sion, many do. As Figure 18-18 shows, the large glacier isting depression on a mountain As snow and ice
side.
in the main valley vigorously erodes, whereas the smaller accumulate in the depression, frost wedging and plucking
glaciers in tributary valleys are less capable of large-scale enlarge it takes on the typical cirque shape. In
until it
erosion. When the glaciers disappear, the smaller tribu- cirques with a or threshold, the glacial ice apparently
lip
tary valleys remain as hanging valleys. not only moves outward but rotates as well, scouring out

a depression rimmed by rock. Such depressions com-
monly contain a small lake known as a tarn (Fig. 18-22).
Cirques become wider and are cut deeper into moun-
tain sides by headward erosion as a consequence of
abrasion, plucking, and several mass wasting processes.
For example, part of a steep cirque wall may collapse,
while frost wedging continues to pry loose other rocks
that tumble downslope. Thus, a combination of pro-
cesses can erode a small mountain side depression into a
large cirque; the largest one known is the Walcott Cir-
que in Antarctica, which is 16 km wide and 3 km deep.
The fact that cirques expand laterally and by head-
ward erosion accounts for the origin of two other dis-
tinctive erosional features, aretes and horns. Aretes—
narrow, serrated ridges — can form in two ways. In many
cases, cirques form on opposite sides of a ridge, and head-
ward erosion reduces the ridge until only a thin partition
of rock remains (Fig. 18-18c). The same effect occurs ^" FIGURE 18-22 Many cirques contain small lakes
when erosion in two parallel glacial troughs reduces the called tarns such as these on Mount Whitney in California.
intervening ridge to a thin spine of rock (Fig. 18-23).

The most majestic of all mountain peaks are horns;
these steep-walled, pyramidal peaks are formed by Excellent examples of horns include Mount Assiniboine
headward erosion of cirques. In order for a horn to in the Canadian Rockies, the Grand Teton in Wyoming
form, a mountain peak must have at least three cirques (Fig. 14-1), and the most famous of all, the Matterhorn
on its flanks, all of which erode headward (Fig. 18-18c). in Switzerland (Fig. 18-24).
—- FIGURE 18-23 The knifelike

ridges adjacent to these glaciers in
the North Cascades of Washington
are aretes.

In a large part of Canada, particularly the vast Ca-
nadian Shield region, continental glaciation has stripped
off the soil and unconsolidated surface sediment, reveal-
ing extensive exposures of striated and polished bedrock
(Fig. 18-25). Similar though smaller bedrock exposures
are also widespread in the northern United States from

Maine through Minnesota. Farther south, however, one
sees the deposits of these same glaciers.
Another consequence of erosion in these areas is the
complete disruption of drainage that has not yet become
reestablished. Thus, much of the area is characterized by
deranged drainage (Fig. 16-29e), numerous lakes and
swamps, low relief, extensive bedrock exposures, and
little or no soil. Such areas are generally referred to as
ice-scoured plains (Fig. 18-25).
^ GLACIAL DEPOSITS
All sediment deposited as a consequence of glacial ac-
tivity is called glacial drift. A vast sheet of Pleistocene-
aged glacial drift exists in the northern tier of the United
-~- FIGURE 18-24 The Matterhorn in Switzerland is a
States and adjacent parts of Canada (Fig. 18-26). Smaller
well-known horn.
accumulations of similar material are found where valley
glaciers existed orremain active. Glacial deposits in sev-
eral upper midwestern states are important sources of
Erosional Landforms of Continental Glaciers groundwater and rich soils, and in several states they are
Areas eroded by continental glaciers tend to be smooth exploited for their sand and gravel.
and rounded because such glaciers bevel and abrade Geologists generally recognize two distinct types of
high areas that projected into the ice. Rather than yield- glacial drift, till and stratified drift. Till consists of sed-
ing the sharp, angular landforms typical of valley glaci- iment deposited directly by glacial ice. It is not sorted or
produce a landscape of rather
ation, they flat, monoto- stratified; that is, its particles are not separated by size
nous topography interrupted by rounded hills. or density, and it does not exhibit any layering. Till
deposited by valley glaciers looks much like the till of

continental glaciers except that the latter's deposits are
^ FIGURE 18-25 An ice-scoured plain in the Northwest much more extensive and have generally been trans-
Territories of Canada.
much farther.
ported
Stratified drift is sorted by size and density and, as its
name implies, is layered. In fact, most of the sediments

recognized as stratified drift are braided stream depos-
its; the streams inwhich they were deposited received
their water and sediment load directly from melting gla-
cial ice.
Landforms Composed of Till
Landforms composed of till include several types of mo-

raines and elongated hills called drumlins.
End Moraines
The terminus of either a valley or a continental glacier
may become stabilized in one position for some period

"^ FIGURE 18-26 Exposure of Pleistocene-aged glacial
"•*'
FIGURE 18-27 An end moraine in the middle distance
drift near Plymouth, Massachusetts. spans the valley of the Casement Glacier in Alaska.
of time, perhaps a few years or even decades. Such sta- which continue to grow as long as the ice front is sta-
bilization of the ice front does not mean that the glacier bilized (Fig. 18-28). End moraines of valley glaciers are
has ceased flowing, only that it has a balanced budget. commonly crescent-shaped ridges of till spanning the
When an ice front is stationary, flow within the glacier valley occupied by the glacier. Those of continental gla-
continues, and the sediment transported within or upon ciers similarly parallel the ice front, but are much more
the ice is dumped as a pile of rubble at the glacier's extensive.
terminus (Fig. 18-27). Such deposits are end moraines, Following a period of stabilization, a glacier may ad-
^ FIGURE 18-28 (a) The origin of an end moraine, (b) End moraines are described
as terminal moraines or recessional moraines depending on their relative positions with
respect to the glacier that produced them.
Valley
train
(a) During glaciation

(b) After glaciation
Glacial Deposits 529

vance or retreat, depending on changes in its budget. If Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Their outermost end mo-
it advances, the ice front overrides and modifies its raines,marking the greatest extent of the glaciers, go by
former moraine. Should a negative budget occur, how- the special name terminal moraine (valley glaciers also
toward the zone of accumu-
ever, the ice front retreats deposit terminal moraines). As the glaciers retreated
As the ice front recedes, till is deposited as it is
lation. from the positions at which their terminal moraines
liberatedfrom the melting ice and forms a layer of were deposited, they temporarily ceased retreating nu-
ground moraine (Fig. 18-28b). Ground moraine has an merous times and deposited dozens of recessional mo-
irregular, rolling topography, whereas end moraine con- raines.
sists of long ridgelike accumulations of sediment.

After a glacier has retreated for some time, its termi- Lateral and Medial Moraines
nus may once again stabilize, and it will deposit another
As we previously discussed, valley glaciers transport
end moraine. Because the ice front has receded, such
considerable sediment along their margins. Much of this
moraines are called recessional moraines (Fig. 18-28b).
sediment abraded and plucked from the valley walls,
is
During the Pleistocene Epoch, continental glaciers in the
but a significant amount falls or slides onto the glacier's
mid-continent region extended as far south as southern
surface by mass wasting processes. In any case, when a
glacier melts, this sediment is deposited as long ridges of
till called lateral moraines along the margin of the gla-
"^ FIGURE 18-29 Lateral and medial moraines on a
cier (Fig. 18-29).
glacier in Alaska.
Where two lateral moraines merge, as when a tribu-
tary glacier flows into a larger glacier, a medial moraine
forms (Fig. 18-29). In fact, a large glacier often has sev-
eraldark stripes of sediment on its surface, each of
which is a medial moraine. Thus, although medial mo-
raines are identified by their position on a valley glacier,
they are, in fact, formed from the coalescence of two
lateral moraines. One can generally determine how
many tributaries a valley glacier has by the number of its
medial moraines.
Drumlins
In many areas where continental glaciers have deposited
till, the till has been reshaped into elongated hills called
drumlins. Some drumlins measure as much as 50 m high

and 1 km long, but most are much smaller. From the
side, adrumlin looks like an inverted spoon with the
steep end on the side from which the glacial ice ad-
vanced, and the gently sloping end pointing in the di-
rection of ice movement (Fig. 18-30). Thus, drumlins
can be used to determine the direction of ice movement.
Drumlins are most often found in areas of ground

moraine that were overridden by an advancing ice sheet.
Although no one has fully explained the origin of drum-
lins, it appears that they form in the zone of plastic flow
as glacial ice modifies preexisting till into streamlined

hills.Drumlins rarely occur as single, isolated hills; in-
stead they occur in drumlin fields in which hundreds or
thousands of drumlins are present. Drumlin fields are
found in several states and Ontario, Canada, but perhaps
the finest example is near Palmyra, New York.

"*" FIGURE 18-30 These elongated hills in Antrim (a)
County, Michigan are drumlins. (Photo courtesy of B. M. C.

Pape.)
Landforms Composed of Stratified Drift
As already noted, stratified drift is a type of glacial de-

posit that exhibits sorting and layering, an indication
that was deposited by running water. Stratified drift is
it
associated with both valley and continental glaciers, but

as one would expect, it is more extensive in areas of
continental glaciation.
Outwash Plains and Valley Trains
Glaciers discharge meltwater laden with sediment most

of the time, except perhaps during the coldest months.
Such meltwater forms a series of braided streams that
radiate outfrom the front of continental glaciers over a
wide region. So much sediment is supplied to these
streams that much of it is deposited within the channels
as sand and gravel bars. The vast blankets of sediments
so formed are called outwash plains (Fig. 18-3 la).
amounts of meltwater
Valley glaciers discharge huge
and, like continental glaciers, have braided streams ex-
tending from them. However, these streams are gener-
ally confined to the lower parts of glacial troughs, and
their long, narrow deposits of stratified drift are known
as valley trains (Fig. 18-31b).
Outwash plains and valley trains commonly contain
numerous circular to oval depressions, many of which
contain small lakes. These depressions are kettles; they
form when a retreating ice sheet or valley glacier leaves a
block of ice that is subsequently partly or wholly buried
(Fig. 18-32). When the ice block eventually melts, it leaves
a depression; if the depression extends below the water
Sediment-filled
depressions
End
moraine
(b)
"^ FIGURE 18-33 (a) An area of ground moraine and an

esker. (b) This small, conical hill is a kame. (Photo courtesy
of B. M. C. Pape.;
"^ FIGURE 18-32 Two stages in the origin of kettles,

kames, and eskers. (a) During glaciation. (£>) After
glaciation.
they form in tunnels beneath stagnant ice and in melt-
water channels on the surface of glaciers (Fig. 18-32).
Glacial Lake Deposits

Long sinuous ridges of stratified drift, many of which
meander and have tributaries, are called eskers (Figs. Numerous lakes exist in areas of glaciation. Some have
18-32 and 18-33a). Most eskers have sharp crests and formed consequence of glaciers scouring out de-
as a
sides that slope at about 30°. Some are quite high, as pressions; others occur where a stream's drainage was
much as 100 m, and can be traced for more than 100 blocked (see Perspective 18-1); and others are the result
km. Eskers occur most commonly in areas once covered of water accumulating behind moraines or in kettles.
by continental glaciers, but they are also associated with Regardless of how they formed, glacial lakes, like all
large valley glaciers. The sorting and stratification of the lakes, are areas of deposition. Sediment may be carried
sediments within eskers clearly indicate deposition by into them and deposited as small deltas, but of special
running water. The physical properties of ancient eskers interest are the fine-grained deposits. Mud deposits in
and observations of present-day glaciers indicate that glacial lakes are commonly finely laminated, consisting

"•" FIGURE 18-34 Glacial varves
with a dropstone.
of alternating light and dark layers. Each light-dark cou-

plet is Each varve represents
called a varve (Fig. 18-34).
^ PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION
an annual episode of deposition; the light layers form In hindsight, it is hard to believe that so many compe-
during the spring and summer and consist of silt and clay; tent naturalists of the last century were skeptical that
the dark layers form during the winter when the smallest widespread glaciers existed on the northern continents
particles of clay and organic matter settle from suspen- during the not-too-distant past. Many naturalists in-
sion as the lake freezes over. The number of varves in- voked the biblical flood to account for the large boul-
dicates how many years a glacial lake has existed. ders throughout Europe that occur far from their
Another distinctive feature of glacial lakes containing sources. Others believed that the boulders were rafted to
varved deposits is the presence of dropstones (Fig. 18- their present positions by icebergs floating in floodwa-
34). These are pieces of some of boulder size, in
gravel, ters. It was not until 1837 that the Swiss naturalist Louis
otherwise very fine-grained deposits. The presence of Agassiz argued convincingly that the displaced boulders,
varves indicates that currents and turbulence in such many coarse-grained sedimentary deposits, polished and
lakes was minimal, otherwise clay and organic matter striated bedrock, and many of the valleys of Europe
would not have settled from suspension. How then can resulted from huge ice masses moving over the land.
we account for dropstones in a low-energy environ- We know today that the Pleistocene Ice Age began
ment? Most of them were probably carried into the about 1.6 million years ago and consisted of several
lakes by icebergs that eventually melted and released intervals of glacial expansion separated by warmer in-
sediment contained in the ice. terglacial periods. At least four major episodes of Pleis-

Perspective 18-1
GLACIAL LAKE MISSOULA AND

THE CHANNELED SCABLANDS
The term scabland is used in the Pacific Northwest to interpretation based on normal stream erosion over a
describe areas from which the surface deposits have long period of time. In contrast, Bretz held that the
been scoured, thus exposing the underlying rock. Such scablands were formed rapidly during a flood of
an area exists in a large part of eastern Washington glacial meltwater that lasted only a few days.
where numerous deep and generally dry channels are The problem with Bretz's hypothesis was that he
present. Some of these channels, cut into basalt lava could not identify an adequate source for his
flows, are more than 70 m deep, and their floors are floodwater. He knew that the glaciers had advanced as
covered by gigantic "ripple marks" as much as 10 m far south asSpokane, Washington, but he could not
high and 70 to 100 m apart. Additionally, a number explain how so much ice melted so rapidly. The
of high hills in the area are arranged such that they answer to Bretz's dilemma came from western
appear to have been islands in a large braided stream. Montana where an enormous ice-dammed lake (Lake
In 1923, J Harlan Bretz proposed that the Missoula) had formed. Lake Missoula formed when
channeled scablands of eastern Washington were an advancing glacier plugged the Clark Fork Valley at
formed during a single, gigantic flood. Bretz's Ice Cork, Idaho, causing the water to fill the valleys of
unorthodox explanation was rejected by most western Montana At its highest level, Lake
(Fig. 1).
2
geologists who preferred a more traditional Missoula covered about 7,800 km and contained an
~^»" FIGURE 1 Location of glacial Lake Missoula and the channeled scablands
of eastern Washington.
Canada Glacial Lake Clark
Montana
Flathead
Lobe
Alpine
glaciers

*^~ FIGURE 2 The horizontal lines on Sentinel Mountain "^ FIGURE 3 These gravel ridges are the so-called giant
at Missoula, Montana are wave-cut shorelines of glacial ripple marks that formed when glacial Lake Missoula
Lake Missoula. drained across this area near Camas Hot Springs, Montana.
estimated 2,090 km 3 of water (about 42% of the Bretz originally believed that one massive flood
volume of present-day Lake Michigan). The shorelines formed the channeled scablands, but geologists now
of Lake Missoula are still clearly visible on the know that Lake Missoula formed, flooded, and
mountainsides around Missoula, Montana (Fig. 2). re-formed at least four times and perhaps as many as
When the ice dam impounding Lake Missoula seven times. The largest lake formed 18,000 to 20,000
failed, the water rushed out at tremendous velocity years ago, and its draining produced the last great flood.
and drained south and southwest across Idaho and How long did the flood last and did humans witness
into Washington. The maximum rate of flow is it? It has been estimated that approximately one month
estimated to have been nearly 11 million m 3

/sec, passed from the time the ice dam first broke and water
about 55 times greater than the average discharge of rushed out onto the scablands to the time the scabland
the Amazon River. When these raging floodwaters streams returned to normal flow. No one knows for sure
reached eastern Washington, they stripped away the if anyone witnessed the flood. The oldest known
soil and most of the surface sediment, carving out evidence of humans from the Marmes
in the region is
huge valleys in solid bedrock. The currents were so Man site in southeastern Washington dated at 10,130
powerful and turbulent they plucked out and moved years ago, nearly 2,000 years after the last flood from
pieces of basalt measuring 10 m across. Within the Lake Missoula. However, it is now generally accepted
channels, sand and gravel was shaped into huge that Native Americans were present in North America at
ridges, the so-called giant ripple marks (Fig. 3). least 15,000 years ago.

•^ FIGURE 18-35 (a) Standard
terminology for Pleistocene glacial
and interglacial stages in North
America, [b) A reconstruction
showing an idealized succession of
deposits and soils developed during
the glacial and interglacial stages.
Pleistocene Climates
tocene glaciation have been recognized in North Amer-
ica (Fig. 18-35), and six or seven major glacial advances As one would expect, the climatic effects responsible for
and retreats are recognized in Europe. It now appears, Pleistocene glaciation were worldwide. Contrary to
however, that at least 20 warm-cold cycles can be de- popular belief, however, the world was not as frigid as it
tected in deep-sea cores. In view of these data, the tra- is commonly portrayed in cartoons and movies. During
ditional four-part subdivision of the Pleistocene of times of glacier growth, those areas in the immediate
North America must be modified. Based on the best vicinity of the glaciers experienced short summers and
available evidence, it appears that the Pleistocene ended long, wet winters.
about 10,000 years ago. However, geologists do not Areas outside the glaciated regions experienced varied
know if the present interglacial period will persist indef- climates. During times of glacial growth, lower ocean
initely, or whether we will enter another glacial interval. temperatures reduced evaporation so that most of the
The onset of glacial conditions really began about 40 world was drier than it is today. However, some areas
million years ago when surface ocean waters at high that are arid today were much wetter. For example, since
southern latitudes suddenly cooled. By about 38 million the cold belts at high latitudes expanded, the temperate,
years ago, glaciers had formed in Antarctica, but a con- subtropical, and tropical zones were compressed toward
tinuous ice sheet did not develop there until 15 million the equator, and the rain that now falls on the Mediter-
years ago. Following a brief warming trend during the ranean shifted so that it fell on the Sahara of North Africa
Late Tertiary Period, ice sheets began forming in the enabling lush forests to grow in what is now desert. Cal-
Northern Hemisphere about 2 to 3 million years ago, ifornia and the arid southwestern United States were also
and the Pleistocene Ice Age was under way. At their wetter because a high-pressure zone over the northern ice
greatest extent, Pleistocene glaciers covered about three sheet deflected Pacific winter storms southward.
times as much of the Earth's surface as they do now and Following the Pleistocene, mild temperatures pre-
were up to 3 km thick (Fig. 18-36). Large areas of North vailed between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago. After this
America were covered by glacial ice as were Greenland, warm period, conditions gradually became cooler and
Scandinavia, Great Britain, Ireland, and a large area in moister favoring the growth of valley glaciers on the
the northern Soviet Union. Mountainous areas also ex- Northern Hemisphere continents. Careful studies of the
perienced an expansion of valley glaciers and the devel- deposits at the margins of present-day glaciers reveal
opment of ice caps. that during the last 6,000 years (a time called the Neo-

(a) (b)
"^" FIGURE 18-36 Centers of ice accumulation and maximum extent of
(a)
Pleistocene glaciation in North America, (b) Centers of ice accumulation and directions
of ice movement in Europe during the maximum extent of Pleistocene glaciation.
glaciation), glaciers expanded several times. The last ex- test, driest place in North America. During the Pleis-
pansion, which occurred between 1500 and the mid- to tocene, however, that area received enough rainfall to
late- 1800s, was the Little Ice Age (see the Prologue). maintain a lake 145 km long and 178 m deep. When the
Pluvial and Proglacial Lakes

During the Pleistocene, many of the basins in the west-
ern United States contained large lakes that formed as a
result of greater precipitation and overall cooler temper-
atures (especially during the summer), which lowered
the evaporation rate (Fig. 18-37). The largest of these
pluvial lakes, as they are called, was Lake Bonneville,
which attained a maximum size of 50,000 km and a
depth of at least 335 m (Fig. 18-37). The vast salt de-
posits of the Bonneville Salt Flats west of Salt Lake City
inUtah formed as parts of this ancient lake dried up:
Great Salt Lake is simply the remnant of this once great
lake.
Another large pluvial lake existed in Death Valley,
California (see Perspective 19-2), which is now the hot-
Arizona
"•" FIGURE 18-37 Pleistocene pluvial lakes in the western
United States.

Perspective 18-2
A BRIEF HISTORY OF
THE GREAT LAKES
Before the Pleistocene, no large lakes existed in the of the five Great Lakes basins were eroded below sea
Great Lakes region, which was then an area of level.
generally flat lowlands with broad stream valleys At their greatest extent, the glaciers covered the
draining to the north (Fig. 1). As the glaciers entire Great Lakes region and extended far to the
advanced southward, they eroded the stream valleys south (Fig. 18-36a). As the ice sheet retreated
more deeply, forming what were to become the basins northward during the late Pleistocene, the ice front
of the Great Lakes. During these glacial advances, the periodically stabilized, and numerous recessional
ice front moved forward as a series of lobes, some of moraines were deposited. By about 14,000 years ago,
which flowed into the preexisting lowlands where the parts of the Lake Michigan and Lake Erie basins were
ice became thicker and moved more rapidly. As a ice-free, and glacial meltwater began forming
consequence, the lowlands were deeply eroded— four As the retreat of the ice sheet
proglacial lakes (Fig. 2).
continued— although periodically interrupted by minor
readvances of the ice front— the Great Lakes basins
were uncovered, and the lakes expanded until they
-^ FIGURE 1 Theoretical preglacial drainage in the Great
eventually reached their present size and configuration
Lakes region. The divide separating the preglacial
Mississippi and St. Lawrence drainage basins was probably (Fig. 2). Currently, the Great Lakes contain nearly
3
near its present location. The future sites of the Great Lakes 23,000 km of water, about 18% of the water in all
are outlined by dotted lines. fresh water lakes.
Although the history of the Great Lakes just
presented is generally correct, it is oversimplified. For
instance, the areasand depths of the evolving Great
Lakes fluctuated widely in response to minor
readvances of the ice front. Furthermore, as the lakes
filled, they spilled over the lowest parts of their
margins, thus cutting outlets that partly drained them.
And finally, as the glaciers retreated northward,
isostaticrebound raised the southern patts of the
Great Lakes region, greatly altering their drainage
systems. We shall have more to say about isostatic
rebound in this region in a later section.
The present-day Great Lakes and their St.
Lawrence River drainage constitute one of the great
commercial waterways of the world. Oceangoing
vessels can sail into the interior of North America as
far west as Duluth, Minnesota. To do so, however,
lake evaporated, the dissolved salts were precipitated the other shorelines consist of moraines. Lake Agassiz,
on the valley floor; some of these evaporite deposits, named in honor of the French naturalist Louis Agassiz,
especially borax, are important mineral resources. was a large proglacial lake covering about 250,000 km'
In contrast to pluvial lakes, which form far from gla- of North Dakota and Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and On-
ciers, proglacial lakes are formed by the meltwater ac- tario, Canada. It persisted until the glacial ice along its
cumulating along the margins of glaciers. In fact, in many northern margin melted, at which time the lake was able
proglacial lakes, one shoreline is the ice front itself, while to drain northward into Hudson Bay.

^•>>^
Laurentide Ice Sheet
covered with vegetation. Indeed, a land bridge existed
across the Bering Straits from Alaska to Siberia. Native
Americans crossed the Bering land bridge, and various
animals migrated between the continents; the American
bison, for example, migrated from Asia. The British Isles
were connected to Europe during the glacial intervals
because the shallow floor of the North Sea was above
sea level. When the glaciers disappeared, these areas
were again flooded, drowning the plants and forcing the
animals to migrate farther inland.
San Francisco
Lowering of sea level during the Pleistocene also af-
fected the base level of most major streams. When sea Los Angeles
level dropped, streams downcut as they sought to adjust

to a new lower base level (see Chapter 16). Stream chan-
nels in coastal areas were extended and deepened along
the emergent continental shelves. When sea level rose at
the end of the Pleistocene, the lower ends of river valleys
along the east coast of North America were flooded and -*r FIGURE 18-38 Large parts of North America— and all
are now important harbors (see Chapter 20). other continents— would be flooded by the rise in sea level
A tremendous quantity of water is still stored on land (70 m) that would result if all the Earth's glacial ice melted.
in present-day glaciers (Fig. 16-3). If these glaciers

should completely melt, sea level would rise about 70 m,
flooding all of the coastal areas of the world where
many of the world's large population centers are located the greatest crustal depression, occurred farther north in
(Fig. 18-38). Canada in the zones of accumulation. For these reasons,
rebound has not been evenly distributed over the entire
^ GLACIERS AND ISOSTASY glaciated area: it increases in magnitude from south to

north (see Fig. 11 -25b). As a result of this uneven isos-
In Chapter 1 1 we discussed the concept of isostasy and tatic rebound, coastal features in the Great Lakes re-
noted that loading or unloading of the Earth's crust gion, such as old shorelines, are now elevated higher
causes it to respond isostatically to an increased or de- above their former levels in the north and thus slope to
creased load by subsiding and rising, respectively. There the south.
is no question that isostatic rebound has occurred in the
areas formerly covered by continental glaciers. In fact, a
number of features in such areas can be explained only
^ CAUSES OF GLACIATION
as a consequence of isostatic adjustments of the Earth's Thus far we have examined the effects of glaciation, but
crust. have not addressed the central questions of what causes
When the Pleistocene ice sheets formed and increased large-scale glaciation and why so few episodes of wide-
in size, the weight of the ice caused the crust to respond spread glaciation have occurred. For more than a cen-
by slowly subsiding deeper into the mantle. In some tury, scientists have been attempting to develop a com-
places, the Earth's surfacewas depressed as much as 300 prehensive theory explaining all aspects of ice ages, but
m below preglacial elevations. As the ice sheets disap- have not yet been completely successful. One reason for
peared, the downwarped areas gradually rebounded to their lack of success is that the climatic changes respon-
their former positions. As noted in Chapter 11, parts of sible for glaciation, the cyclic occurrence of glacial-
Scandinavia are still rebounding at a rate of about 1 m interglacial episodes,and short-term events such as the
per century (see Fig. ll-25a). Little Ice Age operate on vastly different time scales.
In Perspective 18-2 we noted that the Great Lakes Only a few periods of glaciation are recognized in the
evolved as the glaciers retreated to the north. As one geologic record, each separated from the others by long
would expect, isostatic rebound began as the ice front intervals of mild climate. Such long-term climatic
retreated north. Rebound began first in the southern changes probably result from slow geographic changes
part of the region because that area was free of ice first. related to plate tectonic activity. Moving plates can
Furthermore, the greatest loading by glaciers, and hence carry continents to high latitudes where glaciers can ex-

— FIGURE 18-39 {a) The Earth's orbit varies from
nearly a circle (dashed line) to an ellipse (solid line) and
back again in about 100,000 years, [b) The Earth moves
around its orbit while spinning about its axis, which is tilted
to the plane of the ecliptic at 23.5° and points toward the
North Star. The Earth's axis of rotation slowly moves and
traces out the path of a cone in space, (c) At present, the
Earth is closest to the Sun in January when the Northern
Hemisphere experiences winter, (d) In about 11,000 years,
as a result of precession, the Earth will be closer to the Sun
in July, when summer occurs in the Northern Hemisphere.
ist, provided that they receive enough precipitation as

snow. Plate collisions, the subsequent uplift of vast areas (a)
far above sea and the changing atmospheric and

level,
Axis in approximately
oceanic circulation patterns caused by the changing 1 1 ,000 years
shapes and positions of plates also contribute to long-
term climatic change.
Intermediate-term climatic events, such as the glacial-
occur on time
interglacial episodes of the Pleistocene,
scales of tens to hundreds of thousands of years. The
cyclic nature of this most recent episode of glaciation
has long been a problem in formulating a comprehen-
sive theory of climatic change.
The Milankovitch Theory

A particularly interesting hypothesis for intermediate-
term climatic events was put forth by the Yugoslavian
astronomer Milutin Milankovitch during the 1920s. He
proposed that minor irregularities in the Earth's rota-
tion and orbit are sufficient to alter the amount of solar
(b)
radiation that the Earth receives at any given latitude
and hence can affect climatic changes. Now called the Conditions now
Milankovitch theory, it was initially ignored, but has
received renewed interest during the last 20 years.
January
Milankovitch attributed the onset of the Pleistocene
Ice Age to variations in three parameters of the Earth's
orbit (Fig. 18-39). The first of these is orbital eccentricity,
(c)
which is the degree to which the orbit departs from a
perfect circle. Calculations indicate a roughly 100,000- Conditions in about 1 1.000 years
year cycle between times of maximum eccentricity. This
corresponds closely to 20 warm-cold climatic cycles that
) July January i
occurred during the Pleistocene. The second parameter is

the angle between the Earth's axis and a line perpendic-
ular to the plane of the ecliptic (Fig. 18-39). This angle (d)
about 1.5° from its current value of 23.5° during a

shifts
41,000-year cycle. The third parameter is the precession
of the equinoxes, which causes the position of the equi- amount of solar heat received at any latitude to vary
noxes and solstices to shift slowly around the Earth's slightly over time. The total heat received by the planet,
elliptical orbit in a 23,000-year cycle (Fig. 18-39). however, remains little changed. Milankovitch proposed,
Continuous changes in these three parameters cause the and now many scientists agree, that the interaction of these
Causes of Glaciation 541

three parameters provides the triggering mechanism for space. Records kept over the past 75 years, however, in-
the glacial-interglacial episodes of the Pleistocene. dicate that during this time the amount of solar radiation
has varied only slightly. Thus, although variations in solar
energy may influence short-term climatic events, such a
Short-Term Climatic Events
correlation has not been demonstrated.
Climatic events having durations of several centuries, During large volcanic eruptions, tremendous amounts
such as the Age, are too short to be accounted
Little Ice of ash and gases are spewed into the atmosphere where
for by plate tectonics or Milankovitch cycles. Several they reflect incoming solar radiation and thus reduce at-
hypotheses have been proposed, including variations in mospheric temperatures. Recall from Perspective 4-2
solar energy and volcanism. that small droplets of sulfur gases remain in the atmo-
Variations in solar energy could result from changes sphere for years and can have a significant effect on the
within the Sun itself or from anything that would reduce climate. Several such large-scale volcanic events have
the amount of energy the Earth receives from the Sun. The been recorded, such as the 1815 eruption of Tambora,
latter could result from the solar system passing through and are known to have had climatic effects. However, no
clouds of interstellar dust and gas or from substances in relationship between periods of volcanic activity and pe-
the Earth's atmosphere reflecting solar radiation back into riods of glaciation has yet been established.
^ CHAPTER SUMMARY hanging valleys are also products of valley

glaciation.
1. Glaciers are masses of ice on land that move by 9. Continental glaciers abrade and bevel high areas,
plastic flow and basal slip. Glaciers currently cover producing a smooth, rounded landscape.
about 10% of the land surface and contain 2% of 10. Depositional landforms include moraines, which are
all water on Earth. ridgelike accumulations of till. Several types of
2. Valley glaciers are confined to mountain valleys and moraines are recognized, including terminal,
flow from higher to lower elevations, whereas recessional, lateral, and medial moraines.
continental glaciers cover vast areas and flow 11. Drumlins are composed of till that was apparently
outward in all directions from a zone of reshaped into streamlined hills by continental
accumulation. glaciers.
3. A glacierforms when winter snowfall in an area 12. Stratified drift consists of sediments deposited in or
exceeds summer melt and therefore accumulates year by meltwater streams issuing from glaciers; it is
after year. Snow is compacted and converted to found in outwash plains and valley trains. Ridges
glacial ice, and when the ice is about 40 m thick, called eskers and conical hills called kames are also
pressure causes it to flow. composed of stratified drift.
4. The behavior of a glacier depends on its budget, 13. During the Pleistocene Epoch, glaciers covered about
which is the relationship between accumulation and 30% of the land surface. Several intervals of
wastage. If a glacier possesses a balanced budget, its widespread glaciation, separated by interglacial
terminus remains stationary; a positive or negative North America. The other
periods, occurred in
budget results in advance or retreat of the terminus, Northern Hemisphere continents were also affected
respectively. by widespread Pleistocene glaciation.
5. Glaciers move at varying rates depending on the 14. Areas far beyond the ice were affected by Pleistocene
slope, discharge, and season. Valley glaciers tend to glaciation; climate belts were compressed toward the
flow more rapidly than continental glaciers. equator, large pluvial lakes existed in what are now
6. Glaciers are powerful agents of erosion and arid regions, and sea level was as much as 130 m
transport because they are solids in motion. They lower than at present.
are particularly effective at eroding soil and 15. Loading of the Earth's crust by Pleistocene glaciers
unconsolidated sediment, and they can transport any caused isostatic subsidence. When the glaciers
size sediment supplied to them. disappeared, isostatic rebound began and continues
7. Continental glaciers transport most of their sediment in some areas.
in the lower part of the ice, whereas valley glaciers 16. Major glacial intervals separated by tens or
may carry sediment in all parts of the ice. hundreds of millions of years probably occur as a
8. Erosion of mountains by valley glaciers yields several consequence of the changing positions of tectonic
sharp, angular landforms including cirques, aretes, plates, which in turn cause changes in oceanic and
and horns. U-shaped glacial troughs, fiords, and atmospheric circulation patterns.

17. Currently, the Milankovitch theory is widely 6. Rocks abraded by glaciers may develop a smooth
accepted as the explanation for glacial-interglacial surface that shines in reflected light. Such a surface
intervals. is called glacial:
18. The reasons for short-term climatic changes, such as a. grooves; b. polish; c. flour;
the Little Ice Age, are not understood. Two d. striations; e. till.
proposed causes for such events are changes in the 7. A small lake in a cirque is a:
amount of solar energy received by the Earth and a. pluvial lake; b. proglacial lake;
volcanism. c. tarn; d. salt lake; e. glacial trough
lake.
8. The most recent ice age occurred during the:
IMPORTANT TERMS a Archean Eon; b. Pleistocene Epoch;
c. Mesozoic Era; d. Cambrian Period;
abrasion glacier e. Tertiary Period.
arete ground moraine 9. Firn is:
basal slip hanging valley a. freshly fallen snow; b. a granular type of

cirque horn ice; c. a valley train; d. another name for
continental glacier lateral moraine the zone of wastage; e. a type of glacial groove.
drumlin medial moraine 10. Pressure on ice at depth in a glacier causes it to
end moraine Milankovitch theory move by:
esker outwash plain a. rock creep; b. fracture; c. basal slip;
fiord plastic flow d. surging; e. plastic flow.
firn recessional moraine 11. A pyramid-shaped peak formed by glacial erosion
firn limit stratified drift is a:
glacial budget terminal moraine a. fiord; b. medial moraine; c. horn;

glacial drift till d. cirque;hanging valley.
e.
glacial erratic U-shaped glacial trough 12. Glacial drift is a general term for:
glacial groove valley glacier a the erosional landforms of continental
glacial ice valley train glaciers; b. all the deposits of glaciers;
glacial polish zone of accumulation c. icebergs floating at sea; d. the movement
glacial striation zone of wastage of glaciers by plastic flow and basal slip; e. the
annual wastage rate of a glacier.
13. The number of medial moraines on a glacier
^ REVIEW QUESTIONS generally indicates the number of its
a. tributary glaciers; b. terminal moraines;

1. Crevasses in glaciers extend down to: c. eskers; d. outwash plains; e. valley
a about 300 m; b. the base of the glacier; trains.
c. the zone of plastic flow; d. variable 14. A knifelike ridge separating glaciers in adjacent
depths depending on how thick the ice is; e. the valleys is a(an):
outwash layer. a. fiord; b. horn; c. arete; d. cirque;
2. If a glacier has a negative budget: e. lateral moraine.
a. the terminus will retreat; b. its 15. Which of the following is a glacial erratic?
accumulation rate is greater than its wastage rate; a. deposit of unsorted, unstratified till;
c. all flow ceases; d the glacier's length b. glacially transported boulder far from its
increases; e. crevasses will no longer form. source; c. sand and gravel deposited in a
3. The bowl-shaped depression at the upper end of a depression on a glacier; d. U-shaped glacial
glacial trough is a(an): trough; e. deposits consisting of light and dark

a. inselberg; b. cirque; c. lateral layers.
moraine; d. drumlin; e. till. 16. How does glacial ice form, and why is it considered
4. Which of the following is not an erosional to be a rock?
landform? 17. Other than size, how do valley glaciers differ from
a horn; b arete; c lateral moraine; continental glaciers?
d. U-shaped glacial trough; e roche 18. What is the relative importance of plastic flow and
moutonnee. basal slip for glaciers at high and low latitudes?
5. Headward erosion of a group of cirques on the 19. Explain in terms of the glacial budget how a once
flanks of a mountain may produce a(an): active glacier becomes a stagnant glacier.
a. tarn; b. varve; c. drumlin; 20. What is a glacial surge and what are the probable
d. kettle; e horn. causes of surges?

21. Explain how glaciers erode by abrasion and ADDITIONAL READINGS
plucking.
Broecker, W. and G. H. Denton. 1990. What drives glacial
S.,
22. Why are glaciers more effective agents of erosion
cycles? Scientific American 262, no. 1: 49-56.
and transport than running water?
Carozzi, A. V. 1984. Glaciology and the ice age. Journal of
23. Describe the processes responsible for the origin of a
Geological Education 32: 158-70.
cirque, U-shaped glacial trough, and hanging valley.
Covey, C. 1984. The Earth's orbit and the ice ages. Scientific
24. What is an arete and how does one form? American 250, no. 2: 58-66.
25. How do the erosional landforms of continental Drewry, D. J. 1986. Glacial geologic processes. London:
glaciers differ from those of valley glaciers? Edward Arnold.
26. Discuss the processes whereby terminal, recessional, Grove, J. M. 1988. The Little Ice Age. London: Methuen.
and lateral moraines form. Imbrie, J., and K. P. Imbrie. 1979. Ice ages: Solving the mystery.
27. How does a medial moraine form, and how can one New Jersey: Enslow Press.
determine the number of tributaries a valley glacier John, B. S. 1977. The ice age: Past and present. London:
Collins.
has by its medial moraines?
1979. The winters of the world. London: David &
28. Describe drumlins, and explain how they form.
.
Charles.
29. What outwash plains and valley trains?
are
Kurten, B. 1988. Before the Indians. New York: Columbia
30. In a roadside outcrop, you observe a deposit of University Press.
alternating light and dark laminated mud containing McClean, D. M. 1978. A terminal Mesozoic "greenhouse" —
a few large boulders. Explain the sequence of events lessons from the past. Science 201: 401-406.
responsible for its deposition. Schneider, S. H. 1990. Global warming: Are we entering the
31. How do pluvial lakes differ from proglacial lakes? greenhouse century? San Francisco, Calif.: Sierra Club Books.
Give an example of each of these types of lakes. Sharp, R. P. 1988. Living ice: Understanding glaciers and
glaciation. New York: Cambridge University Press.
32 We can be sure that the ancient shorelines of the
Williams, R. S., Jr. 1983. Glaciers: Clues to future climate?
Great Lakes were horizontal when they were
United States Geological Survey.
formed, yet now they are not only elevated above
Wright, A. E., and F. Moseley, eds. 1975. Ice ages: Ancient and
their former level but they also tilt toward the south.
modern. Liverpool, Great Britain: Seel House Press.
How can you account for these observations?

CHAPTER 19
THE WORK OF
WIND AND DESERTS
* OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT BY WIND
Bed Load
Suspended Load
WIND EROSION
Abrasion
Deflation
^f Perspective 19-1: Evidence of Wind
Activity on Mars
WIND DEPOSITS
The Formation and Migration of Dunes
Dune Types
Loess
AIR PRESSURE BELTSAND GLOBAL
WIND PATTERNS
THE DISTRIBUTION OF DESERTS
CHARACTERISTICS OF DESERTS
Temperature, Precipitation, and Vegetation
"^Perspective 19-2: Death Valley National
Monument
Weathering and Soils
Mass Wasting, Streams, and Groundwater

Wind
DESERT LANDFORMS
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Racetrack Playa, Death Valley, California, is
famous for its "sliding rocks." Geologists

believe that strong winds push the rocks
across a lake's exposed wet, slippery bed
after a rainstorm. This limestone block was
moved 24 m by the wind.
PROLOGUE fringe areas include large regions in several parts of
the world (Fig. 19-1).
While natural processes such as climatic change
During the last few decades, deserts result in gradual expansion and contraction of desert
have been advancing across millions of regions, much recent desertification has been greatly
acres of productive land, destroying rangelands, accelerated by human activities. In many areas, the
croplands, and even villages. Such expansion, natural vegetation has been cleared as crop cultivation
2
estimated at 70,000 km per year, has exacted a has expanded into increasingly drier fringes to support
terrible toll in human Because of the
suffering. the growing population. Because these areas are
relentless advance of deserts, hundreds of thousands especially prone to droughts, crop failures are
of people have died of starvation or been forced to common occurrences, leaving the land bare and
migrate as "environmental refugees" from their susceptible to increased wind and water erosion.
homelands to camps where the majority are severely Because grasses constitute the dominant natural
malnourished. This expansion of deserts into formerly vegetation in most fringe areas, raising livestock is a
productive lands is called desertification. common economic activity. Usually, these areas
Most regions undergoing desertification lie along achieve a natural balance between vegetation and
the margins of existing deserts. These margins have a livestock as nomadic herders graze their animals on
delicately balanced ecosystem that serves as a buffer the available grasses. In many fringe areas, however,
between the desert on one side and a more humid livestocknumbers have been greatly increasing in recent
environment on the other. Their potential to adjust to years,and they now far exceed the land's capacity to
increasing environmental pressures from natural support them. As a result, the vegetation cover that
causes or human activity is limited. Currently, such protects the soil has diminished, causing the soil to
"^" FIGURE 19-1 Desert areas of the world and areas threatened by desertification.
Prologue 547
-*" FIGURE 19-2 A sharp line
marks the boundary between
pasture and an encroaching dune in
Niger, Africa. As the goats eat the
remaining bushes, the dune will
continue to advance, and more land
will be lost to desertification.
crumble. This leads to further drying of the soil and desertification because important nutrients in the dung
accelerated soil erosion by wind and water (Fig. 19-2). are not returned to the soil.
Drilling water wells also contributes to Desertification captured the world's attention
desertification because human and livestock activity during the Sahelian drought of 1968-1973 when
around a well site strips away the vegetation. With its nearly 250,000 people and 3.5 million cattle died of
vegetation gone, the topsoil blows away, and the starvation. The Sahel averages between 10 and 60 cm
resultant bare areas merge with the surrounding of rainfall per year, 90% of which evaporates when it
desert. In addition, the water used for irrigation from falls. Because drought is common in the Sahel, the
these wells sometimes contributes to desertification by region can support only a limited population of
increasing the salt content of the soil. As the water livestock and humans. Traditionally, herders and
evaporates, a small amount of salt is deposited in the livestock existed in a natural balance with the
soil and is it would be in an area
not flushed out as vegetation, following the rains north during the rainy
that receivesmore rain. Over time, the salt season and returning south to greener rangeland
concentration becomes so high that plants can no during the dry seasons. Some areas were alternately
longer grow. Desertification resulting from soil planted and left fallow to help regenerate the soil.
salinization is a major problem in North Africa, the During fallow periods, livestock fed off the stubble of
Middle East, southwest Asia, and the western United the previous year's planting, and their dung helped
States. fertilize the soil.
Collecting firewood for heating and cooking is With the emergence of new nations and increased
another major cause of desertification, particularly in foreign aid to the Sahel during the 1950s and 1960s,
many less-developed countries where wood is the nomads and their herds were restricted, and large
major fuel source. In the Sahel of Africa (a belt 300 to areas of grazing land were converted to cash crops
1,100 km wide that lies south of the Sahara), the such as peanuts and cotton that have a short growing
expanding population has completely removed all season. Expanding human and animal populations
trees and shrubs in the areas surrounding many towns and more intensive agriculture put increasing demands
and cities. Journeys of several days on foot to collect on the land until the worst drought of the century
firewood are common there. The use of dried animal brought untold misery to the people of the Sahel.
dung to supplement firewood has exacerbated Without rains, the crops failed and the livestock
548 Chapter 19 The Work of Wind and Deserts

denuded the land of what little vegetation remained. delicate equilibrium of ecosystems in such regions.
As a result, the adjacent Sahara expanded southward Once the fragile soil cover has been removed by
as much as 150 km. erosion, it will take centuries for new soil to form (see
The tragedy of the Sahel and prolonged droughts in Chapter 6).
other desert fringe areas serve to remind us of the
3t3t3Eg3K^Tg^^rym^Cg^^ TE. TE. Tfc. **. «.«». VI

» INTRODUCTION The wind starts sand
bed. Saltation also occurs on land.
grains rolling and and carries some grains short
lifts
Most people associate the work of wind with deserts.
distances before they fall back to the surface. As the
Wind is an effective geologic agent in desert regions, but
descending sand grains hit the surface, they strike other
it also plays an important role wherever loose sediment
grains causing them to bounce along by saltation (Fig.
can be eroded, transported, and deposited, such as along
19-3). Wind tunnel experiments have shown that once
shorelines or the plains (see the Prologue to Chapter 6).
sand grains begin moving, they will continue to move,
Therefore, we will first consider the work of wind in
even if the wind drops below the speed necessary to start
general and then will turn to the distribution, charac-
them moving! This happens because once saltation be-
teristics, and landforms of deserts.
gins, it sets off a chain reaction of collisions between
grains that keeps the sand grains in constant motion.
^ SEDIMENT TRANSPORT BY WIND Saltating sand usually moves near the surface, and
even when winds are strong, grains are rarely lifted
Wind is and therefore transports sedi-
a turbulent fluid
higher than about a meter. If the winds are very strong,
ment in much the same way as running water. Although
these wind-whipped grains can cause extensive abrasion
wind typically flows at a greater velocity than water, it
(Fig. 19-4). A car's paint can be removed by sandblast-
has a lower density and, thus, can carry only clay- and
ing in a short time, and its windshield will become com-
silt-size particles as suspended load. Sand and larger
pletely frosted and translucent from pitting.
particles are moved along the ground as bed load.
Particles larger than sand can also be moved along the
ground by the process of surface creep. This type of move-
Bed Load ment occurs when saltating sand grains strike the larger
particles and push them forward along the ground.
Sediments too large or heavy to be carried in suspension
by water or wind are moved as bed load either by sal-
tation or by rolling and sliding. As we discussed in Chap- "• r FIGURE The effects of wind abrasion can be
19-4
ter 16, saltation is the process by which a portion of the Dunes National Recreation Area,
seen on this bottle at
bed load moves by intermittent bouncing along a stream Florence, Oregon. The glass is frosted as a result of pitting
by windblown sand.
"^ FIGURE 19-3 is moved near the ground

Most sand
surface by saltation.Sand grains are picked up by the wind
and carried a short distance before falling back to the
ground where they usually hit other grains, causing them to
bounce and move in the direction of the wind.
Sediment Transport by Wind 549

— FIGURE 19-5 A dust storm in
Death Valley, California.
Suspended Load
originated in the Sahara of Africa has been collected on
Silt-and clay-sized particles constitute most of a wind's the Caribbean island of Barbados.
suspended load. Even though these particles are much
smaller and lighter than sand-sized particles, wind usu-
ally starts the latter moving first. The reason for this
^ WIND EROSION
phenomenon is that a very thin layer of motionless air Recall that streams and glaciers are effective agents of
lies next to the ground where the small silt and clay erosion, much more so than wind. Even in deserts, where
particles remain undisturbed. The larger sand grains, wind is most effective, running water is still responsible
however, stick up into the turbulent air zone where they for most erosional landforms, although stream channels
can be moved. Unless the stationary air layer is dis- are typically dry (Fig. 16-4). Nevertheless, wind action
rupted, the silt and clay particles remain on the ground can still produce many distinctive erosional features and
providing a smooth surface. This phenomenon can be is an extremely efficient sorting agent.
observed on a road on a windy day. Unless a vehicle

dirt
travels over the road, little dust is raised even though it
Abrasion
is windy. When a vehicle moves over the road, it breaks
the calm boundary layer of air and disturbs the smooth Wind erodes material in two ways: abrasion and defla-
layer of dust,which is picked up by the wind and forms tion. Abrasion involves the impact of saltating sand
a dust cloud in the vehicle's wake. grains on an object and is analogous to sandblasting
In a similar manner, when a sediment layer is dis- (Fig. 19-4). The effects of abrasion, however, are usually
turbed, silt- and clay-sized particles are easily picked up minor because sand, the most common agent of abra-
and carried in suspension by the wind, creating clouds sion, is rarely carried more than 1 m above the surface.
of dust or even dust storms (Fig. 19-5). Once these fine Rather than creating major erosional features, wind
particles are lifted into the atmosphere, they may be abrasion merely modifies existing features by etching,
carried thousands of kilometers from their source. For pitting, smoothing, or polishing. Thus, wind abrasion is
example, large quantities of fine dust from the south- most effective on soft sedimentary rocks.
western United States were blown eastward and fell on Ventifacts are a common product of wind abrasion;
New England during the Dust Bowl of the 1930s (see these are stones whose surfaces have been polished, pit-
the Prologue to Chapter 6). In addition, fine dust that ted, grooved, or faceted by the wind (Fig. 19-6). If the

-^ <££> -^ ^^
(a)
"^ FIGURE 19-6 (a) A ventifact forms when wind-borne

particles (1) abrade the surface of a rock (2) forming a flat
surface. If the rock is moved, (3) additional flat surfaces are
formed, (b) A granite ventifact in the dune corridor along
the Michigan shore, Lake Michigan. (Photo courtesy of
Marion A. Whitney.)
wind blows from different directions, or if the stone is

moved, the ventifact will have multiple facets. Ventifacts
are most common in deserts, yet they can also form
wherever stones are exposed to saltating sand grains, as
on beaches in humid regions and some outwash plains
in New England.
Yardangs are larger features than ventifacts and also
result from wind erosion (Fig. 19-7). They are elongated
and streamlined ridges that look like an overturned
ship's hull. They are typically found grouped in clusters
(b)
aligned parallel to the prevailing winds. They probably
form by differential erosion in which depressions, par-

^ FIGURE 19-7 Profile view of a streamlined yardang in allel to the direction of wind, are carved out of a rock
the Roman playa deposits of the Kharga Depression, Egypt.
body, leaving sharp, elongated ridges. These ridges may
(Photo courtesy of Marion A. Whitney.)
then be further modified by wind abrasion into their
Although yardangs are fairly com-
characteristic shape.
mon them was renewed when
desert features, interest in
images radioed back from Mars showed that they are
also widespread features on the Martian surface (see
Perspective 19-1).
Deflation
Another important mechanism of wind erosion is deflation,

which is the removal of loose surface sediment by the wind.
Among the characteristic features of deflation in many
arid and semiarid regions are deflation hollows (also
called blowouts). These shallow depressions of variable
dimensions result from differential erosion of surface ma-
Wind Erosion 551

~*ir FIGURE 3 Large dune fields surrounding the north
polar ice cap are testimony to the incessant wind action
occurring on Mars.
'
.'.J**'
particles have been discovered surrounding the north
polar ice cap (Fig. 3). The origin of these dunes is still
controversial. Geologists think thatmost of the debris

-^FIGURE 2 A planetary dust storm obscured Mariner
9's view of the Martian surface for the first few weeks after on the northern plains and the dunes themselves
it went into orbit around Mars in 1971. consist of material eroded from the polar deposits.
When the deposits of dust-sized particles were
removed by the wind, the sand-sized particles were
left behind and were transported by saltation to form
dunes.
clay that are deposited over large areas downwind and

commonly far from their source.
The Formation and Migration of Dunes

The most characteristic features associated with sand-
covered regions are dunes, which are mounds or ridges
of wind-deposited sand. Dunes form when the wind
must flow over and around an obstruction. This results
*» FIGURE 19-8 A deflation hollow in Death Valley,

California.
Wind Deposits 553

Desert pavement
ends)
(deflation
res i1^"5ê» *o "o <=>„'"5=£» ^r^ 5
2k* <•• x7 "% <2k*<»*^
^ FIGURE 19-9 (a) Desert pavement forms when
deflation removes fine-grained material from the ground

surface leaving behind larger-sized particles, (b) As deflation
continues and more material is removed, the larger particles
are concentrated and form a desert pavement, which
protects the underlying material from additional deflation.
(c) Desert pavement in the Mojave Desert, California.
Several ventifacts can also be seen in the lower left of the

photograph. (Photo courtesy of David J. Matty.)
and force it to deposit

ers that reduce the wind's velocity
any sand it carries.
Most dunes have an asymmetrical profile, with a gen-
tle windward slope and a steeper downwind or leeward
slope that is inclined in the direction of the prevailing

wind (Fig. 19-1 la). Sand grains move up the gentle
windward slope by saltation and accumulate on the lee-
ward side forming an angle between 30° and 34° from
the horizontal, which is the angle of repose of dry sand.
When this angle is exceeded by accumulating sand, the
slope collapses, and the sand slides down the leeward
slope, coming to rest at its base. Over time, as sand
moves from a dune's windward side and periodically
slides down its leeward slope, the dune slowly migrates
in the prevailing wind direction (Fig. 19-1 lb). When
preserved in the rock record, dunes help geologists de-
termine the prevailing direction of ancient winds (Fig.
19-12). The expansion of deserts, in part by migrating

dunes, is a major problem because it is destroying mil-
lions of acres of agricultural land (see the Prologue).
in two zones of quiet air, called wind shadows, that
form immediately in front of and behind the obstruction
Dune Types
(Fig. 19-10). As saltating sand grains settle in these wind
shadows, they begin to accumulate and build up a de- Four major dune types are generally recognized {barchan,
posit of sand. As they grow, these sand deposits become longitudinal, transverse, and parabolic), although interme-
self-generating in that they form ever-larger wind barri- diate forms between the major types also exist. The size,

Wind
Aerial view
(a)
Profile view Direction of

dune migration
(a)
(b)
"^ FIGURE 19-11 (a) Profile view of a sand dune.

(b) Dunes migrate when sand moves up the windward side
and slides down the leeward slope. Such movement of the
sand grains produces a series of inclined beds that slope in
Aerial view
the direction of wind movement.
Longitudinal dunes (also called seif dunes) are long,

Profile view parallel ridges of sand aligned generally parallel to the
(b)
direction of the prevailing winds; they form where the
mr FIGURE 19-10 (a) When wind flows around an
obstacle, two wind shadows form, one in front of the
obstacle and the other behind it. Sand accumulates in both
of these wind shadows, (b) The accumulating sand forms a "^ FIGURE 19-12 Cross-bedding in this sandstone in
mound that may develop into a dune.
Zion National Park, Utah, helps geologists determine the
prevailing direction of wind that formed these ancient sand
dunes.
shape, and arrangement of dunes result from the interac-

tion of many factors, including sand supply, the direction
and velocity of the prevailing wind, and the amount of
vegetation. While dunes are usually found in deserts, they
can also occur wherever there is an abundance of sand
such as along the upper parts of many beaches.
Barchan dunes are crescent-shaped dunes whose tips
point downwind (Fig. 19-13). They form in areas where
there is a generally flat, dry surface with little vegetation,
a limited supply of sand, and a nearly constant wind
direction. Most barchans are small, with the largest
reaching about 30 m Barchans are the most
in height.
mobile of the major dune types, moving at rates that can
exceed 10 m
per year.
Wind Deposits 555

(b) (b)
""*' FIGURE 19-13 {a) Barchan dunes form where there is ""•*" FIGURE 19-14 (a) Longitudinal dunes form long,
a limited amount of sand, a nearly constant wind direction, parallel ridges of sand aligned roughly parallel to the
and a generally flat, dry surface with little vegetation. The prevailing wind direction. They typically form where sand
tips ofbarchan dunes point downwind, (b) Several barchan supplies are limited, (b) Aerial view of the great seif dune
dunes west of the Salton Sea, California. field near Glamis, southern California.
sand supply is somewhat limited (Fig. 19-14). Longitu- the dune field where there is less sand. Such intermediate-
dinal dunes result when winds converge from slightly form dunes are known as barchanoid dunes (Fig. 19-16).
different directions to produce the prevailing wind. Parabolic dunes are most common in coastal areas
They range in size from about 3 m to more than 100 m with abundant sand, strong onshore winds, and a partial
high,and some stretch for more than 100 km. These cover of vegetation (Fig. 19-17). Although parabolic
dunes are especially well developed in central Australia, dunes have a crescent shape like barchan dunes, their tips
where they cover nearly one-fourth of the continent. point upwind. Parabolic dunes form when the vegetation
They also cover extensive areas in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, cover is broken and deflation produces a blowout. As the
and Iran. wind transports the sand out of the depression, it builds
Transverse dunes form long ridges perpendicular to up on the convex downwind dune crest. The central part
the prevailing wind direction in areas where abundant of the dune is excavated by the wind, while vegetation
sand is available and little or no vegetation exists (Fig. holds the ends and sides fairly well in place.
19-15). When viewed from the air, transverse dunes
have a wavelike appearance with crests and troughs and
Loess
are therefore sometimes called sand seas. The crests of
transverse dunes can be as high as 200 m, and the dunes Windblown silt and clay deposits composed of angular
may be as much as 3 km wide. Some transverse dunes quartz grains, feldspar, micas, and calcite are known as
develop a clearly distinguishable barchan form and may loess. The distribution of loess shows that it is derived
separate into individual barchan dunes along the edges of from three main sources: deserts, Pleistocene glacial out-

central Asia are the source for this loess.
Other important
loess deposits are on the North European Plain from Bel-
gium eastward to the Ukraine, Central Asia, and the
Pampas of Argentina. In the United States, they occur in
the Great Plains, the Midwest, the Mississippi River Val-
ley, and eastern Washington (see Perspective 18-1).
"•" FIGURE 19-16 Barchanoid dunes at White Sands

National Monument, New Mexico.
(b)
-^ FIGURE 19-15 (a) Transverse dunes form long ridges

of sand that are perpendicular to the prevailing wind
direction in areas of or no vegetation and abundant
little
sand, (b) Aerial view of transverse dunes, Great Sand Dunes

National Monument, Colorado.
wash deposits, and the floodplains of rivers in semiarid

regions. It must be stabilized by moisture and vegetation
in order to accumulate. Consequently, loess is not found
in deserts, even though they provide much of its mate-
rial. Because of its unconsolidated nature, loess is easily
eroded, and as a result, eroded loess areas are charac-
terized by steep cliffs and rapid lateral and headward
stream erosion (Fig. 19-18).
At present, loess deposits cover approximately 10% of
the Earth's land surface and 30% of the United States
(Fig. 19-19). The most extensive and thickest loess de-
posits occur in northeast China where accumulations
greater than 30 m are common. The extensive deserts in
Wind Deposits 557

— FIGURE 19-17 (a) Parabolic
dunes typically form in coastal areas
where there is a partial cover of
vegetation, a strong onshore wind,
and abundant sand, (b) Parabolic
dune developed along the Lake
Michigan shoreline, west of St.
Ignace, Michigan.
Loess-derived soils are some of the world's most fer- Earth's atmospheric circulation patterns. Air pressure is
tile. It is therefore not surprising that the world's major the density of air exerted on its surroundings (that is, its
grain-producing regions correspond to the distribution weight). When air is heated,it expands and rises, reduc-
of large loess deposits such as the North European Plain, ing its mass for a given volume and causing a decrease in
the Ukraine, and the Great Plains of the United States. air pressure. Conversely, when air is cooled, it contracts
and air pressure increases. Therefore, those areas of the
^ AIR PRESSURE BELTS AND Earth's surface that receive the

such as the equatorial regions, have low air pressure,
most solar radiation,
GLOBAL WIND PATTERNS while the colder areas, such as the polar regions, have
To understand the work of wind and the distribution of high air pressure.
deserts, we need to consider the global pattern of air Air flows from high-pressure zones to low-pressure
pressure belts and winds, which are responsible for the zones. If the Earth did not rotate, winds would move in

^ FIGURE 19-18 These steep banks along the Yukon
River, Yukon Territory,Canada are formed of loess.
a straight line from one zone to another. Because the

Earth rotates, however, winds are deflected to the right
of their direction of motion (clockwise) in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left of their direction of motion
(counterclockwise) in the Southern Hemisphere. Such a
deflection of air between latitudinal zones resulting from
the Earth's rotation is known as the Coriolis effect.
Therefore, the combination of latitudinal pressure dif-
ferences and the Coriolis effect produces a worldwide
pattern of east- west-oriented wind belts (Fig. 19-20).
The Earth's equatorial zone receives the most solar
energy, which heats the surface air, causing it to rise. As conditions for the formation of the low-latitude deserts
the air rises, it cools and releases moisture that falls as of the Northern and Southern hemispheres (Fig. 19-21).
rain in the equatorial region (Fig. 19-20). The rising air
is now much drier as it moves northward and south-
ward toward each pole. By the time it reaches 20° to 30°

^ THE DISTRIBUTION OF DESERTS
north and south latitude, the air has become cooler and Dry climates occur in the low and middle latitudes. In
denser and begins to descend. Compression of the at- these climates, the potential loss of water by evapora-
mosphere warms the descending air mass and produces tion exceeds the yearly precipitation (Fig. 19-21). Dry
a warm, dry, high-pressure area, providing the perfect climates cover 30% of the Earth's land surface and are
FIGURE 19-19 The distribution of the Earth's major loess-covered areas.
3000 Km/ New Zealand
The Distribution of Deserts 559

Subsiding air
'J c Polar easterlies
Westerlies
Southeast
trade winds
Westerlies
Polar easterlies
FIGURE 19-20 The general circulation of the Earth's atmosphere.
subdivided into semiarid and arid regions. Semiarid re- bian Desert in the Middle East, along with the majority
gions receive more precipitation than arid regions, yet of Pakistan and western India form the largest essen-
are moderately dry. Their soils are usually well devel- tially unbroken desert environment in the Northern
oped and fertile and support a natural grass cover. Arid Hemisphere. More than 40% of Australia is desert, and
regions, generally described as deserts, are very dry; they most of the rest is semiarid. It is no wonder that it is
receive less than 25 cm of rain per year, typically have called the "desert continent" (Fig. 19-22).
poorly developed soils, and are mostly or completely The remaining dry climates of the world are found in
devoid of vegetation. the middle and high latitudes, mostly within continental
The majority of the world's deserts are found in the interiors in the Northern Hemisphere (Fig. 19-21). Many
dry climates of the low and middle latitudes (Fig. 19- of these areas are dry due to their remoteness from moist
21). InNorth America, most of the southwestern United maritime air and the presence of mountain ranges that
States and northern Mexico are characterized by this produce a rainshadow desert (Fig. 19-23). When moist
hot, dry climate, while in South America this climate is marine air moves inland and meets a mountain range, it
primarily restricted to the Atacama Desert of coastal is forced upward. As it rises, it cools, forming clouds and
Chile and Peru. The Sahara in Northern Africa, the Ara- producing precipitation that falls on the windward side

—' FIGURE 19-21 The
distribution of the Earth's arid and
semiarid regions.
of the mountains.The air that descends on the leeward Temperature, Precipitation, and Vegetation
side of themountain range is much warmer and drier,
The heat and dryness of deserts are well known. Many
producing a rainshadow desert.
of the deserts of the low latitudes have average summer
Three widely separated areas are included within the
temperatures that range between 32° and 38°C for sev-
mid-latitude dry climate zone (Fig. 19-21). The largest
eralmonths. It is not uncommon for some low-elevation
of these is the central part of Eurasia extending from just
inland deserts to record daytime highs of 46° to 50°C for
north of the Black Sea eastward to north-central China.
weeks at a time. The highest temperature ever recorded
The Gobi Desert in China is the largest desert in this
was 58°C in El Azizia, Libya, on September 13, 1922.
region. The Great Basin area of North America is the
During the winter months when the angle of the Sun
second largest mid-latitude dry climate zone and results
is lower and there are fewer daylight hours, daytime
from the rainshadow produced by the Sierra Nevada (see
temperatures average between 10° and 18°C. Winter
Perspective 19-2). This region adjoins the southwestern
deserts of the United States that formed as a result of the
The
low-latitude subtropical high-pressure zone.
est of the mid-latitude dry climate areas is
small-
the Patagonian
^ FIGURE 19-22 The Nullarbor Plain is one of the
larger desert regions of Australia, a continent that is more
region of southern and western Argentina. Its dryness
than 40% desert.
results from the rainshadow effect of the Andes.
The remainder of the world's deserts are found in the
cold, but dry high latitudes, such as Antarctica.
=» CHARACTERISTICS OF DESERTS
To people who live in humid regions, deserts may seem
stark and inhospitable. Instead of a landscape of rolling
hills and gentle slopes with an almost continuous cover
of vegetation, deserts are dry, have little vegetation, and

consist of nearly continuous rock exposures or sand
dunes. And yet despite the great contrast between
deserts and more humid areas, the same geologic pro-
cesses are at work, only operating under different cli-
matic conditions.
Characteristics of Deserts 561

Perspective 19-2
DEATH VALLEY
NATIONAL MONUMENT
Death Valley National Monument was established in Within Death Valley and its bordering mountains
2
1933 and encompasses 7,700 km of southeastern are found excellent examples of a wide variety of
California and part of western Nevada (Fig. 1). The desert landforms and economically valuable evaporite
hottest, driest, and lowest of the U.S. National deposits. In addition, numerous folds, faults,
Monuments and Parks, it receives less than 5 cm of landslides, and considerable evidence of volcanic
rain per year and features normal daytime summer activity can be seen.
temperatures above 42°C. The highest temperature The geologic history of Death Valley is complex
ever recorded was 57°C in the shade! The topographic and still being worked out, but rocks from every
relief in Death Valley is impressive. Telescope Peak geologic era can be found in the valley or the
near the southwestern border is 3,368 m high, while surrounding mountains. Although the geologic history
the lowest point in the Western Hemisphere— 86 m of the region reaches back to the Precambrian, Death
below sea level— is less than 32 km to the east at Valleyitself formed less than 4 million years ago.
Badwater. Death Valley formed during the Pliocene Epoch,
T FIGURE 1 Death Valley

National Monument, California,
Anvil Spring Canyon
Owlshead
encompasses 7,700 km 2 of Wingate Wash Warmspring Canyon
southeastern California and part of
western Nevada.

?•* FIGURE 2 Ubehebe Crater, an explosion crater, last ^T FIGURE 3 Course consists of a layer of
Devil's Golf
erupted approximately 2,000 years ago. solid rock salt that has formed a network of polygonal
ridges and pinnacles making it very difficult to traverse.
when the Earth's crust was stretched and rifted, Borax Works was home to thefamous 20-mule teams
forming horsts and grabens. Great blocks of rock that hauled out countless wagons of borax (Fig. 4).
were rotated and tilted along normal faults, and The borax, used for ceramic glazes, fertilizers, glass,
Death Valley was further widened along various solder, and pharmaceuticals, was leached from
strike-slip faults. As faulting continued, streams volcanic ash by hot groundwater and then
carried tremendous amounts of sediments into the accumulated in layers of lake sediment.
valley. Besides the numerous geologic features that have

During the Pleistocene Epoch, when the climate of made Death Valley famous, it is also home to more
this region was more humid than it is today, than 600 species of plants as well as numerous
numerous pluvial lakes spread over the valley (see animals.
Chapter 18). Lake Manly, the largest of these pluvial
lakes (145 km long and 178 m deep), dried up about
10,000 years ago, when the climate became arid.
Volcanic activity has been occurring during the last
"rmr FIGURE 4 Twenty-mule teams carried borax out of
several thousand years. The most famous volcanic Death Valley.
feature in Death Valley is Ubehebe Crater, an
explosion crater that formed approximately 2,000
years ago (Fig. 2). Death Valley continues to subside
along normal faults; it is sinking most rapidly along
its western side. The movement has been so great
along the normal faults that more than 3,000 m of

sediments resulting from erosion are beneath the
present valley floor. Furthermore, geologists estimate
that at least 6,700 m of total vertical movement has
occurred on the faults that formed Death Valley.
In addition to the usual desert features, Death
Valley also includes some unusual ones such as the
Devil's Golf Course, a bed of solid rock salt

*&fg&S8to
displaying polygonal ridges and pinnacles that are &&£,
almost impossible to traverse (Fig. 3). The Harmony *&*#'**&*

"^ FIGURE 19-23 Many deserts
in the middle and high latitudes are
rainshadow deserts, so named
because they form behind mountain
ranges. When moist marine air
moving inland meets a mountain
range, it is forced upward where it
cools and forms clouds that produce
rain. This rain falls on the
windward side of the mountain.
The air descending on the leeward
side is much warmer and drier,
producing a rainshadow desert.
nighttime lows can be quite cold, however, with frost plants have a widespread shallow root system to absorb
and freezing temperatures common in the more pole- the dew that forms each morning in all but the driest
ward deserts. Winter daily temperature fluctuations in deserts and to help anchor the plant in what little soil
low-latitude deserts are among the greatest in the world, there may be. In addition, some plants have deep roots
ranging between 18° and 35°C. Temperatures have been for finding water far below the surface. In extreme cases,
known to fluctuate from below 0°C to more than 38°C many plants lie dormant during particularly dry years
in a single day! and spring to life after the first rain shower with a beau-
The dryness of the low-latitude deserts results prima- tiful profusion of flowers.
rily from the year-round dominance of the subtropical
high-pressure belt, while the dryness of the mid-latitude
Weathering and Soils
desertsis due to their isolation from moist marine winds
and the rainshadow effect created by mountain ranges. Mechanical weathering is dominant in desert regions.
The dryness of both is further accentuated by their high Daily temperature fluctuations and frost wedging are the
temperatures. primary forms of mechanical weathering (see Chapter 6).
Although deserts are defined as regions receiving, on The breakdown of rocks by roots and from salt crystal
average, less than 25 cm of rain per year, the amount of growth are of minor importance. Some chemical weather-
rain that falls each year is very unpredictable and unre- ing does occur, but its rate is greatly reduced by aridity and
liable. It is not uncommon for an area to receive more the scarcity of organic acids produced by the sparse vege-
than an entire year's average rainfall in one cloudburst tation. Most chemical weathering occurs during the winter
and then to receive very little rain for several years. months when there is more precipitation, particularly in
Thus, yearly rainfall averages can be quite misleading. the mid-latitude deserts.
Deserts display a wide variety of vegetation (Fig. 19- An interesting feature seen in many deserts is a thin,
24). While the most arid deserts, or those with large red, brown, or black shiny coating on the surface of
areas of shifting sand, are almost devoid of vegetation, many rocks. This coating, called rock varnish, is com-
most deserts support at least a sparse plant cover. Com- posed of iron and manganese oxides (Fig. 19-25). Be-
pared to humid areas, desert vegetation may appear mo- cause many of the varnished rocks contain little or no
notonous. A closer examination, however, reveals an iron and manganese oxides, the varnish is thought to
amazing diversity of plants that have evolved the ability result from either windblown iron and manganese dust
to live in the near-absence of water. that settles on the ground or from the precipitated waste
Desert plants are widely spaced, typically small, and of microorganisms.
have low growth rates. Their stems and leaves are usu- Desert soils, if developed, are usually thin and patchy
ally hard and waxy to minimize water loss by evapora- because the limited rainfall and the resultant scarcity of
tion and protect the plant from sand erosion. Most vegetation reduce the efficiency of chemical weathering

"^ FIGURE 19-24 Tucson,
Arizona. Desert vegetation is
typically sparse, widely spaced, and
characterized by slow growth rates.
Cacti are an excellent example of
the type of vegetation that has
adapted to the harsh desert
environment. (Photo courtesy of
B. M. C. Pape.)
and hence soil formation. Furthermore, the sparseness While water is the major erosive agent in deserts to-
of the vegetative cover enhances wind and water erosion day, recall that was even more important during the
it
of what little soil actually forms. Pleistocene Epoch when these regions were more humid
(see Chapter 18). During that time, many of the major
topographic features of deserts were forming. Today
Mass Wasting, Streams, and Groundwater being modified by wind and infre-
that topography is
When most people are im-

traveling through a desert, quently flowing streams.
pressed by the work of wind in the form of moving sand, Most desert streams are poorly integrated and flow
sand dunes, and sand and dust storms. They may also only intermittently. Many of them never reach the sea
notice the dry washes and dry stream beds. Because of because the water table is usually far deeper than the
the lack of running water, most people would conclude
that wind is the most important erosional geologic agent
in deserts. They would be wrong. Running water, even
though it occurs infrequently, causes most of the erosion
"^ FIGURE 19-25 The shiny black coating on this rock
exposed at Castle Valley, Utah, is rock varnish. It is
in deserts. The dry conditions and sparse vegetation
composed of iron and manganese oxides.
characteristic of deserts enhance water erosion. If you
look closely, you will see the evidence of erosion and
transportation by running water nearly everywhere.
Recall that most of a desert's annual rainfall of 25 cm
or less comes in brief, heavy, localized cloudbursts. Dur-
ing these times, considerable erosion occurs because the
ground cannot absorb all of the rainwater. With so little
vegetation to hinder its flow, runoff is rapid, especially

on moderately to steeply sloping surfaces, resulting in
flash floods and sheetflows. Dry stream channels quickly
fill with raging torrents of muddy water and mudflows,
which carve out steep-sided gullies and overflow their

banks. During these times, a tremendous amount of sed-
iment is rapidly transported and deposited far down-
stream.

orado River are leading to increased salt concentrations
in its lower reaches and causing political problems be-
tween the United States and Mexico.
The water table in most desert regions is below the
stream channels and is only recharged for a short time
after a rainfall. In deserts with through-flowing streams,
the water table slopes away from the streams. The
through-flowing streams help to recharge the ground-
water supply and can support vegetation along their
banks. Trees, which have high moisture requirements,
are rare in deserts, but may occasionally occur along the
banks of both ephemeral and permanent streams, where
their roots can reach the higher water table.
Wind
Although running water does most of the erosional
work in deserts, wind can be an effective geologic agent
and is capable of producing a variety of distinctive ero-
sional and depositional features. Wind is an important
geologic agent in deserts and is very effective in trans-
porting and depositing unconsolidated sand, silt, and
dust-sized particles. Contrary to popular belief, how-
ever, most deserts are not sand-covered wastelands, but
rather consist of vast areas of rock exposures. Sand-
covered regions, or sandy deserts, constitute less than
25% of the world's deserts. The sand in these areas has
accumulated primarily by the action of wind.
(b) ^ DESERT LANDFORMS

"^ FIGURE 19-26 {a) Playa lake formed after a rainstorm
Because of differences in temperature, precipitation, and
filled Croneis Dry Lake, Mojave Desert, California.
(b) Racetrack Playa, Death Valley, California. Inyo wind, as well as the underlying rocks and recent tectonic
Mountains can be seen in the background. events, the landforms in arid regions vary considerably.
Although wind is an important geologic agent in deserts,
many distinctive landforms are produced and modified
channels of most streams, so they cannot draw upon by running water.
groundwater to replace water lost to evaporation and After an infrequent and particularly intense rain-
absorption into the ground. This type of drainage in storm, excess water that is not absorbed by the ground
which a stream's load is deposited within the desert is may accumulate low areas and form playa lakes (Fig.
in
called internal drainage and is common in most arid 19-26a). Such lakes are very temporary, lasting from a
regions. few hours to several months. Most of them are very shal-
While the majority of deserts have internal drainage, low and have rapidly shifting boundaries as water flows
some deserts have permanent through-flowing streams in or leaves by evaporation and seepage into the ground.
such as the Nile and Niger rivers in Africa, the Rio Furthermore, the water in playa lakes is often very saline.
Grande and Colorado rivers in the southwestern United When a playa lake evaporates, the dry lake bed is
States, and the Indus River in Asia. These streams are called a playa or salt pan and is characterized by mud-
able to flow through the desert region because their cracks and precipitated salt crystals (Fig. 19-26b). Salts
headwaters are well outside the desert and water is plen- in some playas are thick enough to be mined commer-
tiful enough to offset losses resulting from evaporation cially. For example, borates have been mined in Death
and infiltration. However, demands for greater amounts Valley, California, for more than a hundred years (see
of water for agriculture and domestic use from the Col- Perspective 19-2).

— FIGURE 19-27 Aerial view of
an alluvial fan,Death Valley,
California.
Other common features of deserts, particularly in the 19-27). Alluvial fans are similar in origin and shape to
Basin and Range region of the United States (Fig. 14- deltas (see Chapter 16) but are formed entirely on land.
31), are alluvial fans and bajadas. Alluvial fans form Alluvial fans may coalesce to form a bajada. This broad
after a cloudburst, when sediment-laden streams flow- alluvial apron typically has an undulating surface result-
ing out from the generally straight, steep mountain ing from the overlap of adjacent fans (Fig. 19-28).
fronts deposit their load on the relatively flat desert Large alluvial fans and bajadas are frequently impor-
floor. Because there are no valley walls to contain it, the tant sources of groundwater for domestic and agricul-
sediment spreads out laterally, forming a gently sloping tural use. Their outer portions are typically composed of
and poorly sorted fan-shaped sedimentary deposit (Fig. fine-grained sediments suitable for cultivation, and their
^ FIGURE 19-28 Coalescing

alluvial fansforming a bajada at the
base of the Black Mountains, Death
Valley, California.
Desert Landforms 567

Barchan dunev
^ FIGURE 19-29 (a) Pediments

are erosionalbedrock surfaces
formed by erosion along a
mountain front, (b) Pediment north
of Mesquite, Nevada.
gentle slopes allow good drainage of water. Many allu- the erosion and retreat of a mountain front (Fig. 19-29a).
vial fans and bajadas are also the sites of large towns The disagreement concerns how the erosion has oc-
and cities, such as San Bernardino, California, Salt Lake curred. While not all geologists would agree, it appears
City, Utah, and Teheran, Iran. that pediments are produced by the combined erosional
Most mountains in desert regions, including those of activities of lateral erosion by streams, sheet flooding,
the Basin and Range region, rise abruptly from gently and various weathering processes along the retreating
sloping surfaces called pediments. Pediments are ero- mountain front. Thus, pediments grow at the expense of
sional bedrock surfaces of low relief that slope gently the mountain, and they will continue to expand as the
away from mountain bases (Fig. 19-29). Most pedi- mountain is eroded away or partially buried.
ments are covered by a thin layer of debris or by alluvial Rising conspicuously above the flat plains of many
fans or bajadas. deserts are isolated steep-sided erosional remnants called
The origin of pediments has been the subject of much inselbergs, a German word meaning "island mountain"
controversy. Most geologists agree that they are ero- (Fig. 19-30). Inselbergs have survived for a longer period
sional features developed on bedrock in association with of time than other mountains because of their greater

which effectively protects the underlying surface 16. Pediments are ert>sional bedrock surfaces of low
from additional deflation. relief gently sloping away from mountain The bases.
4. The two major deposits of wind are dunes and loess. origin of pediments is most
controversial, although
Dunes are mounds or ridges of wind-deposited sand, geologists believe that they form by the combined
whereas loess is wind-deposited silt and clay. activities of lateral erosion by streams, sheet
5. The four major dune types are barchan, flooding, and various weathering processes.
longitudinal, transverse, and parabolic. The amount 17. Inselbergs are isolated steep-sided erosional remnants
of sand available, the prevailing wind direction, the that rise above the surrounding desert plains. Buttes
wind and the amount of vegetation present
velocity, and mesas are, respectively, pinnacle-like and
determine which type will form. flat-topped erosional remnants with steep sides.
6. Loess is derived from deserts, Pleistocene glacial
outwash deposits, and river floodplains in semiarid
regions. Loess covers approximately 10% of the
^ IMPORTANT TERMS
Earth's land surface and weathers to a rich and
abrasion inselberg
productive soil.
alluvial fan internal drainage
7. Deserts are very dry (less than 25 cm rain/year),
bajada loess
have poorly developed soils, and are mostly or
barchan dune longitudinal dune
completely devoid of vegetation.
barchanoid dune mesa
8. The winds of the major east-west—oriented air
butte parabolic dune
pressure belts resulting from rising and cooling air
Coriolis effect pediment
are deflected by the Coriolis effect. These belts help
deflation playa
control the world's climate.
deflation hollow playa lake
9. Dry climates are located in the low and middle
desert rainshadow desert
latitudes where the potential water by
loss of
desert pavement rock varnish
evaporation exceeds the yearly precipitation. Dry
desertification transverse dune
climates cover 30% of the Earth's surface and are
dry climate ventifact
subdivided into semiarid and arid regions.
dune yardang
10. The majority of the world's deserts are in the
low-latitude dry climate zone between 20° and 30°
north and south latitudes. Their dry climate results REVIEW QUESTIONS
from a high-pressure belt of descending dry air. The
remaining deserts are in the middle latitudes where 1. Deserts:
their distribution is related to the rainshadow effect a. can be found in the low, middle, and high
and in the dry polar regions. latitudes; b. receive less than 10 cm of rain per
11. Deserts are characterized by lack of precipitation year; c. are mostly or completely devoid of
and high evaporation Furthermore, rainfall is
rates. vegetation; d. answers (a) and (c);
unpredictable and, when

does occur, tends to be
it e. answers (b) and (c).
very intense and of short duration. As a consequence 2. Between what do the

latitudes in both hemispheres
of such aridity, desert vegetation and animals are driest deserts in the world occur?
scarce. a 10° and 20°; b 20° and 30°; c 30°
12. Mechanical weathering is the dominant form of and 40°; d 40° and 60°; e 60° and 80°.
weathering in deserts. The sparse precipitation and 3. The Coriolis effect causes wind to be deflected:
slow rates of chemical weathering result in poorly a. to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and
developed soils. the left in the Southern Hemisphere; b. to the
13. Running water is the dominant agent of erosion in left in the Northern Hemisphere and the right in the
deserts and was even more important during the Southern Hemisphere; c. only to the left for
Pleistocene Epoch when pluvial climates resulted in both hemispheres; d. only to the right for both
humid conditions. hemispheres; e. not at all.
14. Wind is of minor importance as an erosional agent 4. The primary process by which bed load is
in deserts, but is very effective in transporting and transported is:
depositing unconsolidated fine-grained sediments. a. suspension; b. abrasion; c. saltation;
15. Important desert landforms include playas, which d. precipitation; e. answers (a) and (c).
are dry lake beds; when temporarily filled with 5. Which particle size constitutes most of a wind's
water, they form playa lakes. Alluvial fans are suspended load?
poorly sorted, fan-shaped sedimentary deposits that a. sand; b. silt; c. clay; d. answers
may coalesce to form bajadas. (a) and (b); e. answers (b) and (c).

Which of the following is a feature produced by 17. Describe how the global distribution of air pressure
wind erosion? belts and winds operates.
a. playa; b. loess; c. dune; 18. What are the two ways that sediments are
d. yardang; none of these.
e. transported by wind?
What is the approximate angle of repose for dry 19. Describe the two ways that wind erodes. How
sand? effective an erosional agent is wind?
a 15°; b 25°; c 35°; d 45°; 20. What is the difference between a ventifact and
e 55°. yardang? How do both form?
Which of the following is a crescent-shaped dune 21. Why is desert pavement important in a desert
whose tips point downwind? environment?
a. barchan; b. longitudinal; c. parabolic; 22. How do sand dunes migrate?
d. transverse; e. barchanoid. 23. Describe the four major dune types and the
Which of the following dunes form long ridges of conditions necessary for their formation.
sand aligned roughly parallel to the direction of the 24. What is and why is it important?
loess
prevailing wind? 25. What ismeant by arid and semiarid climate?
a. barchan; b. longitudinal; c. parabolic; 26. Why are most of the world's deserts located in the
d. transverse; e. barchanoid. low latitudes?
10. Where are the thickest and most extensive loess 27. How are temperature, precipitation, and vegetation
deposits in the world? interrelated in desert environments?
a. United States; b. Pampas of Argentina; 28. What is thedominant form of weathering in desert
c. Belgium; d. Ukraine; e. northeast regions, and why is it so effective?
China. 29. Why are deserts characterized by internal drainage?
11. What is the primary cause of the dryness of What role does groundwater play in this type of
low-latitude deserts? drainage?
a. rainshadow effect; b. isolation from moist 30. Explain the difference between a butte and a mesa,
marine winds; c. dominance of the subtropical and describe how they form.
high-pressure belt; d. Coriolis effect; e. all of
12.
these.
The dominant form of weathering in deserts is
, desert vegetation is , and soils
Agnew, C, and A. Warren. 1990. Sand trap. The Sciences
March/April: 14-19.
a. mechanical, limited, thick; b. mechanical, Brookfield, M. E., and T. S. Ahlbrandt. 1983. Eolian sediments
diverse, thin; c. mechanical, limited, thin; and processes. New York: Elsevier Publishers.
d. chemical, diverse, thick; e. chemical, W. S. 1987. Africa's Sahel: The stricken land. National
Ellis,
diverse, thin. Geographic 172, no. 2: 140-79.

13. The major agent of erosion in deserts today is Greeley, R.,and J. Iversen. 1985. Wind as a geologic process.
while during the Pleistocene Epoch it was Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge University Press.
,
Hunt, C. B. 1975. Death Valley: Geology, ecology, archaeology.

Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.
a. wind, running water; b. wind, wind;
Sheridan, D. 1981. Desertification of the United States.
c. running water, wind; d running water,
Washington, D.C.: Council on Environmental Quality.
running water; e. wind, glaciers. Thomas, D. S. G., ed. 1989. Arid zone geomorphology. New
14. The dry lake beds in many deserts are: York: Halsted Press.
a. playas; b. bajadas; c. inselbergs; Walker, A. S. 1982. Deserts of China. American Scientist 70,
d. pediments; e. mesas. no. 4: 366-76.

15. An important source of groundwater for domestic Wells, S. G., and D. R. Haragan. 1983. Origin and evolution of
deserts. Albuquerque, N. Mex.: University of New Mexico
and agricultural use is:
Press.
a alluvial fans; b playa lakes;
Whitney, M. A. 1985. Yardangs. Journal of Geological
c bajadas; d. answers (a) and (b);
Education 33, no. 2: 93-96.
e. answers (a) and (c).
16. What are some of the problems associated with

desertification?

CHAPTER 20
SHORELINES
AND SHORELINE
PROCESSES
^ OUTLINE
PROLOGUE
INTRODUCTION
WAVE DYNAMICS
Wave Generation
Guest Essay: Geophysics and the Search
for Oil
Shallow-Water Waves and Breakers
NEARSHORE CURRENTS
^Perspective 20-1: Waves and Coastal
Flooding
Wave Refraction and Longshore Currents
Rip Currents
SHORELINE DEPOSITION
Beaches
Seasonal Changes in Beaches
Spits and Baymouth Bars
Barrier Islands
The Nearshore Sediment Budget
SHORELINE EROSION
T' Perspective 20-2: Rising Sea Level and
Coastal Management
Wave-Cut Platforms and Associated
Landforms
TYPES OF COASTS
Submergent and Emergent Coasts
TIDES
CHAPTER SUMMARY
View of the Pacific shoreline at Ecola State

Park, Oregon.
^^'T^'^^^m m^ ^^^^'s is^jiJ*^^^ . r'
PROLOGUE
^|î\^jj| i n 1900, Galveston, Texas, was a busy
port city of 38,000 located on
Galveston Island, a long, narrow barrier island a short
distance from the mainland. On September 8, a
hurricane swept in from the Caribbean, destroying
much of the city and killing between 6,000 and 8,000
of Galveston's residents in the greatest natural disaster
in U.S. history. When the hurricane struck, storm
waves surged inland, eventually covering the entire
island. Buildings and other structures near the
shoreline were battered to pieces, and "great beams
and railway ties were lifted by the [waves] and driven
"^" FIGURE 20-1 Construction of this seawall to protect
like battering rams into dwellings and business
Galveston, Texas from storm waves began in 1902.
houses"* farther inland. Finally, after the first four
shoreline blocks were destroyed, the debris piled up
high enough to form a protective barrier for the rest
successful in doing so. However, the seawall alone
of the city.
would not prevent the city from flooding during
At about 10:00 p.m., the wind suddenly died down
storms. To protect against this hazard, the second part
and soon thereafter the water began to subside. The
of the project had to be completed. This entailed
next morning was calm and clear, but the city was in
filling the area behind the seawall with sand and
utter ruins; property damage was estimated at more
raising parts of the city to the level of the top of the
than $20 million, and at least 15% of the city's
wall. Filling such an area would have been a rather
population had been killed. Hurricanes had swept
simple task had it not been for the streetcar lines,
through Galveston before, some of them causing
damage and deaths, and the residents were aware of
how vulnerable the city was. The highest part of the
island was only 2.7 m above mean low tide; thus
storm waves could sweep across the entire island.
^ FIGURE 20-2 Some of the nearly 3,000 buildings in
Galveston, Texas that were raised and supported on stilts
In order to protect the city from future hurricanes, until sand fill was pumped beneath them.
a colossal two-part project was begun in 1902. First, a

seawall 5.6 km long was constructed along the side of
the city facing the shore (the south); with government
assistance, the seawall was eventually extended to 16
km (Fig. 20-1). The wall is 4.8 m wide at its base and
1.5 m wide top and has a concave face so that

at its
waves are deflected upward. Its top is just over 5 m

above mean low tide, about 0.4 above the highest m
water level recorded during the 1900 hurricane. A
wide apron of granite riprap (a layer of large stones to
prevent erosion) protects the wall on its seaward side.
The seawall was constructed to protect the city
from the direct impact of waves, and it has been
*L. W. Bates, Jr., "Galveston— A City Built upon Sand," Scientific
American 95(1906): 64.
Prologue 573
sewers,power lines, roadways, sidewalks, and nearly in place on August?, 1910. Seven years and more
3,000 buildings that lay in the area to be filled. than $3.5 million had been invested, and subsequent
Before filling could begin, jacks were placed events indicate that the time and expense were
beneath the buildings so that they could be raised to justified.During 1961, hurricane Carla hit the city,
the appropriate height and supported on stilts until fill and although some flooding occurred and some
was pumped beneath them (Fig. 20-2). To raise a buildings were damaged by wind, the flooding was
church estimated to weigh more than 2,700 metric not serious and no deaths occurred. At the west end
tons required 700 jacks. In short, most of the city was of the seawall, where the island is unprotected, the
raised anywhere from a few centimeters to as much as shoreline has been eroded back about 45 m. Had the
3.6 m above its former level! seawall not been constructed, the shoreline along
The last of the more than 8.5 million m of fill was
3
Galveston would no doubt have been eroded as well.
=» INTRODUCTION though shorelines constitute an environment in which

change occurs continuously, their appeal is so strong
Shorelines are the areas between low tide and the high-
that about two-thirds of the world's population is con-
est level on land affected by storm waves. In this chapter,
centrated in narrow bands adjacent to them. Many of
we are concerned mostly with ocean shorelines where
the world's large cities such as New York, Los Angeles,
processes such as waves, nearshore currents, and tides
How-
New Orleans, Tokyo, London, Rio de Janeiro, and
continually modify existing shoreline features.
Shanghai are coastal cities.
ever, waves and nearshore currents are also effective
The continents possess more than 400,000 km of
geologic agents in large lakes, the shorelines of which
shorelines. They vary from rocky, steep shorelines, such
exhibitmany of the same features present along sea-
as those in Maine and much of the western United States
shores.The most notable differences are that waves and
and Canada, to those with broad sandy beaches as in
nearshore currents are more energetic on seashores, and
eastern North America from New Jersey southward.
even the largest lakes lack appreciable tides.
Whatever their type, on all shorelines there is a contin-
In contrast to other geologic agents such as running
ual interplay between the energy levels of shoreline pro-
water, wind, and glaciers that operate over vast areas,
cesses and the shoreline materials. In areas where energy
shoreline processes are restricted to a narrow zone at
levels are particularly high, erosion predominates and
any particular time (Fig. 20-3). However, shorelines mi-
the shoreline may retreat landward. Where sediment
grate landward or seaward depending on changes in sea
supply from the land is great, deposition dominates. On
level and uplift or subsidence of the coastal region. Al-
shorelines with broad sandy beaches, beach sand is con-
tinually shifted from one area to another by waves and
^ FIGURE 20-3 Building damaged at Nags Head, North

nearshore currents.
Living near a shoreline is appealing, but it is not with-
Carolina during the storm of March 1989.
out risks. In many most of
parts of the world, including
the United States and much of Canada, sea level is ris-
ing, and buildings that were built some distance from
the ocean are now being undermined and destroyed
(Fig. 20-3). Slumps and slides are common along rocky,
steep shorelines; narrow offshore barrier islands migrate

landward by erosion on their seaward sides and depo-
sition on their landward sides; and hurricanes expend
much of their fury on shorelines and coastal regions in
general.
Scientists from several disciplines have contributed to
our understanding of shorelines as dynamic systems.
communi-
Elected officials and city planners of coastal
ties must become familiar with shoreline processes so
they can develop policies that serve the public as well as
574 Chapter 20 Shorelines and Shoreline Processes

Direction of wave travel
Crest
Trough
Trough
qXDOOOQQO
T
-^ FIGURE 20-4 Wave terminology.
111 II
protect the fragile shoreline environment. In short, the

study of shorelines is not only interesting, but has many Wave base
= 1/2 wave length
practical applications.
•^ FIGURE 20-5 The water in waves moves in circular
orbits. The diameters of these orbits are equal to wave
^ WAVE DYNAMICS height at the surface, but they decrease in magnitude with
depth. Wave base is the depth at which the diameters of
Waves are oscillations of a water surface. They occur on these orbits are essentially zero.
all bodies of water, but are most significant in large lakes
and the oceans where they serve as agents of erosion,
transport, and deposition. Many of the erosional and
depositional features of the world's shorelines form and affected by surface waves. The significance of wave base
are modified by the energy of incoming waves. will be explored more fully in later sections.
Figure 20-4 shows a typical series of waves in deep
water and the terminology applied to them. The highest
Wave Generation
part of a wave is its crest, whereas the low point between
crests is the trough. Wave length is the distance between Waves can be generated by several processes including
successive wave crests (or troughs), and wave height is displacement of water by landslides, displacement of the
the vertical distance from trough to crest. The speed at sea floor by faulting, and volcanic explosions. However,
which a wave advances, generally called celerity (C), can most of the geologic work done on shorelines occurs
be calculated if one knows the wave length (L) and the from wind-generated waves. When wind blows over wa-
wave period (T), which is the time required for two ter, some of its energy is transferred to the water, causing
successive wave crests (or troughs) to pass a given point: the water surface to oscillate. The mechanism whereby
energy is transferred from wind to water is related to the
C = LIT
frictional drag resulting from one fluid (air) moving over
The speed of wave advance (C) is actually a measure another (water).
of the velocity of thewave form rather than a measure of In an area of wave generation, as beneath a storm
the speed of the molecules of water. In fact, water waves center at sea, sharp-crested, irregular waves called seas
are somewhat waves moving across a
similar to the develop. Seas are an aggregate of waves of various
grass-covered field; moves forward and back
the grass heights and lengths, and one wave cannot be clearly
as a wave passes but has no net forward movement. distinguished from another. As seas move out from the
Likewise, as waves move across a water surface, the area of wave generation, however, they are sorted into
water "particles" rotate in circular orbits, with little or broad swells that have rounded, long crests and are all
no net movement in the direction of wave travel (Fig. about the same size (Fig. 20-6).
20-5). They do, however, transfer energy in the direction As one would expect, the harder and longer the wind
of wave advance. blows, the larger are the waves generated. Wind velocity
The diameters of the orbits followed by water particles and duration, however, are not the only factors control-
in waves diminish rapidly with depth, and at a depth of ling the size of waves. For example, high-velocity wind
about one-half wave length (L/2), called wave base, they blowing over a small pond will never generate large
are essentially zero (Fig. 20-5). Thus, at depths exceeding waves regardless of how long it blows. In fact, waves
wave base, the water and sea floor, or lake floor, are un- occur on ponds and most lakes only while the wind is
Wave Dynamics 575

Guest Essay RICHARD L. CHAMBERS
GEOPHYSICS AND THE

SEARCH FOR OIL
My involvement in geology came about by sheer their organizations, making themselves smaller, in an
chance. During the summer of 1965, the year I effort to increase profits. Unfortunately, these
graduated from high school, my best friend and I restructurings flooded the job market with thousands
spent a month in the Grand Tetons of Wyoming of geoscientists. Many were able to switch into allied
where we took a rock climbing course. One of our fields, such as hydrology and the environmental
campsite neighbors was not only a rock climber, but found academic positions.
sciences, while others
also a high school geology teacher. Over the next However, there simply were not enough jobs available,
weeks, he occasionally gave us fascinating lectures on and many highly talented, experienced people were
the geological history of the Grand Tetons. Little did I forced to make a mid-life career change.
realize that this chance encounter would eventually January 1988 was a critical time in my career.
alter my career goals. Continued depressed oil prices and the stress of a very
When I entered college, I intended to prepare for a high debt forced Phillips to restructure. After much
career in medicine and gave little thought to my thought, I decided to leave the petroleum industry.
summer experience. Then, during my sophomore year, Fortunately,unemployment was only temporary because
I enrolled in physical geology to learn more about the within two weeks I was offered a position with Amoco
rocks and landforms I saw while hiking and climbing. Production Company's Geophysical Research Division.
From that time on, I was hooked on geology because Since joining Amoco I have been involved in many
it offered me the opportunity to combine my types of research with the ultimate objective of
avocation with a fascinating profession. increasing production from existing fields. My latest
During my doctoral studies on depositional research involves risk analysis in frontier and newly
processes in Lake Michigan, I obtained a summer discovered basins.
position as a sedimentologist with the U.S. Lake Educational requirements for careers in the petroleum
Survey Center in Detroit. My assignment was to industry are becoming more stringent. More
analyze bottom samples from Lake Michigan, sophisticated technologies must be used in our quest for
determine their physical characteristics, and write a oil resources because major discoveries are more difficult
report on their depositional environment. This job to find. Today's geoscientist must be skilled in several
eventually led to a full-time position with the Great areas. Geology is no longer just a descriptive discipline,
Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory. Here my but rather a field where computers and complex
research focused on the chemical and sedimentological mathematical models are required to analyze data.
processes controlling the health of the Great Lakes. Those of you willing to make a commitment to an
By late 1980, I felt it was time for a change and already rigorous curriculum (courses in mathematics,
began looking for opportunities outside the federal and computer programming are also
statistics,
government. For the next eight years, I worked as a recommended) can have an exciting career. A
research geologist for Phillips Petroleum Company.
In mid-1985, 1 had the opportunity to leave research
and join a regional basin studies team. Our first project
involved the interpretation of nearly 37,073 km of
seismic data and the integration of several thousand well Ivichard L. Chambers earned
logs and other data. The results provided explorationists his Ph.D. from Michigan State
with a better understanding of the geological history of University in 1975. He currently
the Gulf of Mexico and helped them develop works for Amoco Production
Company in the area of lithology
exploration plays and lease acquisition strategies.
prediction from seismic data to
By the mid-1980s, oil companies were feeling the provide reservoir descriptions for
impact of rapidly declining oil prices. During this use in exploration and
struggling economy, many companies restructured development.

blowing; once the wind stops, the water quickly
smooths out. In contrast, the surface of the ocean is
continually in motion, and during storms, waves with
heights of 20 or 30 m have been recorded; the highest
ever reliably measured had a height of 34 m.
The reason for the disparity between the wave sizes
on ponds and lakes and on the oceans is the fetch, which
is the distance the wind blows over a continuous water
surface. The greater the fetch, the greater the size of the
waves. Fetch is limited by the available water surface, so
on ponds and lakes it corresponds to their length or
width, depending on wind direction. A wind blowing
the length of Lake Superior, for example, can generate
large waves, and even larger ones develop in the oceans.
To produce waves of greater length and height, more — FIGURE 20-6 Small swells in the Atlantic Ocean near
energy must be transferred from wind to water; hence Massachusetts.
large waves form beneath large storms at sea.
Shallow- Water Waves and Breakers

length decrease, and wave height increases. In effect, as
Waves moving out from the area of generation form waves enter shallower water, they become oversteep-
swells and lose only a small amount of energy as they ened; the wave crest advances faster than the wave form,
travel across the ocean. In deep-water swells, the water until eventually the crest plunges forward as a breaker
surface oscillates and water particles move in orbital (Fig. 20-8). commonly several times higher
Breakers are
paths, with little net displacement of water occurring in than deep-water waves, and when they plunge forward,
the direction of wave advance (Fig. 20-7). When these their kinetic energy is expended on the shoreline. Excep-
waves enter progressively shallower water, however, the tionally large waves generated during storms or by fault-
water is displaced in the direction of wave advance (Fig. ing, volcanic explosions, and rockfalls can cause serious
20-7). flooding in coastal regions (see Perspective 20-1).
When deep-water waves enter shallow water, they are
transformed from broad, undulating swells into sharp-
crested waves. This transformation begins at a water
^ NEARSHORE CURRENTS
depth of wave base; that is, it begins where wave base It is convenient to identify the nearshore zone as the area
intersects the sea floor. At waves "feel"
this point, the extending seaward from the shoreline to just beyond the
the bottom, and the orbital motions of water particles area where waves break. It includes a breaker zone and
within waves are disrupted (Fig. 20-7). As they move a surf zone, whichwhere breaking waves rush for-
is
further shoreward, the speed of wave advance and wave ward onto the shore followed by seaward movement of
"^ FIGURE 20-7 As deep-water waves move toward shore, the orbital motion of
water within them disrupted when they reach the point at which wave base intersects
is
the sea floor. Wave length decreases while wave height increases, causing the waves to
oversteepen and eventually break.
Wave length decreases
Nearshore Currents 577

Perspective 20-1
WAVES AND COASTAL FLOODING

Wind-generated storm waves, especially those formed to 10 m high flooded the low-lying coastal areas of
by hurricanes, are responsible for most geologic work Bangladesh, drowning 300,000 people. Since 1970,
on shorelines. Hurricanes, called typhoons in some the coastal areas of Bangladesh have been flooded
parts of the world, are vast storms with winds that several more times, the most recent and most tragic
may exceed 300 km/hr. When they sweep across being on April 30, 1991, when more than 100,000
coastal areas, the intense wind can cause considerable people were drowned.
damage, but most of the damage and about 90% of Another type of wave that can cause extensive
all hurricane fatalities are caused by coastal flooding. coastal floodingis a tsunami. As we explained in
Flooding during hurricanes is caused by large Chapter 10, tsunami are generated by fault
storm-generated waves being driven onshore and by displacement of the sea floor, submarine slides and
intense rainfall, more than 60 cm in 24 hours in some slumps, and volcanic explosions (see the Prologue to
cases. In addition, as the storm moves over the ocean, Chapter 1). In the open sea, tsunami are low waves,
low atmospheric pressure beneath the eye of the storm rarely more than 0.5 m high, but they have wave
causes the ocean surface to bulge upward as much as lengths greater than 200 km and can travel at speeds
0.5 m. When the eye of the storm reaches the in excess of 700 km/hr. When such waves enter
shoreline, the bulge coupled with wind-driven waves shallow water, their wave height increases to as much
pilesup in a storm surge that can rise several meters as 65 m!
above normal high tide and inundate areas several The first indication of an approaching tsunami is a
kilometers inland. Several coastal areas in the United rapid withdrawal of the sea from coastal regions,
States have been devastated by storm surges, including followed a few minutes later by destructive waves. In
Galveston, Texas, in 1900 (see the Prologue) and many tsunami come in as a rapidly rising tide,
cases,
Charleston, South Carolina, in 1989 (Fig. 1). One of and theirbackwash, which undermines structures and
the greatest natural disasters of the twentieth century carries loose objects out to sea, causes most of the
occurred in 1970 when a storm surge estimated at 8 damage and fatalities. Depending on shoreline
•^ FIGURE 1 Charleston, South

Carolina was flooded by a storm surge
produced by Hurricane Hugo on
September 22, 1989.

"•"-FIGURE 2 On July 9, 1958, a giant wave created by a rockfall from the cliff (r)
destroyed the forest over the light areas up to an elevation of 536m(d) and to a distance of
1,097 m from the high-tide shoreline at Fish Lake (/).
configuration, offshore topography, and the direction The Vaiont Dam disaster in Italy, discussed in
of wave approach, tsunami will have different effects Perspective 15-2, was one such event. The largest of
even on the same shoreline. They sweep much farther these so-called landslide surges occurred on July 9,
inland on gently sloping shorelines and rise higher in 1958, in Lituya Bay, Alaska. An estimated 30.5
narrow inlets than elsewhere. A tsunami that hit million m3 of rock plunged into the bay from a height
Hawaii in 1957 rose more than 10 m on one part of of more than 900 m. The sudden displacement of
the island, but rose less than 1 m elsewhere on the water caused a surge on the opposite side of the bay
same island. that rose 536 m above sea level (Fig. 2). The wave
The largest of all waves occur in restricted bodies moved out of the harbor and into the open sea where
of water, such as bays or lakes, when water is it quickly dissipated.
suddenly displaced by large landslides or rockfalls.
Nearshore Currents 579

""" FIGURE 20-8 Breakers pounding the shoreline in "•' FIGURE 20-9 Wave refraction. These oblique waves
Oregon. (Photo courtesy of Jane Duffield.) are refracted and more nearly parallel the shoreline as they
enter progressively shallower water.
the water as backwash (Fig. 20-8). The width of the

nearshore zone varies depending on the wave length of
the approaching waves, because long waves break at a out to sea. One way in which water moves seaward from
greater depth, and thus farther offshore, than do short the nearshore zone is which are narrow
in rip currents,
waves. Two types of currents are important in the near- surface currents that flow out to sea through the breaker
shore zone, longshore currents and rip currents. zone (Fig. 20-10). Surfers commonly take advantage of
rip currents for an easy ride out beyond the breaker
zone, but such currents pose a danger to inexperienced
Wave Refraction and Longshore Currents swimmers. Some rip currents flow at several kilometers
Deep-water waves are characterized by long, continuous per hour, so if a swimmer

is caught in one, it is useless
crests, but rarely are their crests parallel with the shore- to try to swim back to shore. Instead, because
directly
line (Fig. 20-9). In other words, they seldom approach a rip currents are narrow and usually nearly perpendicu-
shoreline head on. Thus, one part of a wave enters shal- lar to the shore, one can swim parallel to the shoreline
low water where it encounters wave base and begins for a short distance and then turn shoreward with no
breaking before other parts of the same wave. As a wave difficulty.
begins breaking, its velocity diminishes, but the part of

the wave still in deep water races ahead until it too
encounters wave base. The net effect of this oblique ap-
'*"" FIGURE 20-10 Suspended sediment, indicated by
proach is that the waves bend so that they more nearly
discolored water, being carried seaward by rip currents.
parallel the shoreline (Fig. 20-9). Such a phenomenon is
called wave refraction.
Even though waves are refracted, they still usually
strike the shoreline at some angle, causing the water
between the breaker zone and the beach to flow parallel
to the shoreline. These longshore currents, as they are
called, are long and narrow and flow in the same general
direction as the approaching waves (Fig. 20-9). These
currents are particularly important agents of transport
and deposition in the nearshore zone.
Rip Currents
Waves carry water into the nearshore zone, so there
must be a mechanism for mass transfer of water back

Rip currents can be characterized as circulating cells rents commonly develop where wave heights are lower
fed by longshore currents. When waves approach a than in adjacent areas. Such differences in wave height
shoreline obliquely, the amount of water moving paral- are commonly controlled by variations in water depth.
lel to the shoreline builds up until the excess moves out For example, if waves move over a depression, the
to sea through the breaker zone. These rip currents are height of the wave over the depression tends to be less
oriented at an angle to the shoreline, and they migrate in than in adjacent areas.
the direction of the longshore current (Fig. 20-1 la).
Where waves approach
rip currents are fed
the shoreline head on, adjacent
by nearshore currents that increase
» SHORELINE DEPOSITION
in velocity from midway between each rip current (Fig. Depositional features of shorelines include beaches,
20-1 lb). spits, baymouth bars, and barrier islands. The charac-
The configuration of the sea floor plays an important teristics of beaches are determined by wave energy, and
role in determining the location of rip currents. Rip cur- they are continually modified by waves and longshore
"^ FIGURE 20-11 Rip currents.

(a) Where waves approach the
shoreline obliquely, rip currents are
oriented at an angle to the
shoreline.These rip currents migrate
along the shoreline in the direction
of the longshore current, (b) When
waves approach the shoreline head
on, rip currents are oriented
perpendicular to the shoreline and
are fed on both sides by nearshore
currents.
(a)
Rip current
Shoreline Deposition 581

currents. Spits and baymouth bars both result from de- eluding a backshore that is usually dry, being covered by
position by longshore currents, but the origin of barrier water only during storm waves or exceptionally high
islands is controversial. Rip currents play only a minor rides. The backshore consists of one or more berms,
role in the configuration of shorelines, but they do trans- platforms composed of sediment deposited by waves;
port fine-grained sediment seaward through the breaker the berms are nearly horizontal or slope gendy in a land-
ward direction. The sloping area below the berm that is
exposed to wave swash is called the beach face Fig.
20-13 The beach face is part of the foreshore, an area
.
Beaches covered by water during high ride but exposed duirng

Beaches are the most familiar of all coastal landforms, low ride Fig. 20-13).
attracting millions of visitors each year and providing Some of the sediment on beaches is derived from
the economic base for many communities. They consist weathering and wave erosion of the shoreline, but most
of a long, narrow strip of unconsolidated sediment, of it is transported to the coast by streams and redis-
commonly sand, and are constandy changing. Depend- tributed along the shoreline by longshore currents.
ing on shoreline configuration and wave intensity, Longshore drift is the phenomenon by which sand is
beaches may
be discontinuous, existing only in pro- transported along a shoreline by longshore currents
tected areas such as embayments. or they may be con- Fig. 20-14 As previously noted, waves usually strike
.
tinuous for long distances. South Carolina, for example, beaches at some angle, causing the sand grains to move
proudly advertises its Grand Strand, 100 km of nearly up the beach face at a similar angle; as the sand grains
continuous beach Tig. 20-12\ are carried seaward in the backwash, however, they
By definition a beach is a deposit of unconsolidated move perpendicular to the long axis of the beach. Thus,
sediment extending landward from low tide to a change individual sand grains move in a zigzag partem in the
in topography such as a line of sand dunes, a sea clift. or direction of longshore currents. This movement is not
the point where permanent vegetation begins Fig. 20- restricted to the beach,however; it extends seaward to
13' . Typically, a beach has several component parts in- the outer edge of the breaker zone Fig. 20-14).
In an attempt to widen a beach or prevent erosion,
shoreline residents often build groins, structures that
"^ FIGURE project seaward at right angles from the shoreline Fig.
20-12 The Grand Strand of South Carolina,
shown here at Myrde Beach, is 100 km of nearly continuous 20-15^. They interrupt the flow of longshore currents
beach. causing sand to be deposited on their upcurrent side,
thus widening the beach at that location. However, ero-
sion inevitably occurs on the downcurrent side of a
groin Fig. 20-15 .
Most beaches are sandy, but in areas of parricularly

vigorous wave activity, they are gravel covered. Most
beach sand is composed of quartz, but a number of
other minerals and rock fragments may be present as
"»" FIGURE 20-13 Cross section of a typical beach

showing its component parts.
-;-es-:-e Backshore
= e=:- a:e Be™;

\ \

Breaker zone
Direction of
longshore
current
^ FIGURE 20-14 Longshore

currents transport sediment along
the shoreline between the breaker
zone and the upper limit of wave
action. Such sediment transport is
longshore drift.
well. One of the most common accessory minerals in waves. In many areas, beach profiles change with the
beach sands is magnetite; because of its high specific seasons; thus, we recognize summer beaches and winter
gravity, magnetite is commonly separated from the other beaches, each of which is adjusted to the conditions
minerals and is visible as thin, black layers. prevailing at these times (Fig. 20-16). Summer beaches
Although quartz is the most common mineral in most are generally covered with sand and are characterized by
beach sands, there are some notable exceptions. For ex- a wide berm, a gently sloping beach face, and a smooth
ample, the black sand beaches of Hawaii are composed offshore profile. Winter beaches, on the other hand,
of sand-sized basalt rock fragments, and some Florida tend to be coarser grained and steeper; they have a small
beaches are composed of the fragmented calcium car-
bonate shells of marine organisms. In short, beaches are
composed of whatever material is available; quartz is ^ FIGURE 20-15 These groins at Cape May, New Jersey
most abundant simply because it is available in most interrupt the flow of longshore currents so sand is trapped
areas and is the most durable and stable of the common on their upcurrent side. On the downcurrent side of the
groins, however, sand is eroded because of continuing
rock-forming minerals.
longshore drift.
Seasonal Changes in Beaches

A beach is an area where wave energy is dissipated, so
the loose grains composing the beach are constantly af-
fected bywave motion. However, the overall configura-
tion of a beach remains unchanged as long as equilib-
rium conditions persist. The beach profile consisting of
a berm or berms and a beach face shown in Figure 20-13
can be thought of as a profile of equilibrium; that is, all
parts of the beach are adjusted to the prevailing condi-
tions of wave intensity and nearshore currents.
Tides and longshore currents affect the configuration
of beaches to some degree, but by far the most impor-
tant agent modifying their equilibrium profile is storm

"^ FIGURE 20-16 Seasonal changes in beach profiles.
A winter beach showing offshore sand bars, {b) A
summer beach with its wider berm and more gently sloping
beach face.
(b)
"^ FIGURE 20-17 (a) Spits form where longshore

currents deposit sand in deeper water as at the entrance to a
berm or none at all, and their offshore profiles reveal bay. A baymouth bar is simply a spit that has grown until it
sand bars paralleling the shoreline (Fig. 20-16). extends across the mouth of a bay. (b) A spit at the mouth
Seasonal changes in beach profiles are related to of the Klamath River in California.
changing wave intensity. During the winter, energetic

storm waves erode the sand from the beach and trans-
port it offshore where it is stored in sand bars (Fig.
20-16). The same sand was eroded from the beach
that feature. A spit is simply a continuation of a beach form-
during the winter returns the next summer when it is ing a point, or "free end," that projects into a body of
driven onshore by the more gentle swells that occur dur- water,commonly a bay. A baymouth bar is a spit that
ing that season. Thus, the volume of sand in the system has grown until it completely closes off a bay from the
remains more or less constant; it simply moves farther open sea (Fig. 20-17).
offshore or onshore depending on the energy of waves. Both spits and baymouth bars form and grow as a
The terms winter and summer beach, although widely result of longshore drift (Fig. 20-17). Where currents are
used, are somewhat misleading. A "winter beach" pro- weak, as in the deeper water at the opening to a bay,
filecan develop at any time of the year if a large storm longshore current velocity diminishes, and sediment is
occurs, and likewise a "summer beach" profile can de- deposited, forming a sand bar. The free ends of many
velop during a prolonged calm period in the winter. spits are curved by wave refraction or waves approach-
ing from a different direction. Such spits are called
hooks or recurved spits (Fig. 20-17).
Spits and Baymouth Bars
A rarer type of spit, called a tombolo, extends out
Other than the beach itself, some of the most common into the sea and connects an island to the mainland.
depositional landforms on shorelines are spits and bay- Tombolos develop on the shoreward sides of islands as
mouth bars, both of which are variations of the same shown in Figure 20-18. Wave refraction around an is-

Tombolo
"^" FIGURE 20-19 Soon after this breakwater was

constructed offshore at Santa Monica, California a bulge
appeared in the beach. Wave refraction around the
breakwater resulted in the origin of a feature similar to a
tombolo.
Barrier Islands
Long, narrow islands composed of sand and separated

from the mainland by a lagoon are called barrier islands
(Fig. 20-22). On their seaward margins, barrier islands
are smoothed by waves, but their lagoon sides are irreg-

ular. During large storms, waves completely overtop
(b) these islands and deposit lobes of sand in the lagoon.
— FIGURE 20-18 (a) Origin of a tombolo. Wave Once deposited, these lobes are modified only slightly
refraction around an island causes longshore currents to because they are protected from further wave action.
converge and deposit a sand bar that joins the island with
Windblown sand dunes are common on barrier islands
the mainland, (b) Goat Rock is connected to the California
shoreline by a tombolo.
and are generally the highest part of these islands.
"^ FIGURE 20-20 A small tombolo in Lake Superior at

Marquette, Michigan.
land causes converging currents that turn seaward and
deposit a sand bar connecting the shore with the island.
A similar feature may form when an artificial breakwa-
ter is constructed offshore (Fig. 20-19).
Although spits, baymouth bars, and tombolos are most
commonly found on irregular seacoasts, many examples
of the same features occur in large lakes (Fig. 20-20).
Whether along seacoasts or lakeshores, these sand deposits
present a continuing problem where bays must be kept
open for pleasure boating or commercial shipping. The
entrances to such bays must either be regularly dredged or
protected. The most common way to protect entrances to
bays is to build jetties, which are structures extending sea-
ward (or lakeward) that protect the bay from deposition
by longshore currents (Fig. 20-21).

***" FIGURE 20-21 The seaward-projecting heavy, black
lines represent jetties that were constructed in the1930s to
protect the Ocean City Inlet at Ocean City, Maryland. The
jetties have protected the inlet, but they also disrupted the
net southerly longshore drift. As a consequence, Assateague
Island has been starved of sediment and migrated about
500 m landward and is now offset from Fenwick Island to
the north.
(b)
^ FIGURE 20-22 {a) A barrier island with sandy

beaches and a smooth profile on its seaward (right) side.
(b) This chain of barrier islands comprises the Outer Banks
of North Carolina. Cape Hatteras juts the furthest out into
The origin of barrier islands has been long debated
the Atlantic.
and is still not completely resolved. It is known that they
form on gently sloping continental shelves with abun-
dant sand in areas where both tidal fluctuations and
wave energy levels are low. Although barrier islands oc- formed as beach ridges on coasts that subsequently sub-
cur in many areas, most of them are along the east coast sided (Fig. 20-23).
of the United States from New York to Florida and Because sea level is currently rising, most barrier is-
along the U.S. Gulf Coast. According to one model, lands are migrating in a landward direction. Such mi-
barrier islands formed as spits that became detached gration is a natural consequence of the evolution of
from the land, while another model proposes that they these islands, but it is a problem for the island residents

,
and communities. Barrier islands generally migrate Barrier island

rather slowly, but the rates for many are rapid enough to
Tidal inlet
cause shoreline problems (see Perspective 20-2).
The Nearshore Sediment Budget

We can think of the gains and losses of sediment in the
nearshore zone in terms of a budget. If a nearshore sys-
tem has a balanced budget, sediment is supplied to it as

fast as it is removed, and the volume of sediment re-
mains more or less constant, although sand may shift
offshore and onshore with the changing seasons (Fig.
20-16). A positive budget means gains exceed losses,
whereas a negative budget results when losses exceed
gains. If a negative budget prevails long enough, a near-
shore system is depleted and beaches may completely
disappear.
Erosion of sea cliffs provides some sediment to
beaches, but in most areas probably no more than 5 to
10% of the total sediment supply is derived from this
source. There are exceptions, however. For example, al-
most all the sediment on the beaches of Maine is derived
from the erosion of shoreline rocks. Most of the sedi-
ment on typical beaches is transported to the shoreline
by streams and then redistributed along the shoreline by Sea level rises
longshore drift. Thus, longshore drift also plays a role in
the nearshore sediment budget because it continually

moves sediment into and away from beach systems.
The primary ways in which a nearshore system loses
sediment include offshore transport, wind, and deposi-
tion in submarine canyons. Offshore transport mostly
involves fine-grained sediment that is carried seaward
where it Wind is an
eventually settles in deeper water.
important process because removes sand from beaches
it
and blows it inland where it commonly piles up as sand

dunes. However, storm waves may erode dunes and
carry some of their sand back into the nearshore zone.
If the heads of submarine canyons are nearshore,
huge quantities of sand are funneled into them and de-
posited in deeper water. La Jolla and Scripps submarine
canyons off the coast of southern California funnel off
an estimated 2 million m of sand each year. In most
3
areas, however, submarine canyons are too far offshore

to interrupt the flow of sand in the nearshore zone.
It should be apparent from the preceding discussion
that if a nearshore system is in equilibrium, its incoming

supply of sediment exactly offsets its losses. Such a del-
icate balance tends to continue unless the system is
somehow disrupted. One common way in which this
balance isaffected is the construction of dams across the

streams supplying sand. The sediment contribution
Perspective 20-2
RISING SEA LEVEL AND

COASTAL MANAGEMENT
Shorelines in the United States are eroding as sea level The first is the volume of water in the ocean basins,
rises.According to one study, 54% of U.S. shorelines which is increasing as a result of the melting of glacial
are eroding at rates ranging from millimeters per year ice and the thermal expansion of near-surface
to more than 10 m in a few areas (Fig. 1). Many seawater. Many scientists think that sea level will
other areas of the world are experiencing shoreline continue to consequence of global warming
rise as a
problems as well. resulting from concentrations of greenhouse gases in

During the last century, sea level rose about 12 cm the atmosphere.
worldwide, and all indications are that it will continue The second factor controlling sea level is the rate of
to rise. The absolute rate of sea level rise in a uplift or subsidence of a coastal area. In some areas,
particular shoreline region depends on two factors. uplift is occurring so fast that sea level is actually
*" FIGURE 1 Shoreline erosion in the United States. No data are available for shoreline
areas left uncolored.
Annual shoreline change
| Severely eroding
|
Moderately eroding
|
Relatively stable

^ FIGURE 3 The beach at
Miami Beach, Florida, before and
after the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers' beach nourishment
project.
Other problems associated with sea level rise include maintain. Furthermore, they retard erosion only in the
increased coastal flooding during storms and saltwater area directly behind the seawall; recall that Galveston
incursions that may threaten groundwater supplies Island west of the seawall has been eroded back about
(see Chapter 17). 45 m.
Since nothing can be done to prevent sea level from Another option, adopted by both Atlantic City,
rising, engineers and scientists must examine what can New Jersey, and Miami Beach, Florida, is to pump
be done to prevent or minimize the effects of shoreline sand onto the beaches to replace that lost to erosion
erosion. At present, only a few viable options exist. (Fig. 3). This, too, is expensive as the sand must be
One is on coastal development.

to put strict controls replenished periodically because erosion is a
North Carolina, for example, permits large structures continuing process. In many areas, groins are
to be sited no closer to the shoreline than 60 times the constructed to preserve beaches, but unless additional
annual erosion rate. Although a growing awareness of sand is artificially supplied to the beaches, longshore
shoreline processes has resulted in similar legislation currents invariably erode sand from the downcurrent
elsewhere, some states have virtually no restrictions on sides of the groins.
coastal development. Rising sea level has already had a significant
Regulating coastal development commendable,
is economic impact, and all options for dealing with this
but it has no impact on existing structures and coastal phenomenon are expensive. Fortifying the shoreline
communities. A general retreat from the shoreline may with seawalls, groins, and other structures is initially
be possible, but expensive, for individual dwellings expensive, requires constant maintenance, and in the
and small communities, but it is impractical for large long run will be ineffective if sea level continues to
population centers. Such communities as Atlantic City, rise. A general retreat from the shoreline is simply
New Jersey, Miami Beach, Florida, and Galveston, impractical for most coastal communities. Perhaps the
Texas, have adopted one of two strategies to combat best option is to replace sand lost to erosion by
coastal erosion. One is to build protective barriers pumping it from elsewhere, usually farther offshore.
such as seawalls. Seawalls, such as the one at In some areas, however, little can be done to offset the
Galveston, Texas (see the Prologue), can be effective, effects of rising sea level.
but they are tremendously expensive to construct and

as a consequence of corrosion, hydraulic action, and
abrasion, thesame processes that account for erosion by
running water (see Chapter 16). Corrosion is an ero-
sional process involving the wearing away of rock by
chemical processes, especially the solvent action of sea-
water. The force of the water itself, called hydraulic
action, is a particularly effective erosional process.
Waves exert tremendous pressure on shorelines by direct
impact, but are most effective on sea cliffs composed of
unconsolidated sediment or rocks that are highly frac-
tured. Abrasion is an erosional process involving the
grinding action of rocks and sand carried by waves.
Wave-Cut Platforms and "•* FIGURE 20-24 On shorelines where erosion rather
Associated Landforms than deposition predominates, a sea cliff develops. Wave
erosion of sea cliffs causes them to migrate landward and
The rate at which sea cliffs are eroded and retreat in a
leave a beveled surface.
landward direction depends on wave intensity and the
resistance of the coastal rocks or sediments. Most sea
cliff retreat occurs during storms and, as one would
these join, they form a sea arch (Fig. 20-27a and b).
expect, occurs most rapidly in sea cliffs composed of
Continued erosion generally causes the span of an arch
unconsolidated sediment. For example, a sea cliff com-
to collapse, yielding isolated sea stacks on wave-cut plat-
posed of unconsolidated glacial drift on Cape Cod,
forms (Fig. 20-27c). In the long run, shoreline processes
Massachusetts, retreats as much as 30 m per century,
tend to straighten an initially irregular shoreline. They
and some parts of the White Cliffs of Dover in Great
do so because wave refraction causes more wave energy
more than 100 m per
Britain are retreating at a rate of
to be expended on headlands and less on embayments.
century. By comparison, sea cliffs consisting of dense
Thus, headlands become eroded, and some of the sedi-
igneous or metamorphic rocks may retreat at negligible
ment yielded by erosion is deposited in the embayments.
rates.
The net effect of these processes is to straighten the
Sea cliffs retreat mostly as a consequence of hydraulic
shoreline (Fig. 20-26b).
action and abrasion at their bases. As a sea cliff is un-
Wave-cut platforms and their associated features are
dercut by such erosion, the upper part is left unsup-
most common along seashores, but they are also present
ported and susceptible to mass wasting processes. Thus,
along the shores of large lakes. A number of such fea-
sea cliffs retreat little by little, and as they do, they leave
tures are present in the Great Lakes region, many of
a beveled surface called a wave-cut platform that slopes
gently in a seaward direction (Fig. 20-25). Broad wave-
cut platforms exist in many areas, but invariably the
water over them is shallow because the abrasive planing -^ FIGURE 20-25 Wave erosion of a sea cliff produces a
action of waves is only effective to a depth of about 10 m. gently sloping surface called a wave-cut platform.
Wave-cut platforms are surfaces of sediment trans- Deposition at the seaward margin of the wave-cut platform
port. The sediment eroded from sea cliffs is transported forms a wave-built platform.
seaward until it reaches deeper water at the edge of the
wave-cut platform. There it is deposited and forms a Wave cut Original land Sea cliff
platform surface
seaward extension of the wave-cut platform called a
wave-built platform (Fig. 20-25). Wave built ,^' Notch eroded
platform by waves
Sea cliffs do not retreat uniformly, however, because
some of the materials of which they are composed are
more resistant to erosion than others. Headlands are
seaward-projecting parts of the shoreline that are eroded
on both sides due to wave refraction (Fig. 20-26a). Sea
caves may form on opposite sides of a headland, and if
Shoreline Erosion 591

~-
Wave energy
dispersed in bays
Wave crest
(a) (b)
-^ FIGURE 20-26 (a) Wave refraction acts to straighten shorelines by concentrating

wave energy on headlands, (b) The same shoreline after extensive erosion of the
headlands and deposition in the bays.
which have been raised above lake level as a conse- are described as emergent (uplifted), these same coasts
quence of isostatic rebound. may be erosional as well. In other words, coasts com-
monly possess features allowing them to be classified in
^ TYPES OF COASTS several ways.
Coasts can be classified in different ways, but none of

Submergent and Emergent Coasts
them are completely satisfactory because of variations in
the factors controlling coastal development and varia- If sea level rises with respect to the land or the land
tions in the composition and configuration of coasts. subsides, coastal regions are flooded and said to be sub-
Rather than attempt to categorize all coasts, we shall mergent or drowned (Fig. 20-28). Much of the east
simply note that two types of coasts have already been coast of North America from Maine southward through
discussed, those dominated by deposition and those South Carolina was flooded during the post-Pleistocene
dominated by erosion, and shall look further at the rise in sea level, so that it is now an extremely irregular
changing relationships between coasts and sea level. coast. Recall that during the expansion of glaciers dur-
Depositional coasts, such as the U.S. Gulf Coast, are ing the Pleistocene, sea level was as much as 130 m
characterized by an abundance of detrital sediment and lower than at present, and that streams eroded their
the presence of such depositional landforms as deltas valleys more deeply as they adjusted to a lower base
and barrier islands. Erosional coasts are generally steep level. When sea level rose, the lower ends of these valleys
and irregular and typically lack well-developed beaches were drowned, forming estuaries such as Delaware and
except in protected areas. They are further characterized Chesapeake bays (Fig. 20-28). Estuaries are the seaward
by erosional features such as sea cliffs, wave-cut plat- ends of river valleys where seawater and freshwater mix.
forms, and sea stacks. Many of the beaches along the The divides between adjacent drainage systems on sub-
west coast of North America fall into this category. mergent coasts project seaward as broad headlands or a
The following section examines coasts in terms of line of islands.
their changing relationships to sea level. But note that Submerged coasts also occur at higher latitudes
while some coasts, such as those in southern California, where Pleistocene glaciers flowed into the sea. When sea

"^ FIGURE 20-27 (a) Erosion of
a headland and the origin of sea
caves, sea arches, and sea stacks.
(b) This sea stack in Australia has
an arch developed in it. (c) Sea
stacks south of La Push,
Washington.
Types of Coasts 593

"** FIGURE 20-29 An emergent coast in California. Such
coasts are characterized by a sea cliff, and they tend to be
straighter than submergent coasts. (Photo courtesy of Jerry

Westby.)
races in some areas. In southern California, for example,

several terrace levels are present, each of which proba-
bly represents a period of tectonic stability followed by
uplift. The highest of these terraces is now about 425 m
above sea level.
"^ FIGURE 20-28 Chesapeake Bay is a large estuary. It

^ TIDES
formed when the east coast of the United States was flooded On seacoasts the surface of the ocean rises and falls once
as sea level rose following the Pleistocene Epoch.
or twice daily in response to the gravitational attraction
of the Moon
and Sun. Such regular fluctuations in the
sea's surface are called tides.Two high tides and two
level rose, the lower ends of the glacial troughs were low tides occur daily in most areas as sea level rises and
drowned, forming fiords (Fig. 18-20). falls anywhere from a few centimeters to more than 15
Emergent coasts are found where the land has risen m (Fig. 20-31). During rising or flood tide, more and
with respect to sea level (Fig. 20-29). Emergence can more of the nearshore area is flooded until high tide is
occur when water is withdrawn from the oceans as oc- reached. Ebb tide occurs when currents flow seaward
curred during the Pleistocene expansion of glaciers. At during a decrease in the height of the tide.
present, however, coasts are emerging as a consequence Both the Moon and the Sun have sufficient gravita-
of isostasy or tectonism. In northeastern Canada and the tional attraction to exert tide-generating forces strong
Scandinavian countries, for example, the coasts are ir- enough to deform the solid body of the Earth, but they
regular because isostatic rebound is elevating formerly have a much greater influence on the oceans. The Sun is
glaciated terrain from beneath the sea. 27 million times more massive than the Moon, but it is
Coasts rising in response to tectonism, on the other 390 times as far from the Earth, and its tide-generating
hand, tend to be straight because the sea-floor topogra- force is only 46% as strong as that of the Moon. Ac-
phy being exposed as uplift proceeds is smooth. The cordingly, the tides are dominated by the Moon, but the
west coasts of North and South America are rising as a Sun does play an important role in generating tides as
consequence of plate tectonics. Distinctive features of well.
such coasts are marine terraces (Fig. 20-30), which are If we consider only the Moon acting on a spherical,
old wave-cut platforms now elevated above sea level. water-covered Earth, the tide-generating forces produce
Uplift in such areas appears to be episodic rather than two bulges on the ocean surface (Fig. 20-32a). One
continuous, as indicated by the multiple levels of ter- bulge extends toward the Moon because it is on the side

of the Earth where the Moon's gravitational attraction is
greatest. The other bulge occurs on the opposite side of
the Earth, where the Moon's gravitational attraction is
least. These two bulges always point toward and away
from the Moon, (Fig. 20-32a), so as the Earth rotates

and the Moon's position changes, an observer at a par-
ticular shoreline location experiences the rhythmic rise
and fall of tides twice daily. The heights of two succes-
sive high tides may vary depending on the Moon's in-
clination with respect to the equator.
The Moon revolves around the Earth every 28 days,
so its position with respect to any latitude changes
slightlyeach day. That is, as the Moon moves in its orbit
and the Earth rotates on its axis, it takes the Moon 50
minutes longer each day to return to the same position ~^ FIGURE 20-30 This gently sloping surface in Ireland
it was in the previous day. Thus, an observer would is a marine terrace.
experience a high tide at 1:00 p.m. on one day, for ex-

ample, and at 1:50 p.m. on the following day.
Tides are also complicated by the combined effects of neap tides about 20% lower than average occur (Fig.
the Moon and the Sun. Even though the Sun's tide- 20-32c).
generating force is weaker than the Moon's, when the Tidal ranges are also affected by shoreline configura-
Moon and Sun are aligned every two weeks, their forces tion. Broad, gently sloping continental shelves as in the
are added together and generate spring tides, which are Gulf of Mexico have low tidal ranges, whereas steep,
about20% higher than average tides (Fig. 20-32b). irregular shorelines experience a much greater rise and
When the Moon and Sun are at right angles to one fall of tides. Tidal ranges are greatest in some narrow,
another, also at two-week intervals, the Sun's tide- funnel-shaped bays and inlets. For example, in the Bay
generating force cancels some of that of the Moon, and of Fundy in Nova Scotia a tidal range of 16.5 m has
— FIGURE 20-31 (a) Low tide

and (b) high tide.
Tides 595
Full
New
moon moon
(b) Spring tides
First-quarter moon Inertial bulging and bulging due to

moon's gravitational pull
Tidal bulge due to

inertia
Tidal bulge due to

the moon's pull
'- f Earth
^- FIGURE 20-32 (a) The tides are
j
caused by the gravitational pull of the
Moon and, to a lesser degree, the Sun. Third-quarter moon
The Earth-Moon-Sun alignments at the Earth
times of the (b) spring and (c) neap
tides are shown. (c) Neap tides (a) Tidal forces
been recorded, and ranges greater than 10 m occur in shorelines, except in narrow passages where tidal cur-
several other areas. rent velocity isenough to erode and transport sed-
great
Tides have an important impact on shorelines be- iment. Indeed, if it were not for strong tidal currents,
cause the area of wave attack constantly shifts onshore some passageways would be blocked by sediments de-
and offshore as the tides rise and fall. Tidal currents posited by longshore currents.
themselves, however, have little modifying effect on
:^^^^^^^ ^-F«r«^^^ ^^^^xm.-3t>^^X^ m. % ^^ ^ U « '»3 .

l ,
.
» CHAPTER SUMMARY The waves become oversteepened and plunge

forward onto the shoreline, thus expending their
1. Shorelines are continually modified by the energy of kinetic energy.

waves and longshore currents and, to a lesser degree, Waves approaching a shoreline at an angle generate
by tidal currents. a longshore current. Such currents are capable of
2. Waves are on water surfaces that
oscillations considerable erosion, transport, and deposition.
transmit energy in the direction of wave movement. Rip currents are narrow surface currents that carry
Surface waves affect the water and sea floor only to water from the nearshore zone seaward through the
wave base, which is equal to one-half the wave breaker zone.
length. Beaches are the most common shoreline depositional
3. or no net forward motion of water occurs in
Little features.They are continually modified by nearshore
waves in the open sea. When waves enter shallow processes, and their profiles generally exhibit
water, they are transformed into waves in which seasonal changes.
water does move in the direction of wave advance. Spits, baymouthbars, and tombolos all form and
4. Wind-generated waves, especially storm waves, are grow consequence of longshore current
as a
responsible for most geologic work on shorelines, transport and deposition.
but waves can also be generated by faulting, volcanic 10. Barrier islands are nearshore sediment deposits of
explosions, and rockfalls. uncertain origin. They parallel the mainland but are
5. Breakers form where waves enter shallow water and separated from it by a lagoon.
the orbital motion of water particles is disrupted. 11 The volume of sediment in a nearshore system

remains rather constant unless the system is Erosion of a sea cliff produces a gently sloping
somehow disrupted as when dams are built across surface called a(an):
the streams supplying sand to the system. a. submergent coast; b wave-cut platform;
12. Many shorelines are characterized by erosion rather c. beach; d. backshore; e. emergent
than deposition. Such shorelines have sea cliffs and coast.
wave-cut platforms. Other features commonly Islands composed of sand and separated from the
present include sea caves, sea arches, and sea stacks. mainland by a lagoon are:
13. Submergent and emergent coasts are defined on the a barrier islands; b. atolls; c. baymouth
basis of their relationships to changes in sea level. bars; d. sea stacks; e. sea arches.
14. The gravitational attraction of the Moon and Sun The force of waves impacting on shorelines is:
causes the ocean surface to rise and fall as tides a corrosion; b wave oscillation;
twice daily in most shoreline areas. Most tidal c. hydraulic action; d. terracing;
currents have little effect on shorelines. e. translation.
The distance the wind blows over a water surface is
the:
IMPORTANT TERMS a. fetch; b. berm; c. spit; d. wave
period; e. wave trough.
backshore marine terrace 10. In deep-water waves, the water moves in orbital
barrier island rip current paths but with little net movement in the direction
baymouth bar shoreline of wave advance. Such waves are:
beach spit a. breakers; b. refracted waves;
beach face submergent coast c. swells; d. longshore drift waves;
berm tide e. rip currents.
breaker tombolo 11. The bending of waves so that they more nearly
crest (wave) trough (wave) parallel the shoreline is:
emergent coast wave base a. wave translation; b. wave oscillation;

fetch wave-cut platform c. wave deflection; d. wave refraction;
foreshore wave height e. wave reflection.
headland wave length 12. The excess water in the nearshore zone returns to
longshore current wave period the open sea by:
longshore drift wave refraction a. tombolos; b. longshore currents;
c. wave refraction; d. emergence; e. rip
currents.
^ REVIEW QUESTIONS 13. A sand deposit extending into the mouth of a bay
is a:
1. Which of the following is not a depositional a. headland; b. beach; c. spit;

landform? d. wave-cut platform; e. sea stack.
a. spit; b. tombolo; c. baymouth bar; 14. Although there are exceptions, most beaches receive
d. beach; e. sea stack. most of their sediment from:
2. The speed at which a wave form advances over a a. wave erosion of sea cliffs; b. erosion of
water surface is: offshore reefs; c. streams; d. breakers;
a. celerity; b. wave length; c. refraction; e. coastal submergence.
d. wave base; e. fetch. 15. Erosional remnants of a shoreline now rising above
3. Wave base is: a wave-cut platform are:
a. the distance offshore that waves break; a. barrier islands; b. sea stacks;
b. the width of a longshore current; c. the c. beaches; d. marine terraces; e. spits.
depth at which the orbital motion in surface waves 16. Which of the following is a distinctive feature of
dies out; d. the distance wind blows over a emergent coasts?
water surface; e the height of storm waves. a. marine terraces; b. estuaries;
4. Waves approaching a shoreline obliquely generate: c. drowned river valleys; d. very high tidal
a flood tides; b. longshore currents; range; e. fiords.
c. tidal currents; d berms; e marine How do deep- and shallow-water waves differ?
terraces. What is wave base and how does it affect waves as
5. Most beach sand is composed of what mineral? they enter shallow water?
a basalt; b calcite; c gravel; Explain how a longshore current is generated.
d quartz; e feldspar. What is longshore drift?

21. What is the relationship between longshore currents Bird, E. C. F., and M. L. Schwartz. 1985. The world's coastline.
and rip currents? New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.

22. Sketch a north-south shoreline along which several Fox, W. T. 1983. At the sea's edge. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall.
groins have been constructed. Assume that waves
Hecht, J. 1988. America in peril from the sea. New Scientist
approach from the northwest.
118:54-59.
23. Explain why quartz is the most common mineral
Komar, P. D. 1976. Beach processes and sedimentation.
composing beach sands. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
24. Sketch the profiles of a summer beach and a winter 1983. CRC handbook of coastal processes and erosion.
.
beach, and explain why they differ. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press.
25. How does a tombolo form? Pethick, J. 1984. An introduction to coastal geomorphology.
26. Explain the concept of a nearshore sediment budget. London: Edward Arnold.
27. How does a wave-cut platform develop? Schneider, S. H. 1990. Global warming: Are we entering the
28. Explain how an initially irregular shoreline is

greenhouse century? San Francisco, Calif.: Sierra Club Books.
Snead, R. 1982. Coastal landforms and surface features.
straightened. A sketch may
be helpful.
Stroudsburg, Pa.: Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co.
29. Why does an observer at a shoreline experience two
Walden, D. 1990. Raising Galveston. American Heritage of
high and two low tides each day?
Invention &
Technology 5:8-18.
30. What are the characteristics of a submergent coast? Williams, S. J.,K. Dodd, and K. K. Gohn. 1990. Coasts in
crisis. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1075.
Abrahamson, D. E., ed. 1989. The challenge of global warming.
Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
Bird, E. C. F. 1984. Coasts: An introduction to coastal
geomorphology. New York: Blackwell.

•^ **- *«• "^ •*- -^T^gr
ANSWERS TO
MULTIPLE-CHOICE AND
FILL-IN-THE-BLANK
REVIEW QUESTIONS
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 11
1. c; 2. e; 3. b; 4. c; 5. d; 6. e; 7. a; 8. d; 9. c; 10. b; 11. a; 1. b; 2. c; 3. c; 4. a; 5. e; 6. c; 7. b; 8. c; 9. b; 10. d; 11. b;
12. c; 13. d; 14. a; 15. a; 16. e; 17. b. 12. c; 13. e; 14. b.
1. a; 2. d; 3. e; 4. c; 5. b; 6. a; 7. c; 8. e; 9. d; 10. a; 11. c; 1. b; 2. d; 3. a; 4. e; 5. c; 6. c; 7. d; 8. b; 9. b; 10. a; 11.
12. e; 13. e; 14. a; 15. a; 16. e; 17. d; 18. b; 19. c; c; 12. d; 13. e; 14. c; 15. b.
20. b.
CHAPTER 13
y CHAPTER 3 1. d; 2. a; 3. e; 4. c; 5. e; 6. b; 7. c; 8. d; 9. b; 10. c; 11. a; 12.
1. b; 2. e; 3. c; 4. d; 5. b; 6. c; 7. b; 8. a; 9. c; 10. b; 11. b; 13. c; 14. b; 15. divergent; 16. oceanic-oceanic convergent;
a; 12. a; 13. b; 14. e; 15. c. 17. transform; 18. oceanic-continental convergent.
1. a; 2. c; 3. a; 4. e; 5. b; 6. b; 7. c; 8. b; 9. e; 10. b; 11. 1. b; 2. c; 3. e; 4. d; 5. a; 6. b; 7. c; 8. c; 9. a; 10. d; 11. b;
a; 12. c; 13. a; 14. c; 15. d; 16. a; 17. d; 18. e; 19. d. 12. c; 13. a; 14. c; 15. a; 16. d; 17. a; 18. c; 19. b; 20. c.
1. b; 2. a; 3. d; 4. a; 5. c; 6. d; 7. d; 8. e; 9. b; 10. d; 11. 1. e; 2. e; 3. b; 4. d; 5. c; 6. a; 7. e; 8. e; 9. c; 10. a; 11. e;
a; 12. a; 13. d. 12. d.
1. b; 2. e; 3. a; 4. b; 5. c; 6. d; 7. b; 8. a; 9. a; 10. d; 11. 1. d; 2. a; 3. c; 4. e; 5. b; 6. c; 7. a; 8. c; 9. b; 10. d; 11. a; 12.
"
e; 12. b; 13. c; 14. b. c; 13. d; 14. b; 15. c; 16. c; 17. e; 18. a; 19. c; 20. d.
^ 1. c; 2. d; 3. a; 4. e; 5. a; 6. d; 7. b; 8. c; 9. a; 10. e; 11. c; 1. a; 2. c; 3. b; 4. d; 5. e; 6. d; 7. e; 8. b; 9. d; 10. e; 11.
a; 12. e; 13. e; 14. b.
12. b; 13. c; 14. b"; 15. d; 16. e.
1. c; 2. e; 3. a; 4. c; 5. a; 6. c; 7. d; 8. c; 9. d; 10. b; 11. e; 1. c; 2. a; 3. b; 4. c; 5. e; 6. b; 7. c; 8. b; 9. b; 10. e; 11. c;
12. b; 13. d; 14. b; 15. a; 16. e; 17. b; 18. d. 12. b; 13. a; 14. c; 15. b.
1. c; 2. c; 3. a; 4. e; 5. d; 6. a; 7. c; 8. e; 9. d; 10. b; 11. c; 1. d; 2. b; 3. a; 4. c; 5. e; 6. d; 7. c; 8. a; 9. b; 10. e; 11.

12. e; 13. b. c; 12. b; 13. d; 14. a; 15. e.
1. c; 2. b; 3. a; 4. e; 5. a; 6. d; 7. e; 8. a; 9. b; 10. c; 11. d; 1. e; 2. a; 3. c; 4. b; 5. d; 6. b; 7. a; 8. c; 9. a; 10. c; 11. d;
12. e; 13. c; 14. b. 12. e; 13. c; 14. c; 15. b; 16. a.
^^r^->«rêr^^g^g^cr^^g.'ifc. *. 3tJfcJL3fc>r«. -K. -«. TE.^C3K3tZ

•»"y%^3C3E
GLOSSARY
mainly of hornblende and ash Uncemented pyroclastic

aa A lava flow with a surface of plagioclase. material measuring less than 2 mm
rough, jagged angular blocks and angular unconformity An that is erupted by a volcano.
fragments. unconformity below which older assemblage range zone A type of
strata dip at a different angle biozone established by plotting the
abrasion The process by which
exposed rock is worn and scraped by (usually steeper) than the overlying overlapping ranges of fossils that
the impact of solid particles.
younger strata. have different geologic ranges; the
anthracite A black, lustrous, hard first and last occurrences of fossils
absolute dating The process of
coal that contains a high percentage are used to establish assemblage
assigning actual ages to geologic
of fixed carbon and a low percentage range zone boundaries.
events. Various dating techniques
of volatile matter. Anthracite usually assimilation A process in which a
based on radioactive decay are used
to determine absolute ages.
forms from the metamorphism of magma reacts with preexisting rock
lower-grade coals. with which it comes in contact.
abyssal plain The flat surface of
the sea floor, covering vast areas
anticline An
up-arched fold asthenosphere The part of the
characterized by an axial plane that mantle that lies below the lithosphere;
beyond the continental rises of
divides it in half. behaves plastically and flows.
passive continental margins.
aphanitic A fine-grained texture in atom The
active continental margin A smallest unit of matter
igneous rocks in which the individual that retains the characteristics of an
continental margin that develops at
mineral grains are too small to be element.
the leading edge of a continental
seen without magnification. An
plate where oceanic lithosphere is atomic mass number The total
aphanitic texture results from rapid
subducted. number of protons and neutrons in
cooling of magma. the nucleus of an atom,
alluvial fan A lobate deposit of
sand and gravel deposited by a aquiclude Any material that atomic number The number of
stream on lowlands adjacent to
prevents the movement of protons in the nucleus of an atom,
groundwater.
highlands, usually in an arid or aureole A zone surrounding an
semiarid region. aquifer A permeable layer that
igneous intrusion in which contact
alluvium A general term for
allows the movement of metamorphism has taken place.
groundwater.
detrital material deposited by a
stream. arete A narrow, serrated ridge
alpha decay A type of radioactive

separating two glacial valleys or B
adjacent cirques.
decay involving the emission of a back-arc basin A basin formed on
two protons
particle consisting of artesian system A system in which the continent side of a volcanic
and two neutrons from the nucleus groundwater is confined and builds island arc; thought to form by
of an atom; emission of an alpha up high hydrostatic (fluid) pressure. back-arc spreading; the site of a
atomic number
particle decreases the
aseismic ridge A long, linear ridge marginal sea, e.g., the Sea of Japan.
by two and the atomic mass number or broad plateaulike feature rising as backshore The area of a beach that
by four. much as 2 to 3 km
above the is usually dry, being covered by
amphibolite A dark-colored surrounding sea floor and lacking water only by storm waves or
foliated metamorphic rock composed seismic activity. exceptionally high tides.
Glossary 601
bajada A broad alluvial apron Benioff zone A dipping seismic found in arid and semiarid regions;
formed at the base of a mountain zone that is a common feature of formed by the breaching of a
range by coalescing alluvial fans. island arcs and deep ocean trenches; resistant cap rock, which allows
such zones indicate the angle of plate rapid erosion of the less resistant
barchan dune A crescent-shaped
descent along a convergent plate underlying rocks.
dune whose tips point downwind;
boundary.
found in areas with generally flat dry
surfaces with little vegetation, limited berm The backshore area of a
supply of sand, and nearly constant beach consisting of a platform
wind direction. composed of sediment deposited by caldera A large, steep-sided,
waves; berms are nearly horizontal circular or oval volcanic depression

barchanoid dune A dune
or slope gently in a landward formed by summit collapse
either
intermediate between transverse and
direction. resulting from the underlying magma
barchan dunes; typically forms along
chamber being partly drained, or by
the edges of a dune field. beta decay A type of radioactive
a large explosion in which the
barrier island A
narrow long,
decay during which a fast-moving
summit is blown away.
electron is emitted from a neutron
island composed of sand and
and thus is converted to a proton; capillary fringe The area extending
separated from the mainland by a
results in an increase of one atomic irregularly upward a few centimeters
lagoon.
number, but does not change atomic to several meters from the base of
basal slip A type of glacial
mass number. the zone of aeration.
movement that occurs when a glacier
Big Bang A model for the evolution carbon 14 dating technique An
slides over the underlying surface.
of the universe in which a dense, hot absolute dating method that relies
basalt plateau A large plateau built
state is followed by expansion, upon determining the ratio of C 14 to
up by numerous lava flows from C 12 in a sample; useful back to
cooling, and a less dense state.
fissure eruptions. about 70,000 years ago; can be
biochemical sedimentary rock A
base level The lowest limit to applied only to organic substances.
sedimentary rock resulting from the
which a stream can erode. carbonate mineral A mineral that
chemical processes of organisms; a
basin The circular equivalent of a subcategory of chemical sedimentary contains the negatively charged
-2
syncline. All of the strata in a basin rocks. carbonate ion (C0 3 ) .
dip toward a central point. carbonate rock A rock containing

bonding The process whereby
batholith The largest of intrusive atoms are joined to other atoms. predominately carbonate minerals,
bodies, having at least 100 km 2 of cave A naturally formed subsurface
Bowen's reaction series A
surface area. Most batholiths are opening that is generally connected
mechanism that accounts for the
discordant and are composed chiefly to the surface and is large enough
derivation of intermediate and felsic
of granitic rocks. for a person to enter.
magmas from a mafic magma. It
baymouth bar A spit that has consists of a discontinuous branch of cementation The precipitation of
grown until it completely cuts off a ferromagnesian minerals that change binding material between and
bay from the open sea. from one mineral to another over around the grains of sediment, thus
beach A deposit of unconsolidated specific temperature ranges and a converting it to sedimentary rock.
sediment extending landward from continuous branch of plagioclase chemical sedimentary rock
low tide to a change in topography feldspars whose composition changes Originates by precipitation of
or where permanent vegetation as the temperature decreases. minerals derived from the ions and
begins.
braided stream A stream saltstaken into solution in the
beach face The sloping area below possessing an intricate network of weathering environment.
the berm that is exposed to wave dividing and rejoining channels. chemical weathering The process
swash. Braiding occurs when sediment whereby rock materials are
bed load The coarser part of a transported by the stream is decomposed by chemical alteration
stream's sediment load; consists of deposited within channels as sand of the parent material.
sand and gravel. and gravel bars.
cinder cone A small steep-sided
bedding Another name for layering breaker A wave that oversteepens volcano that forms from the
in sedimentary rocks. as it enters shallow water until the accumulation of pyroclastic material
crest plunges forward. around a vent.
bedding plane The bounding
surface that separates one layer of butte An isolated, steep-sided, circum-Pacific belt A zone of
strata from another. pinnacle-like erosional structure seismic and volcanic activity that
602 Glossary
nearly encircles the margins of the concordant Refers to plutons convergent plate boundary The
Pacific Ocean basin; the majority of whose boundaries are parallel to the boundary between two plates that
the world's earthquakes and volcanic layering in the country rock. are moving toward one another;
eruptions occur within this belt.
cone of depression The lowering three types of convergent plate
cirque A steep-walled, bowl-shaped of the water table around a well in boundaries are recognized.
depression formed by erosion by a the shape of a cone; results when core The interior part of the Earth
valley glacier. water is removed from an aquifer which begins at a depth of about
clastic texture A texture of faster than it can be replenished. 2,900 km; probably composed
sedimentary rocks consisting of the contactmetamorphism mostly of iron and nickel; divided
broken particles of preexisting rocks Metamorphism in which a magma into an outer liquid core and an
or organic structures such as shells. body alters the surrounding country inner solid core.
cleavage The ability to break or rock. Coriolis effect The deflection of

split along a smooth plane of continental-continental plate winds to the right of their direction of
weakness. Cleavage is determined by boundary A type of convergent motion (clockwise) in the Northern
the strength of the bonds within plate boundary along which two Hemisphere and to the left of their
minerals. continental lithospheric plates collide direction of motion (counterclockwise)
the collision of India with in the Southern Hemisphere due to the
column A cave deposit formed (e.g.,
Asia). Earth's rotation.

when stalagmites and stalactites
join. continental crust The continental correlation The demonstration of
rocks overlying the upper mantle and time equivalency of rock units in
columnar jointing A type of
consisting of a wide variety of different areas.
jointing that forms columns in
igneous rocks. The joints commonly igneous, sedimentary, and country rock The rock that is
form a polygonal (usually hexagonal) metamorphic rocks. It has an overall invaded by and surrounds an igneous
pattern.Columnar joints are most composition corresponding closely to intrusion.
common in mafic lava flows. granodiorite and an overall density
3 covalent bond A bond formed by
of about 2.70 g/cm .
compaction A method of the sharing of electrons between

lithification whereby the pressure continental drift The theory that atoms.
exerted by the weight of the the continents were once joined into
a single landmass that broke apart
crater A circular depression at the
overlying sediment reduces the summit of a volcano resulting from
amount of pore space and thus the with the various fragments
the extrusion of gases and lava;
(continents) moving with respect to
volume of a deposit. connected by a conduit to a magma
one another; proposed by Alfred
complex movement A Wegener in 1912.
chamber below the Earth's surface.
combination of different types of craton The name applied to the
mass movements in which one type continental glacier A large glacier
relatively stable part of a continent;
is not dominant; most complex
covering a vast area (at least 50,000
consists of a shield and a platform,
movements involve sliding and km 2 and unconfined by topography.
)
a buried extension of a shield;

flowing.
Also called an ice sheet.
the ancient nucleus of a
continental margin The area
composite volcano A volcano continent.
separating the part of a continent
composed of both pyroclastic layers creep The imperceptible downslope
above sea level from the deep-sea
and lava flows typically of movement of soil or rock; it is the
floor.
intermediate composition. Composite slowest type of flow.
volcanoes, also called continental rise The area beyond
the base of the continental slope
crest The highest part of a wave.
stratovolcanoes, are steep-sided near
theirsummits (up to 30°), but with a gentle slope. cross-bedding Beds that are
decrease in slope toward their base continental shelf The area between deposited at an angle to the surface
where they are generally less than 5°. the shoreline and continental slope upon which they are accumulating.
compound A substance resulting where the sea floor slopes very gently crust The outermost layer of the
from the bonding of two or more in a seaward direction. Earth; the upper part of the
different elements. lithosphere, which is separated from
continental slope The relatively
steep area between the shelf-slope
the mantle by the Moho; divided
compressional stress Stress
break an average depth of 135 m)
into continental and oceanic crust.
resulting when rocks are squeezed by (at
external forces directed toward one and the more gently sloping crystal settling The physical
another. continental rise or oceanic trench. separation of minerals by
Glossary 603
crystallization and gravitational desertification The expansion of divide A topographicaly high a
•' i-
settling. deserts into formerly productive .'tZi'i'r:'. ' - '- J:' " ".''. T.k'iS:
lands.
crystalline solid A solid in which
the constituent atoms are arranged in detntal sedimentary rock dome A circular equivalent of an
a regular, three-dimensional Sedimentary rock consisting of anticline. All strata in a dome dip
framework. detritus, the solid panic. away from a central point.
preexisting rocks. Such rocks have a drainage basin The area occupied
crystalline texture A texture of
clastic texture. by a drainage system that contributes
rocks consisting of an interlocking
mosaic of mineral crystals. differential pressure Pressure that water to a given stream.
isnot applied equally to all sides of drainage partem The regional
Curie point The temperature at
a rock body; results in distortion of arrangement of channels in a
which iron-bearing minerals in a
the body.
cooling magma attain their :.-a..-.5i-e ':; ;:•:.-
magnetism. differential weathering Weathering dripstone Various cave deposits

of rock at different rates, producing resulting from the deposition of
an uneven surface. calche.
dike A tabular or sheetlike drumlin An elongated hill of till
daughter element An element discordant pluton. measuring as much as 50 m high and
formed by the radioactive decay of dilatancy model A model u.sed to 1 km long; formed by the movement
another element, e.g., argon 40 is the predict earthquakes based on of a continental glacier.
daughter element of potassium 40. changes occurring in rocks subjected dry climate A climate that occurs
high pressures. low and middle
debris avalanche A complex rj in the latitudes
movement that often occurs in very- dip A measure of the maximum where the potential loss of water by
steep mountain ranges; typically angular deviation of an inclined evaporation exceeds the yearly
starts out as a rockfall. plane from horizontal; measured precipitation; covers 30% of the
perpendicular to the strike direction. Earth's land surface and is divided
debris flow A type of mass
A on which into semiarid and arid regions.
movement that contains larger-sized dip-slip fault fault all
particles and less water than a movement is parallel with the dip of dune A mound or ridge of
mudflow. the fault plane. wind-deposited sand.
deflation The removal of loose discharge The total volume of dynamic metamorphism
surface sediment by the wind, water in a stream moving past a Metamorphism associated with fault
particular point in a given period of zones where rocks are subjected to
deflation hollow A shallow
time. high differential pressures.
depression of variable dimensions
that results from the differential disconformity An unconformity
erosion of surface materials by wind, above and below which the strata
are parallel.
delta An alluvial deposit formed at
the mouth of a stream. discontinuity A marked change in earthflow A flow that moves from
the velocity of seismic waves the upper part of a hillside, leaving a
depositional environment An area
indicating a significant change in scarp, and flows slowly downslope
in which sediment is deposited; a
Earth materials or their properties, as a thick, viscous, tongue-shaped
depositional site differs in physical
discordant Refers to plutons whose mass of wet regolith.
aspects, chemistry, and biology from
adjacent environments, boundaries cut across the layering of earthquake The vibration of the
country rock. Earth caused by the sudden release
desert Any area that receives less
That part of a of energy, usually as a result of the
than 25 cm of rain per year. dissolved load
stream's load that consists of ions
displacement of rocks along faults.
Typically, a desert has poorly
developed soil and is mostly or taken into solution by chemical echo sounder instrument thatAn
completely devoid of vegetation, weathering. determines the depth of the sea floor
divergent plate boundary The by measuring the time it takes for a

desert pavement A surface mosaic
boundary between two plates that sound signal to travel to the sea floor
of close-fitting pebbles, cobbles, and
many are moving apart; new oceanic
and return.
boulders found in dry regions
and formed by the removal of lithosphere forms at the boundary; elastic rebound theory A theory
sand-sized and smaller panicles by characterized by volcanism and that explains how
earthquakes occur.
wind. seismicity. When rocks are deformed, they store
604 Glossary'
dasr>. •
dasnc Ho.\«1n.
electron A Ilui.
- i
-
.<ITl.
dectron capture
which an
rnmic numhci. Sm no
n atomic mass number
dectror. she. orbit fault
shells. Each shell can onl\ fault plane

. -rain numb:
dectro: rilled.
dectrons move to the next shell

farther from the n. .
fctsk magma A
dement A substance compos more t! ....
all the same aroms.
cannot he it
considerable sodiu . . .
changed into another clement b\ aluminum, bin lii. .
ordinary chemical means. um.

emergent coast A coast where the fcrromagnesian silicate \ -
land has risen with respi 1
.
mineral containing iron -
level.
esium Such nun.cm both. ..I.
end moraine A pile of ruhhle are commonhj dark colored and ..I.
deposited at the termini^ densei than nonfcrromagncsian fossil

glacier. .1.- ..I
epicenter The point on the Earth's fetch The distance ch< wmJ I
surface vertically above the focus ot nnnuiuis >-

Fr«< la..
. .
an earthquake. fiord A lo; :
erosion The removal of weathered below tiosi .14 lion llu

material. firn A gramilat type ol sm>v\ and <i>
esker A
long sinuous ridge of formed b> the melting and refn
formed by deposition
stratified drift of snow. Irosi hi
by running water in tunnels beneath firn limit The elev.ition 10 whuh
stagnant ice or in melrwater channels snow recedes durinf . II. ,1 lllllMl.
on the surface of a glacier. season. follow?) ..,.1
evaporite A
sedimentary rock that fission track dating I he pra
forms by inorganic chemical dating samples by counting the ll.l si ". .Iliiiu I I,. ..|>. mill, .ii.l
precipitation of minerals from number of small lineal tracks tissum wideni •!..!
solution. tracks) that result when mmii.il .1 Iiii.iii;. .nul lli.it. 1
< <«"
Glossopteris flora A Late Paleozoic greenstone The name applied to
florafound only on the Southern any compact, dark green, altered,
geologic time scale A vertical
Hemisphere continents and India; mafic igneous rock formed under
geologic chart arranged such that the
named after its best known genus, low-to-high-grade metamorphic
designation for the earliest part of
Glossopteris. conditions.
geologic time appears at the bottom,
and progressively younger gneiss A foliated metamorphic rock ground moraine The sediment
designations appear in their proper that is streaked or has segregated liberated from melting ice as a
chronologic sequence. bands of light and dark minerals. glacier's terminus retreats.
geology The science concerned Gondwana One of the six major groundwater The water stored in
with the study of the Earth; includes Paleozoic continents; composed of the the open spaces within underground
studies of Earth materials (minerals present-day continents of South rocks and unconsolidated material.
and rocks), surface and internal America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, guide fossil Any easily identifiable
processes, and Earth history. and India; began fragmenting during fossil thathas a wide geographic
the Triassic Period. distribution and a short geologic
geothermal energy Energy that
comes from the steam and hot water graded bedding A type of range; used to determine the geologic
trapped within the Earth's crust. sedimentary bedding in which an ages of strata and to correlate strata
individual bed is characterized by a of the same age.
geothermal gradient A
decrease in grain size from bottom to guyot A flat-topped seamount of
temperature increase with depth. It is
top. volcanic origin rising more than 1
about 25°C/km near the Earth's
surface, but varies from area to area. graded stream A stream possessing km above the sea floor.
an equilibrium profile in which a
geyser A
hot spring that
delicate balance exists between
intermittently ejects hot water and
gradient, discharge, flow velocity,
H
steam.
channel characteristics, and sediment half-life The time required for
glacial budget The expansion and load such that neither significant one-half of the original number of
contraction of a glacier in response erosion nor deposition occurs within atoms of a radioactive element to
to accumulation and wastage. the channel. decay to a stable daughter product,
glacial drift The sediment e.g., the half-life of potassium 40 is
gradient The slope over which a
deposited as a consequence of glacial stream flows. Gradient generally 1.3 billion years.
activity.
variesfrom steep to gentle along the hanging valley A tributary glacial
glacial erratic A boulder course of a stream, being steep in the valley whose floor is at a higher level
transported by a glacier from its upper reaches and gentle in the than that of the main glacial valley.
original source. lower reaches. hanging wall block The block that
glacial groove A deep straight granitization A process whereby overlies a fault plane.
scratch on a rock surface formed by different types of rocks are converted headland The seaward-projecting
the movement of sediment-laden to granite or granodiorite while in part of the shoreline that is eroded
glaciers over bedrock. Glacial the solid state. on both sides due to wave refraction.
grooves are deeper than glacial gravity anomaly A departure from heat An agent of metamorphism;
striations. the expected force of gravity at a heat comes from increasing depth in
glacial ice Ice that has formed particular location. A positive gravity the crust, magma, and applied
from firn.
anomaly occurs when there is a mass pressure.
excess between the surface and the
glacial polish A smooth glistening
center of the Earth. A negative
heat flow The flow of heat from
bedrock surface formed by the the Earth's interior to its surface.
gravity anomaly occurs when there is
movement of a sediment-laden
a mass deficiency. hiatus The interval of geologic time
glacier over it. not represented by strata in a sequence
greenhouse effect Carbon dioxide,
glacial striation A straight scratch of strata containing an unconformity.
some other gases, and water vapor
on a rock surface caused by the
allow sunlight to penetrate the horn A steep-walled, pyramidal
movement of sediment-laden glaciers.
atmosphere but trap the heat peak formed by the headward
Glacial striations are rarely more reflectedback from a planet's erosion of cirques.
than a few millimeters deep.
surface, thus causing the atmosphere hornfels A fine-grained, nonfoliated
glacier A mass of on land that
ice to heat up. The result is an overall metamorphic rock resulting from
moves by plastic flow and basal slip. increase in global temperatures. contact metamorphism.
606 Glossary
hot spot A localized zone of intensity The subjective measure of Neptune) that resemble Jupiter. They
melting below the lithosphere; the kind of damage done by an are all large and have low mean
detected by volcanism at the earthquake as well as people's densities, indicating that they are
surface. reaction to it. composed mostly of lightweight
hot spring A spring in which the intermediate magma A magma gases such as hydrogen and helium,
water temperature is warmer than having a silica content between 53 as well as frozen compounds such as
the temperature of the human body and 65% and an overall composition ammonia and methane.
(37°C). intermediate between felsic and mafic
humus The material derived by magmas.
K
bacterial decay of organic matter; it internal drainage A type of
gives many soils their dark color. drainage found in semiarid and arid karst topography A topography
regions in which a stream drains into developed largely by groundwater
hydraulic action The power of
a central low area without exiting. erosion and characterized by
moving water.
numerous caves, springs, sinkholes,
hydrologic cycle The continual intrusive igneous rock Rock that
solution valleys, and disappearing
recycling of water from the oceans, crystallizes from magma intruded
streams.
through the atmosphere, to the into or formed in place within the
continents, and back to the oceans. Earth's crust. key bed A rock unit that is
sufficiently distinctive to allow
hydrolysis The chemical reaction ion An electrically charged atom
+
identification of the same rock unit
between the hydrogen (H ions and produced by adding or removing
)
in different areas.
hydroxyl (OH~) ions of water and a electrons from the outermost
mineral's ions. electron shell.
hypothesis A tentative explanation ionic bond A bond that results
formulated to explain observed from the attraction of positively and

laccolith A concordant pluton with
phenomena and used as a basis for negatively charged ions.
a mushroomlike geometry.
further experimentation or irons Agroup of meteorites
lahar A volcanic mudflow.
investigation. composed primarily of iron and
nickel alloys and accounting for lateral moraine The sediment
about 6% of all meteorites. deposited as a long ridge of till along
I the margin of a glacier.
isograd A line on a map
igneous rock Any rock formed by connecting the first appearances of a laterite A soil formed in the tropics
cooling and crystallization of magma, particular index mineral and thus where chemical weathering is intense
or by the accumulation and indicating equal metamorphic and leaching of soluble minerals is
consolidation of volcanic ejecta such intensity.
complete.
as ash. rebound The

isostatic Laurasia A Late Paleozoic northern
incised meander A deep, phenomenon in which unloading of hemisphere continent composed of
meandering canyon cut into solid the Earth's crust causes it to rise the present-day continents of North
bedrock by a stream. upward until equilibrium is again America, Greenland, Europe, and
Asia.
attained.
inclusion An incompletely melted
piece of rock enclosed within an isotope Two or more forms of an lava Magma at the Earth's surface.
igneous rock. element having the same atomic lava dome A bulbous, steep-sided
index mineral A mineral that number and similar chemical structure formed by very viscous
forms only within specific
properties, but a different atomic magma moving upward through a
temperature and pressure ranges. mass number. volcanic conduit.
Index minerals allow geologists to lava flow A stream of magma

recognize low-, intermediate-, and flowing over the Earth's surface.
high-grade metamorphic zones. J leaching The dissolution or
infiltration capacity The maximum joint A which no
fracture along removal of soluble minerals from a
rate at which a soil, under a given movement has occurred, or where soil or rock by percolating water.
condition, can absorb rain. movement has been perpendicular to liquefaction The process by which
the fracture surface. and water-saturated sediments
inselberg An isolated steep-sided fill
erosional remnant that rises above Jovian planets The four planets liquefy, or behave as a fluid, when
the surrounding desert plains. (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and shaken.
Glossary 607
lithification The process by which composition are mixed together matter Anything that has mass and
sediment is transformed into producing a modified version of the occupies space.
sedimentary rock. parent magmas. meandering stream A stream
lithosphere The outer, rigid part of magnetic anomaly Any change, possessing a single, sinuous channel
the Earth consisting of the upper such as a change in average strength, with broadly looping curves.
mantle, oceanic crust, and of the Earth's magnetic field.
mechanical weathering The
continental crust; lies above the magnetic declination The angle breaking of rock materials by
asthenosphere. between lines drawn from a compass physical forces into smaller pieces
lithostatic pressure Pressure position to the magnetic pole and the that retain the chemical composition
resulting from the weight of the geographic pole. of the parent material.
overlying rock; it is applied equally magnetic field The area in which medial moraine A moraine formed
in all directions. magnetic substances are affected by where two lateral moraines merge.
loess Windblown silt and clay lines of magnetic force emanating
Mediterranean belt A zone of
deposits; derived from three main from the Earth. seismic and volcanic activity that
sources — deserts, Pleistocene glacial magnetic inclination The deviation extends westerly from Indonesia
outwash deposits, and floodplains of of the magnetic field from the through the Himalayas, across Iran
rivers in semiarid regions. horizontal. and Turkey, and through the
longitudinal dune A long, parallel magnetic reversal The phenomenon Mediterranean region of Europe;
ridge of sand aligned generally in which the north and south magnetic
about 20% of all active volcanoes
parallel to the direction of the poles are completely reversed. and 15% of all earthquakes occur in
prevailing wind; forms where the this belt.
magnitude The total amount of
sand supply is somewhat limited. mesa A broad, flat-topped
energy released by an earthquake at
longshore current A current its source. erosional remnant bounded on all
between the breaker zone and the sides by steep slopes; forms when the
mantle The mantle surrounds the
beach that flows parallel to the resistant cap rock is breached,
core and comprises about 83% of
shoreline and is produced by wave allowing rapid erosion of the less
the Earth's volume; it is less dense
refraction. resistant underlying sedimentary rock.
than the core and is thought to be
longshore drift The movement of composed largely of peridotite. metallic bond An extreme type of
sediment along a shoreline by electron sharing in which the electrons
mantle plume A stationary column
longshore currents. of the outermost electron shells of
of magma that originates deep
Love wave A surface wave in metals are readily lost and move about
within the mantle and slowly rises to
which the individual particles of the from one atom to another.
the Earth's surface to form volcanoes
material only move back and forth or flood basalts. metamorphic facies A group of
in a horizontal plane perpendicular metamorphic rocks characterized by
marble A nonfoliated metamorphic
to the direction of wave travel. particular mineral assemblages
rock composed predominantly of
low-velocity zone The zone within formed under the same broad
calcite or dolomite.
the mantle between the depths of temperature-pressure conditions.
marine regression The withdrawal
100 and 250 km where the velocity metamorphic grade The rocks
of the sea from a continent or coastal
of both P- and S-waves decreases within a metamorphic zone, all of
area resulting in the emergence of land
markedly; it corresponds closely to which are the same grade, i.e., low,
as sea level falls or the land rises with
the asthenosphere. medium, or high grade.
respect to sea level.
marine terrace An old wave-cut metamorphic rock Any rock type

M platform now elevated above sea altered by high temperature and
mafic magma A silica-poor magma level. pressure and the chemical activities
containing between 45 and 52% of fluids is said to have been
marine transgression The invasion
silicaand proportionately more metamorphosed, e.g., slate, gneiss,
of coastal areas or much of a
calcium, iron, and magnesium than a marble.
continent by the sea resulting from a
felsic magma. rise in sea level or subsidence of the metamorphic zone The region
magma Molten rock material land. between isograds.
generated within the Earth, mass wasting The downslope meteorite A mass of matter of
magma mixing The process movement of material under the extraterrestrial origin that has fallen
whereby magmas of different influence of gravity. to the Earth's surface.
608 Glossary
microplate A small lithospheric natural glass Lava that cools so characterized by subduction of an
block that is clearly of different rapidly that its constituent atoms do oceanic plate beneath a continental
origin than the rocks of the not have time to become arranged in plate and by volcanism and
surrounding mountain system and the ordered, three-dimensional seismicity.
adjacent craton. framework typical of minerals. oceanic crust The crust underlying
migmatite A rock having both natural levee A ridge of sandy the ocean basins. It ranges in
igneous and high-grade metamorphic alluvium deposited along the margins thickness from 5 to 10 km and has a
characteristics; usually consists of of a stream channel during floods. composition of basalt and an average
3
streaks or lenses of granite neutron An electrically neutral density of 3 g/cm .
intermixed with high-grade particle found in the nucleus of an oceanic-oceanic plate boundary A
ferromagnesian-rich metamorphic atom. type of convergent plate boundary
rocks. along which two oceanic lithospheric
nonconformity An unconformity
Milankovitch theory A theory that in which stratified rocks above the
plates collide.
explains cyclic variations in climate erosion surface overlie igneous or oceanic ridge A submarine
as a consequence of irregularities in metamorphic rocks. mountain system found in all of the
the Earth's rotation and orbit. oceans; it is composed of volcanic
nonferromagnesian silicate A
mineral A naturally occurring, silicate mineral that does not contain rock (mostly basalt) and displays
inorganic, crystalline solid, with a features produced by tensional
iron or magnesium.
narrowly defined chemical Nonferromagnesian silicate minerals forces.
composition and characteristic are generally light colored and less oceanic trench A long, narrow
physical properties. dense than ferromagnesian silicate feature restricted to active
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale minerals. continental margins and along which
A scale having values ranging from I
nonfoliated texture A subduction occurs.
to XII that is used to measure metamorphic texture in which there ooze Deep-sea pelagic sediment
earthquake intensity based on is no discernible preferred composed mostly of shells of marine
damage. orientation of mineral grains. animals and plants.
Mohorovicic discontinuity The normal fault A dip-slip fault ophiolite A sequence of rock now
boundary between the crust and the resultingfrom tensional forces in on land consisting of deep-sea
mantle. Also called the Moho. which the hanging wall block has sediments, oceanic crust, and upper
monocline A
simple bend or moved downward relative to the mantle.
flexure in otherwise horizontal or footwall block.
orogeny The process of forming
uniformly dipping rock layers. normal polarity Rocks having a mountains, especially by folding and
mud crack A sedimentary structure record of magnetism the same as the thrust faulting; an episode of
found in clay-rich sediment that has present magnetic field. mountain building.
dried out. When such sediment dries, nuee ardente A mobile dense cloud outgassing The process whereby
it shrinks and forms intersecting of highly heated pyroclastic material gases derived from the Earth's
fractures. and gas ejected more or less interior are released into the
mudflow A flow consisting of horizontally from a volcanic vent. atmosphere by volcanic activity. -
mostly clay- and silt-sized particles Because a nuee ardente is denser

ourwash plain The sediment
and more than 30% water; most than air, it rushes down the slope of
deposited by the meltwater
common in semiarid and arid a volcano engulfing everything in its
discharging from the terminus of a
environments. path.
continental glacier.
mylonite A hard, dense,
oxbow lake A cutoff meander
fine-grained metamorphic rock
filled with water. Oxbow lakes
resulting from pure dynamic
metamorphism; typically restricted to
o form when meanders become so
oblique-slip fault A fault having sinuous that the thin neck of land
narrow zones adjacent to faults.
both dip-slip and strike-slip separating adjacent meanders is cut
movement. off during a flood, leaving a cutoff

meander.
oceanic-continental plate boundary
N A type of convergent plate boundary oxidation The reaction of oxygen
native element A mineral along which oceanic lithosphere and with other atoms to form oxides or,
continental lithosphere collide; if water is present, hydroxides.
composed of a single element.
Glossary 609
pegmatite A very coarse-grained plastic strain The result of stress in
igneous rock commonly associated which a material cannot recover its
pahoehoe A type of lava flow that
with plutons. original shape and retains the
has a ropy surface.
pelagic clay Generally brown or configuration produced by the stress
paleocurrent The direction of an such as by folding of rocks.
reddish deep-sea sediment composed
ancient current; determined by
of clay-sized particles derived from plate An individual piece of
measuring the orientations of various
the continents and oceanic islands. lithosphere that moves over the
sedimentary structures such as
perched water table A water table asthenosphere.
cross-bedding.
that may form where a local plate tectonic theory The theory
paleomagnetism The remanent
aquiclude occurs within a larger that large segments of the outer part
magnetism in ancient rocks that
aquifer; water migrating through the of the Earth (lithospheric plates) move
records the direction and strength of
zone of aeration is stopped by the relative toone another; lithospheric
the Earth's magnetic field at the time
local aquiclude, and a localized zone plates are rigid and move over the
of their formation.
of saturation "perched" above the asthenosphere, which behaves much
Pangaea The name proposed by main water table is created. like a very viscous fluid.
Alfred Wegener for a supercontinent
peridotite An igneous rock plate tectonics A general term that
that existed at the end of the
containing about 90% encompasses the concepts of
Paleozoic Era and included all the
ferromagnesian minerals (olivine and continental drift, sea-floor spreading,
Earth's landmasses.
pyroxene) and about 10% feldspar; and transform faults.
parabolic dune A crescent-shaped thought to be the principal playa A dry lake bed found in
dune in which the tips point upwind; component of the mantle. and characterized by
deserts
forms where the vegetation cover is
permafrost Ground that remains mudcracks and chemically
broken and deflation produces a
permanently frozen; covers nearly precipitated rocks such as rock
blowout.
20% of the world's land surface. gypsum; formed by the evaporation
parent element An unstable of water in a playa lake.
permeability A material's capacity
element that is changed into a stable
for transmitting fluids. playa lake A temporary lake
daughter element by radioactive
phaneritic A coarse-grained texture formed in a desert after a rainstorm.
decay.
in igneous rocks in which the plunging fold A fold with an
parent material The material that
mineral grains are easily visible inclined axis.
is being chemically and mechanically
without magnification. A phaneritic pluton An intrusive igneous body
weathered to yield sediment and soil.
texture results from the slow cooling that forms when magma cools and
passive continental margin The of a magma. crystallizes within the Earth's crust.
trailing edge of a continental plate
phenocryst The larger grains in a plutonic rock Another name for an
consisting of a broad continental
porphyritic texture. intrusive igneous rock, i.e., one that
shelf and a continental slope and
rise. A vast, flat abyssal plain is phyllite A fine-grained crystallizes from magma intruded
commonly present adjacent to the metamorphic rock similar in into or formed in place within the
rise. Passive continental margins lack composition to slate, but slightly Earth's crust.
intense seismic and volcanic activity. coarser grained. point bar Sediment deposited on
pedalfer A soil that develops in pillow lava Bulbous masses of the gently sloping side of a meander
humid regions and has an basalt resembling pillows. It forms loop.
organic-rich A horizon and when lava is rapidly chilled beneath porosity The percentage of a
aluminum-rich clays and iron oxides water and is characteristic of much material's total volume that is pore
in horizon B. of the igneous rock in the upper part space.
of the oceanic crust.
pediment An erosional bedrock porphyritic An igneous texture
surface of low relief gently sloping planetesimal A large mass of with mineral grains of markedly
away from a mountain base; most gaseous, liquid, and solid particles different sizes that results from a
pediments are covered by a thin that began accreting during the early two-stage cooling history. The larger
layer of debris or by alluvial fans or history of the solar system and grains are phenocrysts, and the
bajadas. eventually became a true planetary smaller ones are referred to as
body. groundmass.
pedocal A soil characteristic of arid
and semiarid regions with a thin A plastic flow The flow that occurs precursor A short-term or
horizon and a calcium carbonate-rich in response to pressure and causes long-term change within the Earth
B horizon. permanent deformation. that precedes an earthquake.
610 Glossary
pressure release A mechanical proton A positively charged occurs quite suddenly and the
weathering process in which rocks particle found in the nucleus of an material moves very quickly
thatformed deep within the Earth, atom. downslope.
due to a release of pressure, expand P-wave A compressional, or Rayleigh wave A surface wave in
upon being exposed at the surface. push-pull wave; the fastest seismic which the individual particles of
pressure ridge A buckled area on wave and one that can travel through material move in an elliptical path
the surface of a lava flow that forms solids, liquids, and gases; also within a vertical plane oriented in
because of pressure on the partly known as a primary wave. the direction of wave movement.
solid crust of a moving flow. P-wave shadow zone The area recessionalmoraine A moraine
principle of cross-cutting between 103° and 143° from an formed by a retreating glacier; it
relationships An important principle earthquake focus where little P-wave marks the location where the
in determining the relative ages of energy is recorded by seismographs. terminus of a glacier has stabilized
events; holds that an igneous intrusion The P-wave shadow zone results and till was deposited.
or fault must be younger than the from the fact that the Earth has a recharge The addition of water to
rocks that intrudes or cuts. solid inner core.
it the zone of saturation.
principle of fossil succession A pyroclastic A fragmental texture reef A moundlike, wave-resistant

principle based on the work of characteristic of igneous rocks structure composed of the skeletons
William Smith that holds that fossils, formed by explosive volcanic activity.
of organisms.
and especially assemblages of fossils, pyroclastic material Fragmental reflection The return of some of a
succeed one another through time in material that has been explosively seismic wave's energy when it
a regular and determinable order. ejected from a volcano. encounters a boundary separating
principle of inclusions A principle materials of different density or
that holds that inclusions, or elasticity within the Earth.
fragments, in a rock unit are older refraction The change in direction
than the rock unit itself, e.g., granite quartzite A hard, compact
and velocity of a seismic wave when
fragments in a sandstone are older nonfoliated metamorphic rock
it travels from one material into
than the sandstone rock unit. typicallyformed from quartz another of different density and
sandstone under low-to-high-grade elasticity.
principle of isostasy The
metamorphic conditions during
theoretical concept of the Earth's
contact or regional metamorphism.
refractory element Any element,
crust "floating" on a dense such as iron, magnesium, silicon, or
underlying layer. quick clay A clay that aluminum, that condenses easily at
spontaneously liquefies and flows high temperature.
principle of lateral continuity A like water when disturbed.
principle developed by Nicolas Steno metamorphism
regional
that holds that sediment layers Metamorphism that occurs over a
extend outward in all directions until R large areaand is usually the result of
they terminate. tremendous temperatures, pressures,
radioactive decay The spontaneous
and deformation within the deeper
principle of original horizontality decay of an atom by emission of a
portions of the Earth's crust.
A principle developed by Nicolas particle from its nucleus (alpha and
Steno that holds that sediment layers beta decay) or by electron capture; regolith The layer of
are deposited horizontally or very the atom is changed to an atom of a unconsolidated rock and mineral
nearly so. different element. fragments that covers almost all the
Earth's surface.
principle of superposition A rainshadow desert A desert found
principle developed by Nicolas Steno on the lee side of a mountain range; relative dating The process of
that holds that younger layers of forms because moist marine air determining the age of an event
strata are deposited on top of older moving inland forms clouds and relative to other events; involves
strata. produces precipitation on the placing geologic events in their

windward side of the mountain correct chronologic order, but
principle of uniformitarianism A
range such that the air descending on involves no consideration of when
principle developed by James Hutton
the leeward side is much warmer and the events occurred in terms of
that holds that we
can interpret past
drier. number of years ago.
events by understanding present-day
processes; based on the assumption rapid mass movement A type of reserve That part of the resource
that natural laws have not changed mass movement involving a visible base that can be extracted
through time. movement of material; usually economically.
Glossary 611
resource A concentration of rock varnish A thin, red, brown, cross-bedding, mud cracks, and
naturally occurring solid, liquid, or or black shiny coating on the surface animal burrows.
gaseous material in or on the Earth's of many desert rocks; composed of seismic gap A region that is locked
crust in such form and amount that iron and manganese oxides. and not releasing energy; a prime
economic extraction of a commodity rounding The process by which the location for future earthquakes.
from the concentration is currently sharp corners and edges of seismic profiling A method similar
or potentially feasible, sedimentary particles are abraded to echo sounding. Strong waves are
reverse fault A dip-slip fault during transport and become generated at an energy source and
resulting from compressional forces rounded. penetrate the layers beneath the sea
in which the hanging wall block has runoff The surface flow of streams. floor. Some of the energy is reflected
moved upward relative to the from the various geologic horizons
footwall block. back to the surface, and in this
reversed polarity Rocks having a manner, the structure of the oceanic
record of magnetism the opposite of crust beneath the sea-floor sediments
saltwater incursion The
the present magnetic field. displacement of fresh water by salt
can be mapped.
Richter Magnitude Scale An water as a result of excessive seismic risk map A map based on
open-ended scale that measures pumping of groundwater in coastal the distribution and intensity of
earthquake magnitude; values begin areas. previous earthquakes. Such maps
at 1. schist A metamorphic rock
foliated
cannot predict when the next major
most commonly produced by earthquake will occur, but do
rillerosion Erosion by running
indicate the potential severity of
water that scours small channels in regional metamorphism.
future earthquakes and are useful in
the ground. scientific method An orderly,
helping people plan for such
rip current A narrow surface logical approach that involves
earthquakes.
current that flows out to sea through gathering and analyzing the facts or
the breaker zone. data about the problem under seismogram The record of
consideration.
earthquake waves made by a
ripple markWavelike (undulating)
seismograph.
structure produced in granular sea-floor spreading The theory
sediment such as sand; formed by that the sea floormoves away from seismograph An instrument that
wind, unidirectional water currents, spreading centers and is eventually detects, records,and measures the
various vibrations produced by an
or wave currents. subducted and consumed at
convergent plate margins. earthquake.
rock A consolidated aggregate of
minerals or particles of other rocks; seamount A structure of volcanic seismology The study of
more than km above earthquakes.

although they are exceptions to this origin rising 1
definition, coal, natural glass, and the sea floor. shear strength The resisting forces
aggregates of shells are also sediment Weathered material that helping to maintain slope stability;
considered rocks. includes the slope material's strength
is derived from preexisting rock.
rock cycle A sequence of processes and cohesion, the amount of internal
sedimentary facies Any aspect of a
friction between grains, and any
through which Earth materials may sedimentary rock unit that makes it
external support of the slope.
pass as they are transformed from recognizably different from adjacent
one rock type to another. sedimentary rocks of the same, or shear stress The result of forces
rockfall A common type of approximately the same, age. acting parallel to one another but in
extremely rapid mass movement in opposite directions; results in

sedimentary rock Any rock
which rocks of any size fall through deformation by displacement of
composed of sediment. The sediment
the adjacent layers along closely spaced
air.
may be particles of various sizes such
planes.
rock-forming mineral A common as gravel or sand, the remains of
mineral that comprises a significant animals or plants as in coal and sheet erosion Erosion that is more
portion of a rock. some limestones, or chemicals in or less evenly distributed over the
solution that are extracted by surface and removes thin layers of
rock glide A type of rapid mass
organic or inorganic processes. soil.
movement in which rocks move
downslope along a more or less sedimentary structure Any sheet joint Large fractures that are
planar surface. structure in sedimentary rock such as more or less parallel tothe rock
612 Glossary
surface and result from pressure solar nebula theory A theory for stones A group of meteorites
released by expansion of the rock. the origin and evolution of the solar composed of iron and magnesium
shield An area of exposed ancient system from an initial rotating cloud silicate minerals and comprising
rock found on every continent. of gas that formed in a spiral arm of about 93% of all meteorites.
the Milky Way Galaxy,
shield volcano The largest type of stony-irons A
group of meteorites
volcano; it has a low rounded profile solifluctionThe slow downslope composed of nearly equal amounts
and is composed mostly of basalt movement of water-saturated surface of iron and nickel and silicate
flows. sediment; most common in areas of minerals and comprising about 1%
permafrost. of all meteorites.
shoreline The line of intersection
between the sea and the land, solution A reaction in which the stoping A process in which rising
ions of a substance become magma detaches and engulfs pieces
silica A compound of silicon and
dissociated from one another in a of the surrounding country rock.
oxygen atoms.
liquid, and the solid substance
strain Deformation caused by
silica tetrahedron The basic dissolves.
stress.
building block of all silicate
sorting A term referring to the stratified drift Drift displaying
minerals. It consists of one silicon
degree to which all particles in
atom and four oxygen atoms, both sorting and stratification.
sediment and sedimentary rock are
silicate A mineral containing silica. about the same size.
stream Runoff that is confined to
channels regardless of size,
sill A tabular or sheetlike spatter cone A small, steep-sided
concordant pluton. stream terrace An erosional
cone that forms when gases escaping
remnant of a floodplain that formed
sinkhole A depression in the from a lava flow hurl globs of
molten lava into the air that fall
when the stream was flowing at a
ground that forms in karst regions
higher level.
by the solution of the underlying back to the surface and adhere to
carbonate rocks or the collapse of a one another. stress The force per unit area
cave roof. applied to a material such as rock
spheroidal weathering A
within the Earth's crust.
slate A very fine-grained foliated manifestation of chemical weathering
metamorphic rock resulting from in which rock, even if rectangular to strike The direction of a line
low-grade regional metamorphism of begin with, weathers to form a formed by the intersection of a
shale or, more rarely, volcanic ash. spheroidal shape. horizontal plane with an inclined
plane, such as a rock layer.
slide A type of mass movement spit A continuation of a beach
involvingmovement of material forming a point that projects into a strike-slip fault A fault involving
along one or more surfaces of body of water, commonly a bay. horizontal movement in which
blocks on opposite sides of a fault
failure. spreading ridge A location where
plane slide sideways past one
slow mass movement Mass plates are separating and new
another.
movement that advances at an oceanic lithosphere is forming.
imperceptible rate and is usually only spring A place where groundwater subduction The process whereby
detectable by the effects of its flows or seeps out of the ground. the leading edge of one plate
movement. descends beneath the margin of
stalactite An icicle-shaped
slump The downslope movement another plate.
carbonate structure hanging from a
of material along a curved surface of cave ceiling; forms as a result of subduction zone An elongated,
rupture; characterized by the precipitation from carbonate- narrow zone at a convergent plate
backward rotation of the slump saturated dripping water. boundary where an oceanic plate
block. descends relative to another plate, e.g.,
stalagmite A
carbonate projection
Regolith consisting of
the subduction of theNazca plate
soil that rises from a cave
floor; forms
beneath the South American plate.
weathered material, water, air, and from carbonate-saturated water
organic matter that can support dripping from a cave ceiling. submarine canyon A steep-sided
plants.
stock A discordant pluton with a
canyon cut into the continental shelf
km 2 and slope.
soil horizon A distinct soil layer surface area less than 100 .
that differs from other soil layers in Many stocks are simply the submarine fan A sedimentary
texture, structure, composition, and exposed parts of much larger deposit located seaward of a
color. plutons. submarine canyon.
Glossary 613
submergent coast A coast in which thermal convection cell In plate earthquake but can also be caused
sea level rises with respect to the tectonics, a type of circulation of by submarine landslides or volcanic
land or the land subsides. material in the asthenosphere during eruptions.
superposed stream A stream that which hot material rises, moves turbidity current A sediment-water
laterally, cools and sinks, and is mixture denser than normal seawater
once flowed on a higher surface and
reheated and reenters the cycle. downslope to the deep-sea
eroded downward into resistant that flows
rocks, while still maintaining its thermal expansion and contraction floor.
course. A type of mechanical weathering in

suspended load The smallest
which the volume of rocks changes
particles carried by a stream, such as
in response to heating and cooling. u
and clay,
silt which are kept thrust fault A type of reverse fault unconformity An erosional surface
suspended by fluid turbulence. in which the fault plane dips less that separates younger strata from
S-wave A shear wave that moves than 45°. older rocks.

material perpendicular to the tide The regular fluctuation in the U-shaped glacial trough A valley
direction of travel, thereby producing sea's surface in response to the with very steep or vertical walls and
shear stresses in the material it gravitational attraction of the Moon a broad, rather flat floor. Formed by
moves through; also known as a and Sun. the movement of a glacier through a
secondary wave, an S-wave only till Sediment deposited directly by stream valley.
travels through solids. glacial ice. It is not sorted or
S-wave shadow zone Those areas stratified.
more than 103° from an earthquake time-distance graph A graph

focus where no S-waves are showing the average travel times for valley glacier A glacier confined to
recorded. The S-wave shadow zone P- and S-waves for any specific a mountain valley or perhaps to an
indicates that the outer core must be distance from an earthquake's focus. interconnected system of mountain
liquid since S-waves cannot travel valleys.
tombolo A type of spit that
through liquid.
extends out into the sea and valley train A long, narrow deposit
syncline A down-arched fold connects an island to the mainland. of stratified drift confined within a
characterized by an axial plane that glacial valley.
transform fault A type of fault
divides it in half.
that changes one type of motion van der Waals bond The weak
between plates into another type of attraction exerted by all molecules in
motion. proximity.
talus The weathered material that transform plate boundary A plate velocity A measure of the
accumulates at the base of slopes, boundary along which plates slide downstream distance water travels
past one another, and crust is neither per unit of time. Velocity varies
tensional stress Forces acting in
produced nor destroyed. considerably among streams and
opposite directions along the same
transport The mechanism by which even within the same stream.
line.
weathered material is moved from ventifact A stone whose surface
terminal moraine The outermost
one place to another, commonly by has been polished, pitted, grooved,
end moraine, marking the greatest
running water, wind, or glaciers. or faceted by the wind; a common
extent of a glacier.
transverse dune A long ridge of product of wind abrasion.
terrestrial planets The four
sand perpendicular to the prevailing vesicle A small hole or cavity
innermost planets (Mercury, Venus,
wind direction; forms in areas where formed by gas trapped in a cooling
Earth, and Mars) of the solar system.
abundant sand is available and little lava.
They are all small and have high
or no vegetation exists. viscosity A fluid's resistance to
mean densities, indicating that they
are composed of rock and metallic tree-ring dating The process of flow.
elements. determining the age of a tree or volatile elements Elements such as

wood in structures by counting the hydrogen, helium, ammonia, and
theory An explanation for some
number of annual growth rings. methane that condense at very low
natural phenomenon that has a large
body of supporting evidence; to be trough The lowest point between temperatures.
considered scientific, a theory must wave crests.
volcanic island arc A curved chain
be testable (e.g., plate tectonic tsunami A destructive sea wave of volcanic islands parallel to a
theory). that is usually produced by an deep-sea trench where oceanic
614 Glossary
lithosphere is subducted causing underlying zone of saturation; the
volcanism and the origin of volcanic configuration of the water table is
yardang An elongated and
islands. generally a subdued replica of the
streamlined ridge that looks like an
volcanic neck An erosional overlying land surface.
overturned ship's hull; formed by
remnant of a volcanic pipe after a water well A well made by digging wind erosion and typically found
volcano has eroded away. or drilling into the zone of grouped in clusters aligned parallel
volcanic pipe The conduit saturation. to the prevailing wind direction.
connecting the crater of a volcano wave base A depth of about
with an underlying magma one-half wave length, where the
chamber. orbital motion of water particles is
volcanic rock Another name for essentially zero. zone of accumulation In soil
extrusive igneous rock that forms wave-cut platform A beveled

terminology, another name for
horizon B where the soluble minerals
when magma is extruded onto the surface that slopes gently in a
leached from horizon A accumulate
Earth's surface and cools and seaward direction and is formed by
as irregular masses. In glacial
crystallizes or when pyroclastic the retreat of a sea cliff.
terminology, the part of a glacier
materials become consolidated. wave height The vertical distance
where additions exceed losses and
volcanism The process whereby from wave trough to wave crest.
the glacier's surface is perennially
magma and its associated gases rise wave length The distance covered by snow.
through the Earth's crust and are between successive wave crests or
zone of aeration The zone above
extruded onto the surface or into the troughs.
the water table that contains both
atmosphere.
wave period The time required for water and air within the pore spaces
volcano A conical mountain two successive wave crests (or of the rock or soil.
formed around a vent as a result of troughs) to pass a given point.
zone of saturation The zone below
the eruption of lava and pyroclastic
wave refraction The bending of a the zone of aeration in which all the
materials.
wave so that it more nearly parallels pore spaces are filled with
the shoreline. groundwater.
weathering The physical zone of wastage The part of a
w breakdown and chemical alteration glacier where losses from melting,
water table The surface separating of rocks and minerals at or near the sublimation, and calving of icebergs
the zone of aeration from the Earth's surface. exceed the rate of accumulations.
Glossary 615
:^^-^^x^^^^t^«^s^^
INDEX
Aluminum, 150 Armenia (Soviet), earthquake, 259, 273

Ammonites, 231 Armero, Colombia, mudflow, 341, 342
Aa lava flow, 89, 91
Amorphous substance, 62, 113 Artesian systems, 493-95
Aberfan, Wales, tip failure, 422-23
Amphibole, 67, 116, 119, 121 Asbestos, 61, 193, 196-97
Abrasion, 161, 460
523-24
in sequence of index minerals, 201 Aseismic ridges, 329-30
glacial,
silica tetrahedra of, 66 Ash, volcanic, 4, 85, 90-91, 92, 122
waves, 591
Amphibole asbestos, 196, 197 use in dating, 247
wind, 549, 550-51
Amphibolite, 202, 204 Assemblage range zone, 229, 231, 235
Absolute dating, 216, 231, 234-43
facies, 207 Assimilation, 117—18
fission track dating, 242-43
Andalusite, 201, 202,209 Asteroids, 33, 35
radioactive decay and half-lives,
Andes Mountains, 16, 121, 364, 395, Asthenosphere, 11, 16, 17, 296, 357
234-39
399, 561 convection cells in, 370
radiocarbon dating methods, 239, 242
Andesite, 405 Asymmetrical fold, 382
tree-ring dating, 242
composition and texture, 118, 121 Athabaska tar sands, Canada, 183
Abyssal hill,329-30
intermediate magma and, 85, 98, 121 Atlantic Ocean, 320, 361
Abyssal plain, 323, 325-26
Angle of repose (slope), 418 vs. Pacific, 322, 326
Acadian orogeny, 406
Angular unconformity, 222-23, 225 Atlantis, 317, 320-21
Accessory minerals, 74—75
Anomalies Atmosphere, 29, 35, 40-41, 90
Accretion, 378, 408
gravity, 302-3 acid rain, 144-45
lateral vs. vertical, 463, 466
magnetic, 309-10, 354-55 formation, 316, 317
Accretionary wedge, 399
Anorthite, 50 Jovian planets, 44, 45, 47
Acid rain, 61, 144-45
Anthracite, 173, 181, 202, 205 mass, 289
Acidity of solutions, 142
Anticline, 381-82, 387 regulation of (Gaia hypothesis), 12-13
Active continental margin, 184, 323,
plunging, 383, 385 terrestrial planets, 35, 40-41
324, 325, 326, 408
Aphanitic texture, 113, 114 water vapor in, 452, 453, 454
Africa, and South America, 343, 345,
Appalachian Mountains, 16, 395, 396, Atoll, 333-34
347
410, 426, 435 Atom(s), 56-58, 231
Agassiz, Lake, 538-39
and European mountains, 347-48 basic structure, 57
Agassiz, Louis, 533, 538
formation, 404, 406-7 bonding of, 58-60
Air pressure belts, 558-59
Aquiclude, 488, 490-91, 493 Atomic mass number, 57-58, 231,
Airy, Sir George, 304
Aquifer(s), 488 234-35, 239, 242
Alaska, 341
in artesian systems,493, 494, 495 Atomic number, 57, 234-35, 239, 242
Bootlegger Cove Clay slides, 276,
High Plains, 500, 501 Augite, 67, 72
434-35, 436
perched water table and, 490-91 Aurelia (Venusian crater), 26
earthquake of 1964, 257, 267, 270,
Aragonite, 168
Aureole, 198-99
276, 435
390-91 Avalanche, 421, 424
pipeline, 435 Arch,
Axial plane (fold), 381
Alkali soils, 150 Arches National Park, Utah, 389,
Axis (fold), 383
Alleghenian orogeny, 406 390-91, 479
Alluvial fans, 469-70 Archimedes, 305
in deserts, 567, 568 Arete, 527
Argon, 236, 238, 239
B
Alluvium, 461
Alpha decay, 234, 236 Arid region, 560 Back-arc basin, 362-63, 397
Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, 397, Aristotle, 254 Backshore, 582
398 Arkose, 165, 167 Bacon, Francis, 343
Index 617
Bajada, 567-68 Bituminous coal, 173, 181 California
Banded 187
iron formation, 183, Black Hills, South Dakota, 55, 130-31, earthquakes. See Loma Prieta
Bangladesh, coastal flooding in, 578 494 earthquake; San Andreas fault
Barchan dune, 555, 556 dome, 385, 388 geothermal energy, 510-11
Barchanoid dune, 556, 557 Black smoker, 315 mass wasting, 420-21, 426, 428-29,
Barrier island, 581, 582, 585-87 Blanket geometry (of sedimentary 431
migration, 586-87, 589 bodies), 175, 176 subsidence, 502, 503
Barrier reef, 332, 333, 334 Block (pyroclastic material), 91 Calving (icebergs), 516
Barrow, George, 206 Block-faulting, 396, 406 Canada, isostatic rebound in, 305, 307
Basal slip (glacier), 518 Blowout, 551 Canadian Shield, 193, 405, 408, 528
Basalt, 19, 151, 309, 405, 583 Blueschist facies, 208, 399 Cap rock, 183
composition and texture, 118, 119, Body fossil, 177 Capacity (stream), 461
121 Body seismic waves Capillary fringe, 488
mafic magma and, 86, 98, 105, 119 locating epicenters with, 263-64 Carbon
on the Moon, 50 types, 261-62 carbon 14, use in dating, 239, 242
in oceanic crust, 297, 330, 334, 355 Bomb (pyroclastic material), 91, 92 covalent bonds and, 59-60
plateaus, 101 Bonding (of atoms), 58-60 isotopes of, 58, 191, 192, 239
porosity of, 487 Bonneville, Lake, Utah, 537 Carbon dioxide
Base 472-74, 540
level (stream), Bootlegger Cove Clay, Turnagain Heights, in atmosphere, 12-13, 40-41
Basin, 385-86, 388 Alaska, slides, 276, 434-35, 436 greenhouse effect and, 40-41
Basin and Range Province, 297, 406, Borax, 563 sources, 142
567, 568 Bornite, 209 Carbonate minerals, 67, 168

block-faulting, 396 Boulder batholith, 126 rock forming, 75
normal faults, 393 Bowen, N. L., 115, 117 Carbonate rocks, 166, 168-69, 496-498
Batholith(s), 125-28, 221 Bowen's reaction series, 115-16 Carbonic acid, 163, 495
contact metamorphism and, 198 and stability of minerals, 146, 147 in carbon dioxide recycling, 40, 41,
emplacement, mechanics of, 126—28 Braided stream, 461-62, 528, 531 144
orogenesis and, 396, 397, 399 Breaker (wave), 577 formation, 142
pressure release and, 139 zone, 577 Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico, 142
Bauxite, 150, 154 . Breccia Carnotite, 183
Baymouth 581, 582, 584-85
bar, fault, 200 Cascade Range, volcanoes, 81, 84, 94,
Beach(es), 162, 581, 582-84 lunar, 50 98, 121
gravel, deposition of, 166 sedimentary, 165, 166 Cast, 178
seasonal changes in, 583-84 volcanic, 122 Cavendish, Henry, 288
Beach face, 582 Bretz, J Harlan, 534-35 Caves/caverns, 485-86, 496-98, 499
Bear Butte, South Dakota, 111 Brittle rocks, 379 Mammoth Cave, 490, 492
Bedded chert, 171-72 Browning, Iben, 281 Cementation, 163, 165
Bedding, 175-77 Bryce Canyon National Park, Utah, 134, Chain silicate, 66
Bedding plane, 175-76, 222 136-37, 228, 230 Chalcocite, 155

Bed load Bullard, Edward, 346 Chalcopyrite, 155, 209
stream,460 Bureau of Mines, 76, 78 Chalk, 168, 169
wind, 549 Butte, 569 Chang Heng, 255-56
Bedrock, 153 Channel flow, 456
Bellini, Giovanni, 7 Channel roughness, 459
Benching, 445-46 Channeled scablands, Washington,
Benioff zone, 257-58, 326, 362 534-35
Berm, 582 Calcareous ooze, 331 Chaotic terrain (Mars), 452
Beta decay, 234-35, 236 Calcareous tufa, 509 Charleston, South Carolina, 578
Bicarbonate, in carbon dioxide recycling, Calcite, 67, 75, 205 earthquake of 1886, 259
40,41 cement, 163, 165 Charon (moon), 47
Big Bang, 29 cleavage, 71 Chemical sediment, 160
Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming, 381, 382 dissolution, 142 Chemical sedimentary rocks, 166,
Bingham stock, 126 dripstone deposits and, 498 168-73
Biochemical sedimentary rocks, 165, 168 identifying, 74 Chemical weathering, 141, 564
Biotite mica, 66, 67, 116, 167, 238 in limestone, 168, 495 acid rain, 144-45
cleavage, 71 Calcium carbonate, 67, 583 defined, 141
in sequence of index minerals, 201, in carbon dioxide recycling, 40, 41 hydrolysis, 143-44
206 in cementation, 163 oxidation, 142-43
Bird's-foot delta, 468 Caldera, 93 rate of, factors controlling, 144-47
Bishop Tuff, California, 102 Caliche, 150 solution, 141-42
618 Index
Chert, 166, 167, 171-72, 183 Contact metamorphism, 197-200, 208, 221 Core (well cutting), 232
Chlorite, 199, 201, 202, 204, 205, 206, ore deposits and, 209, 210 Coriolis effect, 559
207 Continent(s), 378 Correlation, 227-31
Chrysotile (asbestos), 61, 196-97 collision of, 364 in oil and gas exploration, 232-34
Cinder cone, 96, 97-98, 115 divergent boundaries under, 360-61 Corrosion, 591
Circum-Pacific belt, 102, 103 early. See Gondwana; Laurasia; Pangaea Cosmic action, 330, 331
earthquakes and, 257, 258, 259, 399 lost, legends of, 320-21 Country rock, 117
orogenic belt, 397, 398 movements of. See Continental drift mineral assemblages for different types,
Cirque, 526-27 origin and evolution, 405, 408 201
Clast, 166 paleographic maps of, 352-54 Covalent bonding, 59-60
Clastic texture, 166 true margins, 319 Crater(s), 33, 35, 44, 49. See also Meteorites
Clay Continental-continental convergence, 105 volcanic, 92-93
erosion, transport, and deposition, characteristics of, 364, 366 Crater Lake, Oregon, 93, 97
461, 550, 552, 556 orogenesis at, 399, 403-5 Craton, 405, 408
mass wasting and, 420, 421, 428, 431, Continental crust, 12, 14, 16, 117, 121, Creep, 417, 425, 435, 437, 438
441, 448 319 Crest (wave), 575
minerals, 66, 75, 141, 143, 155, 160 composition, volume, and density, 289, Crevass, 522
porosity and permeability, 487 294, 297 Crocidolite (blue asbestos), 197
quick clays, 434-35 isostatic rebound, 305-6, 307 Cross-bedding, 176-77, 214
sedimentary grains, 160 heat flow, 300 Cross-cutting relationships, principle of,
soil, 148 Continental depositional environment, 219, 220-21, 223, 227
Claystone, 165, 168 161-62 Cross-dating, 242, 245
Cleavage, 62, 67, 71-72 Continental drift, 14 Crust (Earth), 3, 11, 12, 14, 16
slaty, 203 early ideas about, 343-44 common elements in, 64
Climate evidence for, 345-49 composition, 165, 167, 193, 294, 297
chemical weathering and, 146 paleomagnetism and polar wandering, movements, 305-6
vertical
glaciation and, 536-37, 540-42 349-51 volume and mass, 288, 289
karst topography and, 496 Wegener and, 344 Crystal(s)/crystallization, 235-36
mass wasting and, 420, 435 Continental glacier, 518-19 Bowen's reaction series and, 115-16
soil formation and, 149-40, 153 erosional landforms, 528 cleavage and fracture, 71-72
volcanic gases and, 4, 90 movements, 522 form, 70
Coal, 19, 205, 468 Continental lithosphere, 102-3 from magma, 113-17
acid rain and, 144-45 Continental margin nature of, 62, 63
characteristics and types, 172-73, 181 active, 323, 324, 325 in pegmatites, 130
distribution in the United States, 173, defined, 318 settling, 116-17

174 passive, 323-25 Crystalline solid, 56, 62, 63
Coast(s), 592-94. See also Shoreline Continental-oceanic convergence. See Crystalline texture, 166
Coast Ranges, California, blueschist Oceanic-continental convergence Curie, Marie/Pierre, 231
metamorphism in, 208 Continental rise, 318, 322 Curie point, 307
Coccos plate, 341-42, 368 Continental shelf, 162, 318, 319, 322, 586 Current(s)
Cocite, 155 Continental slope, 318, 322 longshore, 580, 582
Coesite, 299 continental fit at, 345, 346 nearshore, 580-81
Coke, 181 Convection cell. See Thermal convection Current ripple marks, 177
Collins, Floyd, 485-86 cell Custer, George Armstrong, 55
Color (of minerals), 69 Convergent plate boundaries, 16, 17 Cut-and-fill method (of reducing slope
Colorado Plateau, 229, 230 characteristics, 361-64, 366 gradient), 445
Columbia River basalts, 101, 123, 309 earthquakes and, 257-58, 259, 341 Cynognathus, 349, 350
Columbus, Christopher, 316 metamorphism and, 193, 194, 200, 208 Cyprus, 372-73
Columnar joints, 89-90, 111-12, 389 mineral resources and, 372
Comets, 33, 37 mountain building at, 396, 397-405
volcanism and, 105, 106, 341
Compaction, 163
Cook, James, 316
D
Competence (stream), 461
Complex mass movements, 425, 437, 439 Copper, 155, 372-73 Dams
Composite volcano, 96, 98, 102, 106 Coquina, 168, 169 effect on streams, 474
Compound, 58-60 Coral reef, 332 flood control, 465
Compressional stress, 379 Core (Earth), 11 hydroelectric power, 452
Concordant pluton, 123 density and composition , 291-92, 294 Darwin, Charles, 16, 219, 231, 334
Cone of depression, 491, 501 discovery of, 290-91 Daughter element, 235
Conglomerate, 165, 166, 167 temperature, 299-300 Death Valley, California, 537-38, 546,
Constancy of interfacial angles, 62 volume and mass, 288, 289, 291 562-63, 566
Index 619
Debris avalanche, 415-16, 439 intermediate magma and, 85, 121 crust. See Crust
Debris flow, 425, 434 pegmatite, 129 data,289
Deep-focus earthquake, 257, 266 Dip, 380, 381, 390, 391 dynamic nature, 11-13
Deep-ocean basin, 318 slope stability and, 421, 429 Gaia hypothesis, 12-13
abyssal plains, 325-26 Dip angle, in angular unconformities, 286-311
interior,
oceanic ridges, 326—27 222 internal heat, 297-302, 370-71

oceanic trenches, 326 Dip-slip fault, 391-93 magnetic field, 306-11
seamounts, guyots, and aseismic ridges, Dipolar, 306 mantle. See Mantle
327-30 Disappearing stream, 496 and the Moon, 49-51, 594-96
Deep Sea Drilling Project, 16, 317, 355 Discharge (stream), 459, 461 orbit of, and climate, 541-42
Deflation, 551-52 Disconformity, 222, 224 origin and differentiation, 47-49
hollows, 551-2, 553 Discontinuity, 290 structure, 11-12,29,288
Deformation, 376, 378, 379-94. See also Discordant pluton, 123 water on, 316, 317, 452, 453
Mountain building Dissolved load (stream), 459-60 Earthflow, 425, 434, 435
earthquakes and, 255 Distributary channel, 467 Earthquake(s), 16, 94, 250-81, 379, 421
faults, 389-94 Divergent plate boundaries, 46, 17, control, 280, 282-83
folds, 380-86 103-5 destructive effects, 269, 273-76
joints, 386-89 characteristics, 357, 360-61 elastic rebound theory, 254-55
strike and dip, 379-80 earthquakes and, 257 frequency and distribution, 258-61
Deimos (moon), 49 mineral resources at, 372—73 locating, 263-64
Delta, 162, 466-69 regional metamorphism and, 200 Loma Prieta earthquake, 251-53
Dendritic drainage, 470-71 Divide (drainage basin boundary), 470 major, 254
Denver, Colorado, earthquakes, 282 Dolomite, 67, 75, 205 measuring intensity and magnitude,
Depositional environments, 161-62, 163 cleavage, 71 264-68
analysis of, 175, 179-80 in dolostone, 166, 168 predicting and preparing for, 276 — 80,
high energy, 166, 173 identifying, 74 281
low energy, 168, 169, 173 Dolostone, 20, 67, 166, 168, 169 resistant structures, 270-72
sedimentary facies and, 173-75 caves and, 496, 498 sea floor, 323, 326, 327
Deranged drainage, 472 porosity and permeability, 487, 488 seismic waves, 261-63
Descartes, Rene, 31 Dome, 385, 388 seismology, 254-58
559-69
Desert(s)/desertification, Double refraction, 74 Ebb tide, 594
characteristics, 561-66 Downcutting, 475 Echo sounder, 317
distribution, 559-61 Drainage basin/pattern, 470-72 Ecliptic, plane of, 30, 541
expansion of, 547-49, 554 Drake, Edwin L., 184 Einstein, Albert, 29, 215
landforms, 566-69 Dripstone, 498 El Chichon volcano, Mexico, 4, 90
loess, source of, 556-57 Dropstone, 533 Elastic rebound theory, 254-55
Desert pavement, 552, 554 Drowned coast, 592 Elastic strain, 379
Detrital sediment, 160 Drumlin, 528, 530 Elasticity, 261
Detrital sedimentary rocks, 165-68 field, 530 and velocity of seismic waves, 289-90
Detritus, 166 Dry climates, 559-61 Eldfell volcano, Iceland, 97-98
Devil's Postpile National Monument, Ductile rocks,379 Eldgja fissure, Iceland, 123
California, 90, 91 Dune(s), 161, 552-56, 585 Electromagnetic force, 29
Tower National Monument,
Devil's cross-bedding in, 176, 556 Electron(s), 29, 57
Wyoming, 90, 111-12 formation and migration, 553-54 in bonding, 58-60
Diamond, 59, 60, 74, 210 types, 554-56, 557 capture, 235, 236
cleavage, 71, 72, 73 Durand, Asher Brown, 7, 8 in radioactive decay, 234-35
kimberlite pipes and, 298-99 Dust Bowl of the 1930s, 135-36, 153, Electron shell, 57
structure and characteristics, 73 550 Element(s), 56-58
Diatoms, 172, 173, 332 Dynamic metamorphism, 197, 200 in early Earth, 48, 49
Differential pressure, 195, 198 in Earth's crust, 64
dynamic metamorphism and, 197, 200 daughter, 235
foliated texture and, 201, 203 native, 60
Differential weathering, 136-37 parent, 235
Differentiation of the Earth, 47-49 Earth, 5, 28-29, 30, 358 radioactive, 234-35
Dike, 123, 124, 357 age, 216-19 refractory, 33
contact metamorphism and, 198 air pressure belts and wind patterns, volatile, 33
Dilatancy model, 278-79 558-59 Emergent coast, 594

Dinosaurs, extinction of, 35 atmosphere, 12-13, 29, 40 Emperor Seamount-Hawaiian Island
Diorite, 297 composition and density, 294 chain, 330, 368-69
composition and texture, 118, 121 core. See Core End moraine, 528-30
620 Index
Energy resources, 76. See also Floodplain, 219, 319, 463, 466, 477, 557
Geothermal energy; Mineral resources; Flow (mass movement), 425, 433-37
Natural gas; Petroleum Facies Flue-gas desulfurization, 145
Enstatite, 66 metamorphic, 207 Fluorite, 69
Entrada Sandstone, 390 sedimentary, 173-75 cleavage, 71, 72
Environmental issues, 152, 384 Fall (mass movement), 425-26 Focus (earthquake), 257
acid rain, 61, 144-45 Fault(s), 200, 389-94. See also San Fold(s), 380-86
acid soils and water, 143 Andreas fault asymmetrical, 382
asbestos, 197 block-faulting, 396 domes and basins, 385-86
base level of streams and human dip-slip, 391-93 monoclines, anticlines, and synclines,
activities, 474 elastic rebound along, 254-55 381-83
erosion, 153-54 fluid injections into, 282-83 overturned, 382-83
floods, controlling and predicting, joints, distinguished from, 387 plunging, 383, 385
464-65 locked, 251 recumbent, 383
Gaia hypothesis, 12-13 normal, 391-93 symmetrical, 382
geology and, 6—7, 9, 11 oblique-slip, 394 Foliated metamorphic rocks, 201-5
groundwater, depletion and plane, 389 Footwall block, 390
contamination, 486, 493, 498, reverse, 391-93 Foraminifera, 232, 331
500-506 rupture along, 256 Fore-arc basin, 362
laterite soils, depletion, 150 strike-slip, 393-94 Foreshore, 582
mass wasting, human activities and, thrust, 393 Formation (rock), 180
420, 421, 422-23, 426 Fault breccia, 200-201 Fossil(s), 177-79, 244
mass wasting, minimizing effects of, Faunal and floral succession, principle of, body, 177
439-48 221 correlation, use in, 229,231
radioactive waste, 506-7 Feldspars, 67, 75, 146, 202, 204 continental drift and, 14,349
radon, 240-42 cleavage, 71 at Green River Formation, 159
rising sea level, 588—90 hydrolysis of, 143-44 guide (index), 229
shoreline dynamics, 574-75 in sandstone, 167 microfossils, 232, 244
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Felsic magma, 85, 115, 127, 198 sea-floor spreading and, 356
240, 427, 506 assimilation and crystal settling, trace, 177
Epicenter (earthquake),257 117-18 Fossil Butte National Monument,
locating, 263-64, 265 Bowen's reaction series and, 115 — 16 Wyoming, 159
Epidote, 199, 205 lava domes and, 98 Fossil succession, principle of, 219, 221,
Erebus, Mount, Antarctica, 102 subduction zones and, 106 222, 229, 231
Erosion, 153—54. See also Mass wasting volcanic gases in, 87 Fracture, 72
defined, 153, 456 Ferromagnesian minerals, 118, 119, 121 Framework silicate, 66
in deserts, 565 Ferromagnesian silicates, 66-67, 146 Franklin, Benjamin, 90
glaciers and, 516, 522-28 characteristics, 66-67, 69, 72 Freyja Montes, Venus, 359
groundwater and, 495-98 colors, 69 Fringing reef, 332, 333
headward, 475 in discontinuous branch of Bowen's Frost action, 138-39,425
isostatic response to, 305, 306 reaction series, 116 Frost heaving, 139
lateral, 475 mafic magma and, 85 Frost wedging, 138
rill, 153 oxidation, 142-43 Fujiyama, Japan, 87, 98
sheet, 153, 456 rock forming, 75 Fumarole, 81
shoreline, 582, 587, 591-92 Fetch, 577
stream,459-60 Fiord, 525-26, 594
wind, 550-52 Fire
Esker, 532 earthquake hazard, 273-74
Estuary, 592 thermal expansion and, 141 Gabbro, 85, 119, 128
Etna, Mount, Sicily, 87, 92, 102, 123 Firn, 517 composition and texture, 118, 119,
Etta pegmatite, 131 limit, 519 121
Europa (moon), 27, 88 Fission track dating, 242-43, 245 in oceanic crust, 297, 334
Evans, David M., 282 Fissure eruption, 99, 101 Gaia hypothesis, 12-13, 40
Evaporites, 166, 170-71, 181 Flint, 171 Galapagos Rift, hydrothermal vents at,
Ewing, Maurice, 330-31 Flood(s), 463-66 315
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), channeled scablands and, 534-35 Galena, 68, 70, 72, 209
335-37 coastal, 573-74, 577, 578-79, 590 cleavage, 71
Exfoliation, 139 controlling and predicting, 464-65 Galveston, Texas, hurricane and flooding,
Extrusive (volcanic) igneous rocks, 18, Flood-frequency curve, 464-65 573-74, 578
85, 113 Flood tide, 594 Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, 468, 469
Index 621
Gansu, China, earthquake, 276 Glossopteris flora, 343, 346, 349, 350 Groundmass, 113
Gardner, Marshall B., 287 Gneiss, 202,204 Groundwater, 456, 486-511
Garnet, 70, 71, 193, 209 Gold, 55-56, 77, 372 acid, 142, 143
in sequence of index minerals, 201, Gondwana, 343, 346, 348, 349 in artesian systems, 493-95
206 Gorda Ridge, 337 contamination, 504-6
Gas, 56 Gorge, 475 defined,486
Gemstones, minerals as, 56, 60, 61, 68, Gossan, 155 566
in deserts,
73 Graben, 396 erosion and deposition by, 495-98

Geodimeter, 94 Graded bedding, 176, 322 geothermal energy, 509-11
Geologic time, 216-47 Graded stream, 474-75 hot springs and geysers, 506-9
absolute dating methods, 231, 234-43 Gradient in hydrologic cycle, 486-87
correlation, 227-31, 232-34 geothermal, 103-4, 297-98 movement, 489
early concepts, 216-18 stream, 456-57, 459 saltwater incursion, 500-502
Huttonand, 218-19 Grand Canyon, Arizona, 180, 181, 475 springs, 490-91
relative dating methods, 219-27 correlation and, 228, 230 subsidence and, 502—3
scale, 21, 22, 216, 218, 243-47 relative dating and, 220 volume of Earth's water in, 452, 453
soil formation in, 153 Grand Teton, Wyoming, 377, 527 water table, 488-89,500
Geology Granite, 19, 140, 151,297,405 wells, 491, 493
in art, music, and literature, 7-8 batholiths, 126-27 Guide (index) fossil, 229
career opportunities, 465 composition and texture, 118, 121-22 Gully, 153, 475
defined, 5 felsic magma and, 85, 121 Gunderson, Linda, 242
economic and environmental uses, migmatites and, 204—5 Gutenberg, Beno, 291
5-7, 152 porosity of, 487 Guyot, 327, 329, 330, 351
in everyday life, 8-9, 11 weathering, 146, 147, 148 Gypsum, 68-69, 70, 75-76, 169
subsurface, 232 Granitization, 126 in chemical sedimentary rocks, 166,
theories in, 12-14, 16 Granodiorite, 121, 297 170
Geophysics, 5 Granulite facies, 207
Geothermal energy, 509-11 Graphite
Geothermal gradient, 103-4, 297-98 and 210
Geyser, 508-9
characteristics
diamond and, 59, 60,
uses,
73, 74, 298-99
H
Geyserite,509 Gravel, 160, 582 Haicheng, China, earthquake, 278, 280
Giant's Causeway, Ireland, 90 erosion, transport, and deposition, 461 Half-life, 235
Glacial drift, 528. See also Stratified drift, lithification, 163 Halides, 65, 69
Till porosity, 487 rock forming, 75-76
Glacial erratic, 523 sedimentary rocks from, 165, 166 Halite, 69, 70, 74, 75-76
Glacial groove, 523 Gravimeter, 302 cleavage, 71
Glacial lake, 532-33, 534-35 Gravity, 29 Hanging valley, 526
Glacial polish, 523 anomalies, 302-3, 318, 320, 326 Hanging wall block, 390
Glacial surge, 522 groundwater movement and, 489 Hardness (mineral), 72
Glacier(s)/glaciation, 377, 514-42 measuring, 302-3 Harmonic tremor, 94
braided streams and, 462 slope failure and, 418 Harney Peak Granite, 130, 131
causes of, 540-42 and time, 215 Hart, Johnny, 8
and continental drift hypothesis, Gravitational compression in early Earth, Hawaiian Islands, volcanism in, 84, 87,
348-49 48 93, 94, 96, 102, 106-7, 123, 369, 396
crust depressed by, 305, 306 Great Barrier Reef, Australia, 332, 334 Headland, 591
defined, 516 Great Glen fault, Scotland, 394, 395 Headward erosion, 475
deposits, 528-33 Great Lakes, 538-39 Heat. See also Temperature
erosion and transport, 160, 161, region and isostatic rebound, 540 as by-product of radioactive decay, 231
522-28 Green River Formation, Wyoming, Earth's internal, 297-302, 370
glacial budget, 519-20 159-60, 178, 183 flow, 300, 302
glacial ice, 517-18 Greenhouse effect, 40-41 Kelvin's calculations of Earth's age
hydrologic cycle and, 516 Greenschist facies, 207 and, 219
isostasy and, 540 Greenstone, 202, 205 metamorphism and, 193-94, 198
movement, rates of, 520-22 Gregory XIII (pope), 215 Heezen, Bruce, 330-31
Pleistocene, 533-40 Grofe, Ferde, 7 Hekla, Mount, Iceland, 91
types, 518-19 Groins, 582, 583, 590 Hellas (Martian crater), 44
volume of Earth's water in, 452, 453, Ground failure (earthquake hazard), Hematite, 68 ,72, 74, 143, 165, 209, 309
516 275-76 Henry Mountains, Utah, 125
Glauconite, 236 Ground moraine, 530 Herz, Norman, 192
Glaucophane, 208 Ground shaking, 269, 273 Hess, Harry H., 351
622 Index
Hiatus, 222, 223 radiometric dating, 235-36, 238 Jeffreys, Harold, 291
Highlands (lunar), 49 relative dating, 220-21 John Day Fossil Beds National
Himalayas, 340, 395, 396 textures, 113-15 Monument, Oregon, sedimentary rock
continental crust beneath, 297, 304 Incised meander, 478, 479 at, 158
formation, 364, 399, 403-4 Inclusions Joint(s), 386-89
Historical geology, 5 igneous rock, 117, 127 columnar, 89-90, 111-12, 389
Holmes, Arthur, 351 relative dating and, 219, 221, 223, 227 faults, distinguished from, 387
Hong Kong, 1972 landslide, 414 Index (guide) fossil, 229 frost action and, 139
Horn, 527 Index minerals, 201, 206-7 in lava flows, 89-90
Hornblende, 67, 202, 204, 205, 238 Infiltration capacity, 455-56 sheet, 139, 140, 389
cleavage, 72 Inselberg, 568-69 spheroidal weathering and, 147, 148
Hornfels, 202, 205, 208 Intensity (earthquake), 264-66 Joly.John, 216
Horst, 396 Intermediate-focus earthquake, 257, 266 Jovian planets, 30, 31, 33, 44-47
Hot spots, 368-69 Intermediate magma, 85, 115 Jupiter, 27, 30, 31, 33, 44, 45, 88
Hot 506-8, 509
springs, Bowen's reaction series and, 115 — 16 Jurassic strata, 231
Houchins, Robert, 492 composite volcanoes and, 98
Hsian, China, landslide, 417 subduction zones and, 106
Huaraz, Peru, mudflow/avalanche, 417 Internal drainage (deserts), 566 K
Humboldt, Alexander von, 343 Intraplate volcanism, 106-7
Kame, 531, 532
Humus, 147 Intrusive igneous bodies
Kansu, China, landslides, 417
Hutton, James, 12, 218-19, 220, 223, metamorphism and, 193-94, 197-200
Kaolinite, 143, 155
231 relative dating and, 220-21
Karst topography, 496
Huygens, Christian, 215 Intrusive igneous rocks, 18, 85, 113. See
Kelvin, Lord, 219, 231
Hydraulic action, 460, 591 also Plutons
Keoua, Hawaiian chief, 96
Hydrocarbons, 181 Io (moon), 27, 88
Kerogen, 159
Hydrograph, 464 Ion, 59
Kettle, 531
Hydrologic cycle, 452, 454, 455 in solution, 141-42
Key bed, 228
glaciers and, 516 Ionic bond, 58-59
Kilauea volcano, Hawaii, 87, 94, 96, 97,
groundwater in,486-87 Iron
102, 106
Hydrolysis, 143-44 banded iron formations, 183, 187
Kilimanjaro, Mount, Tanzania, 102
Hydrosphere, 16 deposits, 68, 154-55, 309
Kimberlite, 298-99
Hydrothermal alteration, 200 oxidation, 142-43, 165
Kimberlite pipe, 297, 298-99
Hydrothermal vents, 315-16, 337, 373 Irons (meteorites), 33, 34, 292
Kinetic energy (stream), 459
Hypocenter, 257 Isacks, B., 357
Kopff (comet), 28
Hypothesis, 13 Ishtar Terra, Venus, 359
Krakatau volcano, Indonesia, 3-4, 5, 90
Island arcs
Krinov, E. L., 37
earthquakes and, 257
Kulik, Leonid, 37
volcanoes and, 326, 362
I Kuroko sulfide deposit, Japan, 200
Isograds, 206
Kyanite, 193, 201, 202, 206, 209
Iapetus, 16 Isoseismal lines, 264
Ice, 516 Isostasy, principle of, 303-6, 540
caps, 519 Isostatic rebound, 305-6, 307
fall, 522 emergent coasts and, 594
glacial, 517-18 of Great Lakes region, 538 La Brea Tar Pits, California, 182
sheets, 518 Isotope(s), 58, 231 Laccolith, 125
Ice Age, 516, 533, 536. 541. See also carbon and oxygen ratios of marble Lagoons, as depositional environment,
Pleistocene sculptures, 191, 192 168, 169
Little, 515-16, 537, 540, 542 long-lived radioactive pairs, 238, 239 Lahar, 98
Iceland radioactive and absolute dating, Lake(s), 474, 579, 585, 591-92
geothermal energy in, 507, 510 234-35 deltas,466, 467
volcanism in, 84, 91, 97-98, 101, 102 as depositional environment, 168
Ice-scoured plain, 528 glacial, 532-33, 534-35

Igneous rocks, 18, 19, 110-23, 487 Great Lakes, 538-39
126-28 J playa, 566
batholiths,
classification, 118-23 James, Jesse, 498 pluvial and proglacial, 537-39
extrusive, 18, 85 Jan Mayen Ridge, 329 waves on, 575, 577
intrusive, 18, 85, 123-26 Japan Laki fissure, Iceland, 90, 101, 123
on the Moon, 50 as back-arc basin, 363 Lakshmi Planum, Venus, 359
pegmatites, 128-29, 130-31 earthquakes in, 274, 276 Laminar flow, 454-55
plate tectonics and, 129-31 Jasper, 171 Landslide(s), 415-16, 417, 446-48
Index 623
J
earthquakes and, 275-76 Longshore current, 580, 582 Marble, 20, 190, 202, 205, 206, 209
surges, 579 Longshore drift, 582, 587 authenticating sculptures, 191-93
Lapilli, 91 Love, A. E. H., 263 dissolution, 142, 145, 498
Laramide orogeny, 401 Love Canal, New York, 505 Maria (lunar), 49
Larson, Gary, 8, 9 Love waves (L-waves), 263 Marianas Trench, 326
Laser ranging techniques, 368 Lovelock, James, 12-13 Marine depositional environment, 162
Lassen, Mount, California, 81 Lowell, Percival, 451 Marine regression, 175
Lateral continuity, principle of, 219, 220 Low-velocity zone (mantle), 296 Marine terrace, 594
Lateral moraine, 524, 530 Luster (mineral), 69-70 Marine transgression, 175
Laterites, 150, 151 219, 231
Lyell, Charles, Mars, 28, 30, 33, 40-41, 43-44, 49, 8
Laurasia, 344 Lysenko, Trofim Denisovich, 10 plate tectonics on, 359
Lava, 85. See also Lava flow; Magma; Lystrosaurus, 349, 350 water, on, 45 1 -42
Volcanism; Volcano wind activity on, 551, 552-53
pillow, 90, 92, 103, 131, 314, 327, Mass deficiency, 303
334 Mass excess, 302
textures of, 113-15
Lava dome, 98-99, 102
M Mass movement. See Mass wasting
Mass spectrometer, 235, 238
Lava flow(s), 85, 121, 357 Madison Canyon, Montana, earthquake, Mass wasting, 414-48, 460
columnar joints in, 89-90 275, 276 defined, 417
dating, use in, 220-21, 247 Mafic magma, 85, 113, 115 factors influencing, 418-24
geometry, 87, 89 Bowen's reaction series and, 115-16 minimizing effects of, 439-48
on other planets, 38, 42, 50 shield volcanoes and, 93 types, 424-38
paleomagnetism in, 350-51 spreading ridges and, 105 Matter, 56
types, 89 volcanic gases in, 87 bonding and compounds, 58-60
ultramafic, 119, 120 Magma, 11, 16, 18, 19, 103-4, 130-31. elements and atoms, 56-58
viscosity, 87 See also Igneous rocks; Lava; Matthews, D., 354
Leaching, 149 Volcanism Mauna Loa, Hawaii, 87, 96, 102, 106
Lehmann, Inge, 291 assimilationand mixing, 117-18 Mayon volcano, Philippines, 90, 98
Lewis overthrust, Montana, 393, 394 Bowen's reaction series and, 115 — 16 Mazama, Mount, Oregon, 93
Lichens (role in weathering), 141 characteristics, 85-87 Meanders (stream), 462-63
Lignite, 172-73 contact metamorphism and, 197-98 incised, 478
Limb (fold), 381 cooling, 113-16 Mechanical weathering, 137-41, 564
Limestone, 19, 20, 67, 429, 433, 441 crystal settling, 116-17 chemical weathering, contribution to,
caves and, 490, 492, 496, 498 Magnesium (in dolostone), 169 145
characteristics and types, 166, 168- Magnetic anomalies, 309-10, 318 frost action, 138-39
69 in oceanic crust, 354—55, 366, 368 organisms, activities, of, 141
dissolution, 142, 145, 495 Magnetic field, 306-11 pressure release, 139, 140
porosity and permeability, 487 inclination and declination, 306-9 thermal expansion and contraction,
Limonite, 143, 165 polar wandering and, 349—51 139, 141
Liquefaction, 423, 434 source, 306-7 Medial moraine, 524, 530
earthquakes and, 273, 275, 276 Magnetic polarity, 310 Mediterranean Basin, evaporite deposits
Lisbon, Portugal, earthquake, 254 Magnetic reversals, 310-11, 366, 368 in, 170-71
Lithification, 162-63, 165 Magnetite, 68, 74, 167, 209, 306, 583 Mediterranean belt, 102, 103
Lithosphere, 11, 16, 17, 297, 357 Magnetometer, 309 Mediterranean-Asiatic belt, earthquakes
oceanic vs. continental, 102—3 Magnitude (earthquake), 266-67, 269 and, 258, 259
at plate boundaries, 361-62, 366 Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, 142, 485, Mendelssohn, Felix, 7, 8
Lithostatic pressure, 194-95, 198 486, 490, 492, 497 Mercalli, Giuseppe, 264
Little Ice Age, 515-16, 537, 540, 542 Manganese nodules, 330-31, 332, 337 Mercury, 30, 35, 38, 40, 88, 452
Lituya Bay, Alaska, earthquake/rockfall, Mantle, 11, 294-97 plate tectonics on,359
426, 579 boundary with core, 290-91, 298 Mesa, 569
Liquid, 56 composition and structure, 294, Mesosaurus, 349, 350
inability to transmit S-waves, 261, 290, 295-97, 305 Metallic bonding, 60
291 convection cells in, 14, 370 Metallic luster, 70
Loess, 148, 552-53, 556-58 geothermal gradient in, 298-99, 301 Metallic resources, 76. See also Mineral
Loihi volcano, Hawaii, 102, 106, 107, kimberlite pipes and, 297, 298-99 resources
369 volume and mass, 288, 289 Metals, 73
Loma Prieta, California, earthquake, Mantle plume, 104-5, 106-7, 300, 368, bonding in, 60
251-53, 260, 265, 273, 278 369 Metamorphic facies, 207
Long Valley caldera, 102 Maps Metamorphic rocks, 18, 19-20, 193,
Longitudinal dune, 555-56 geologic, 380, 381 487. See also Metamorphic facies;
Longitudinal profile (stream), 474 paleogeographic, 352-54 Metamorphic zones; Metamorphism
624 Index
classification, 201-5 exploration for, 5-6, 9, 232-34, 302, N
foliated, 201-5 309-10
Natural Bridges National Monument,
nonfoliated, 205 hydrothermal alteration and, 200
Utah, 479
radiometric dating, 237-38 at hydrothermal vents, 315-16
Natural gas, 181-83, 337, 385, 468-69
Metamorphic zones, 199, 201, 206-7 imported by the United States, 76, 77
subsurface correlation and exploration
Metamorphism, 20, 21 metamorphism and, 208-10
for, 332-34
agents,193-97 oil shales and, 159-60
Natural glass, 133
contact,197-200 petroleum and natural gas, 181-83,
Natural levee, 466
dynamic, 200 184-86, 232-34
Native element, 60, 65
natural resources and, 208-10 plate tectonics and, 371-73
Navajo Formation, Zion National Park,
plate tectonics and, 208 from the sea, 334-37
Utah, 214
regional, 200-201 sediment and sedimentary rocks and,
Nazca plate, 16, 17, 106, 364
types, 197-201 180-87
Neap tide, 595
Meteor Crater, Arizona, i3, 35 uranium, 183
Nearshore zone, 577, 580
Meteorites, 33-35, 48, 49, 291 weathering and, 154—55
nearshore sediment budget, 587
dating, 239 Mineralogy, 5, 61
Negative gravity anomaly, 302-3, 318,
Mexico City Mississippi River, 459, 463, 470
320, 326
earthquake, 276, 341-42 delta, 468, 469
Negative magnetic anomaly, 309
subsidence, 502 Missoula, Lake, Montana, 534-35
Neoglaciation, 536-37
Micas, 66, 67 Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, 264, 266
Neptune, 27, 28, 30, 31, 33, 45, 47, 48
in sandstone, 167 Mohorovicic, Andrija, 294-95
Neumann, F., 264
Michigan basin, 385-86, 388 Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho), 295
Neutron, 57, 231, 239
Microcline, 67 Mohs, Friedrich, 72
in radioactive decay, 234-35
Microcontinents, 329 Mohs hardness scale, 72
Nevado del Ruiz volcano, Colombia, 98,
Microplate tectonics, 408, 410 Mold, 178
341-42
Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 16, 17, 106, 344, Molecule, 60
Nevado Huascaran, Peru, avalanche, 415
351,360 Monocline, 381, 382
New Madrid, Missouri, earthquakes,
Ewing's research on, 330-31 Moon, 49-51, 61, 88,452
259,281
profile, 327 characteristics, 30
Newton, Isaac, 13, 215, 288, 302
volcanism and, 102, 103 thermal expansion and contraction on,
Niigata, Japan, earthquake, 276, 277, 278
Mid-oceanic ridges. See Oceanic ridges 141
Nile River delta, 468, 469, 473
Migmatite, 202, 204-5, 208 tides and, 594-96
Noble gas, 58
Milankovitch, Milutin, 541 Moons, planetary, 44, 45, 46, 47
Nodules, 171
Milankovitch theory (of climatic Moorea, volcanic peaks on, 2
manganese, 330—31, 332, 337
changes), 541-42 Moraine, 528-30
Nonconformity, 223, 226
Milky Way Galaxy, 30, 32 Morley, L. W., 354
Nonferromagnesian minerals, 118, 121
Miller, John, 10 Mountain(s), 395-96
Nonferromagnesian silicates, 75, 85
Mineral(s), 56, 60-78, 113 in desert regions, 567, 568
characteristics, 67, 69, 72
accessory, 74 glaciers in, 516
Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks, 202, 205
carbonate, 67 ranges and systems distinguished, 395
Nonmetallic luster, 70
chemical composition, 62—64 similarity of, on opposite continents,
Nonmetallic resources, 76. See also
crystalline structure, 62, 70-71 346-48
Mineral resources
defined, 56, 60 396
types,
Nonplunging fold, 383
groups, 64-69 Mountain building (orogenesis), 121-22,
Normal fault, 391-93
at hot springs and geysers, 509 126, 364, 378, 397-405
Normal polarity, 310
index, 201, 206-7 microplate tectonics and, 408-10
North America
metamorphic intensity and, 206-7 regional metamorphism and, 197
evolution of, 405, 408, 409
physical properties, 64, 69-74 Rocky Mountains, origin of, 400-402
Pleistocene glaciation, 519, 522-23,
silicate, 65-67 Mud, 160 536-40
structural changes in mantle, 296-97 lithification, 163
North American Cordillera, 400-401
Mineral grain, 113 sedimentary rocks from, 165, 167-68
North American plate, 16, 17
Mineral reserves, 75 Mud crack, 177
mountains in, 347-48
Mineral resources, 76-78. See also Mudflow, 161, 417, 420, 425, 433-34, 470
Nucleus (atom), 57
specific resources, e.g., Iron at Armero, Colombia, 341, 342
Nuee ardente, 99, 102
banded iron formations, 183, 187 lahars (volcanic), 98
Nyos, Lake, Cameroon, 90
in batholiths and stocks, 126 Mudrocks, 165, 167-68
coal deposits in the United States, 173, mineral assemblages produced for, 201
Mudstone, 165, 168
174
Muscovite mica, 66, 67, 116, 167, 238
o
in complex pegmatites, 128, 130-31
defined, 75 cleavage, 71 Oblique-slip fault, 395
deltas and, 468-69 Mylonite, 200 Obsidian, 113, 114, 122, 123
Index 625
Ocean(s) bedded cherts and, 171-72 Peat, 172, 468
changes in the level of. See Sea level 172
in coal, Pedalfer soils, 149
convergence with continents. See fossils, 177-79 Pediment, 568
Shoreline in hydrocarbons, 182 Pedocal 149-50
soils,
early, 316 at hydrothermal vents, 315 — 16 Pegmatite,128-29

in hydrologic cycle, 452, 454 limestone and, 168 complex, 130-31
volume of Earth's water in, 452, 453, in ooze, 331-32 Pelagic clay, 331
588 radiocarbon dating, 239, 242 Pelagic sediment, 326, 331
waves. See Waves reefs and, 332-34 Pelee volcano, Martinique, 84, 99, 102
Ocean basin. See Deep-ocean basin soil formation, role in, 151, 153 Perched water table, 490-91
Ocean Drilling Program, 317 in top soil, 148 Permeability, 182, 487-88
Oceanic-continental convergence, 105 weathering, 141 Peridotite, 298, 334
characteristics, 363—64 Original horizontaliry, principle of, 219, composition and texture, 118, 119
metamorphism and, 208 220, 223, 379-80 in the mantle, 11, 119, 297
orogenesis at, 399, 400-402 Orogenesis, 397-405. See also Mountain Permafrost, 435, 437
Oceanic crust, 12, 14, 16, 17, 117, 319 building Persian Gulf region, petroleum in,
age and distance from oceanic ridges, Orogens, 397, 408 184-86,337
16,355-57 Orogeny, 397 Peru-Chile Trench, 323, 326, 364, 399
composition, volume, and density, 121, Orthoclase, 65, 67, 70 Petrified wood, 178
289, 294, 297, 330, 334 hydrolysis, of, 143-44 Petroleum, 181-83, 337, 385, 468-69,
formation, 351 Outflow channels (Mars), 452 576
heat flow, 300, 302 Outgassing, 35, 40, 316, 451 extraction of, and subsidence, 502—3
magnetic anomalies in, 351, 354-55 Outlet glacier, 522 oil shales and, 159-60
pillow lava in, 90, 130-31, 334 Ourwash plain, 531, 557 Persian Gulf, 184-86, 337
Oceanic lithosphere, 102-3 Overloading, mass wasting and, 421 subsurface correlation and exploration
Oceanic-oceanic convergence, 105 Overturned fold, 382-83 for, 232-34
characteristics, 362-63 Oxbow lake, 463 Petrology, 5
orogenesis at, 397-99 Oxidation, 142-43 Phaneritic texture, 113, 114
Oceanic ridges, 14, 326-37. See also Oxides, 65, 68 Phenocryst, 113
Mid-Atlantic Ridge; Spreading ridge Oxidized ores, 155 Phobos (moon), 49
divergent boundaries at, 357, 360 Oxygen, and carbon isotope analysis, Photon, 29
hydrothermal alteration and, 200, 208 191, 192. See also Oxidation; Oxides Phyllite, 202, 203
oceanic crust and, 16, 351, 355—57 Physical geology, 5

sediment at, 356-57 Piezoelectricity, 68
volcanism and, 102 Pillow lava, 90, 92, 103, 131, 314, 327,
Oceanic trenches, 326. See also specific 334
trenches, e.g., Marianas Trench Pacific Ocean, vs. Atlantic, 322, 326 Pinatubo, Mount, Philippines, 80
convection cells and, 370-71 Pacific plate, 16, 17, 368 Pisa, Italy, subsidence at, 484, 502
earthquakes and, 257, 258 Pahoehoe lava flow, 89, 91 Pitted ourwash plain, 531
at plate boundaries, 362, 364 Paleocurrent, 177 Plagioclase feldspars, 67, 118, 121, 128,
Oceanographic research, 317-18 Paleogeography, 5 202, 204
Oil. See Petroleum Paleogeographic maps, 352—54 in Bowen's reaction series, 116
Oil shale, 159-60, 183 Paleomagnetism, 310, 352 characteristics, 71
Old Faithful geyser, Yellowstone National continental drift and, 349-51 cleavage, 71
Park, Wyoming, 107 Paleontology, 5, 244 hydrolysis of, 143, 144
Oldham, R. D., 290 Palisades, Hudson River, New York, 124, Planetesimals, 33, 30, 51
Oliver, J., 357 125 Planets, 30. See also specific planets, e.g.,
Olivine, 69, 116, 117,119,296 Pangaea, 14, 16, 103, 185, 323, 344, Venus
chemical composition, 64 346, 399, 406 Jovian, 31, 33, 44-47
metamorphosed into serpentine, 196 Parabolic dune, 556, 557 terrestrial, 30-31, 33, 35, 38-44
silica tetrahedra of, 65-66 Parent-daughter ratio, 235 518
Plastic flow (glacier),
specific gravity, 74 Parent element, 235 Plastic strain, 379
Olympus Mons, Mars, 43, 44, 88, 359 Parent material, 136 Plate(s), 11-12, 14, 16, 17. See also
Ooids, 168-69 rate of chemical weathering and, 146-47 Plate tectonics; specific plates
Oolitic limestone, 169 soil formation and, 151 boundaries. See Convergent plate
Ooze, 331-32 Pan'cutin volcano, Mexico, 97 boundaries; Divergent plate
Ophiolites, 334, 399 Partial melting, 105, 106 boundaries; Transform plate
Oppel, Albert, 231 Passive continental margin, 323, 324, boundaries
Optical pyrometer, 86 325, 408, 410 intraplate earthquakes, 259
Organisms petroleum and, 184-85 movement and motion, 366-69
626 Index
Plate tectonic theory, 13, 16, 17, 357 Precursors (earthquake), 276—79 radiocarbon, 239, 242
Plate tectonics, 3-4, 12, 14, 342-43, Pressure release, 139 uncertainty, sources of, 235-39
357-73 Pressure ridge (lava flow), 87, 89 Radon, 240-42
carbon dioxide recycling and, 40, 41 Primary waves. See P-waves Rainshadow desert, 560-61
driving mechanism, 369-71 Principles. See specific principle, e.g., Rapid mass movements, 425
emergent coasts and, 594 Uniformitarianism, principle of Rayleigh, Lord, 263
glaciation and, 540-41 Proglacial lake, 538-39 Rayleigh waves (R-waves), 263
igneous activity and, 129-31 Prograde/prograding, 466, 468 Recessional moraine, 530
metamorphism and, 208 Proton, 57, 231, 239 Recharge (groundwater), 489
mountain building and, 397-405 in radioactive decay, 234-35 wells and ponds, 502
natural resources and, 371-73 Pumice, 122-23 Recrystallization, 195
plate boundaries, types of, 357, P-wave(s) Rectangular drainage, 471
360-66 in the crust, 297 Recumbent fold, 383
plate movement and motion, 366-69 Earth's interior, study of, 289-90 Red Sea
rock cycle and, 20-21 earthquakes and, 261, 262, 263—64 hydrothermal vents in, 315, 316
on terrestrial planets, 358-59 in the mantle, 294-97 mineral resources in, 373
volcanism and, 102-7 shadow zone, 290-91 plate divergence and, 360, 362
Plato, 320 Pyrite, 70, 71, 209 Reef, 332-34
Playa, 566 oxidation, 143, 146, 155 Reflection (seismic waves), 234, 290
Playa lake, 566 Pyroclastic material, 85 Refraction
Pleistocene Epoch ash,90-91, 92 seismic waves, 290
552-53, 525,
glaciation during, 519, bombs and blocks, 91, 92 water waves, 580, 584
530, 533, 536-40, 540-42, 565 cinder cones and, 97 Refractory element, 33
lower seal level during, 319, 322, lapilli, 91 Regional metamorphism, 197, 200-201,
373-74, 539-40, 592, 594 Pyroclastic sheet deposit, 101-2 203
Plucking (glacier), 523 Pyroclastic texture, 115 Regolith, 147
Plunging fold, 383, 385, 386 Pyroxene, 67, 116, 117, 119 lunar, 50
Pluto, 28, 30, 31,47, 48 silica tetrahedra of, 66 Reid, H. E, 254-55
axis of rotation, 30, 33 Relative dating, 216
Pluton(s), 113, 123-26, 397, 399 fundamental principles of, 219-21
batholiths, 125-28 reconstructing geologic history from,
concordant, 123 223, 227
Quarrying (glacier), 523 224-26
discordant, 123 unconformities and, 22-23,
Quartz, 54, 66, 67, 70, 116, 121, 128,
dikes and sills, 123—25 Relative movement (fault), 391
146, 202, 299
laccoliths, 125 Relief, effect on soil formation, 153
in beach sand, 582-83
stocks, 125, 126 Reserve (vs. resource), 76, 77
crystals, 62, 63
volcanic pipes and necks, 125 Reservoir rock, 182
sandstone, 165, 167
Plutonic (intrusive igneous) rocks, 18, 85, Residual (van der Waals) bond, 60
varieties and uses, 68-69
113 Residual concentration, 154
Quartzite, 146, 151, 202, 205, 206
Pluvial lake, 537-38 Residual soil, 148
Quick clays, 425, 434-35
Point bar, 462, 463 Resource (vs. reserve), 76, 77
Polar wandering, 350-51 Reverse fault, 391-93
Polymorphs, 73 Reversed polarity, 310
Popping, 140, 287 Rhyolite, 85
Pore spaces, 163 Radial drainage, 472 composition and texture, 118, 121,
Porosity, 487 Radioactive decay, 48, 58, 120, 231, 122
Porphyritic texture, 113, 114 234-39 tuff, 122
Porphyry, 113 internal heat of Earth and, 300, 302 Richter, Charles E, 266
Port Royal, Jamaica, earthquake, 276 long-lived radioactive isotope pairs, Richter Magnitude Scale, 266
Portuguese Bend, California, landslide, 9, 239 Ridge-push mechanism, 370-71
446-48 radiocarbon dating, 239, 242 Rift(s)/rifting, 103, 104, 323, 406
Positive gravity anomaly, 302, 303 radiometric dating, 235-39 divergent plate boundaries and,
Positive magnetic anomaly, 309 Radioactive waste, 506 360-61

Potassium-argon dating, 236, 238, 239 Radioactivity, 219 oceanic ridges and, 327
Potassium feldspars, 116, 121, 128, 238 Radiocarbon dating, 239, 242 Rift Valley, East Africa, 297, 360
characteristics, 67 Radiolarians, 172, 173, 332 Rill erosion, 153
cleavage, 71 Radiometric dating, 216, 219, 235-39, Ring of Fire, 341-42
hydrolysis of, 143-44 242-43 Rio Grande, data on, 464, 465
Potential energy (stream), 459 fission track, 242-43 Rip current, 580-81
Potholes (stream beds), 460 long-lived isotope pairs, 239 Ripple marks, 177
Index 627
River, 456, 469. See also Stream negative gravity anomaly at, 303, 318 Sea-floor spreading, 14
Roche moutonee, 523 negative magnetic anomaly at, 310 as evidence for continental drift, 351,
Rock(s), 16. See also Igneous rocks; petroleum and natural gas and, 183 354-57
Metamorphic rocks; Sedimentary rocks Salt pan, 566 Sea level
defined, 74 Saltation periods of lower, 170-71, 175, 319,
deformed. See Deformation streams, 460, 461 322, 373-74, 525, 539-40, 592
density and elasticity, 289-90 wind, 549 rising,574, 586, 588-90, 592
glacial ice as, 517 Saltpeter, 492 Sea stack, 591, 592
radon, likely to contain, 241-42 Saltwater, incursion into groundwater, Seamount, 327, 330
oldest known, 48, 193, 405 500-502 Seawalls, 573-74, 590
rock-forming minerals, 74-76 San Andreas fault, 16, 251, 256, 277, Seawater, resources in, 334-35
sequence, similarity of on opposite '279 Sediment, 18, 20
continents, 346-48 mylonites and, 200 chemical, 160
soil formation and, 151 seismic gaps along, 276, 278 classification of particles, 160
weathering, 136-47 as strike-slip fault, 394, 395 deep-sea, 330-32, 335-37, 356-57
Rock bolt, 446 studies of, in elastic rebound theory, defined, 160
Rock burst, 140, 287 254-55 detrital, 160
Rock cycle, 16, 18-21 as transform fault, 366, 367 erosion and, 154. See also Erosion
plate tectonics and, 20-21 San Fernando Valley, California, lithification, 162-63, 165
Rock flour, 523-24 earthquake, 267 nearshore budget, 587
Rock glide, 425, 429-33 San Francisco, California, 1906 pelagic, 326
Rock gypsum, 166, 170, 181 earthquake, 254, 256, 273 relative dating and, 219-20
Rock salt, 166, 170 intensity map, 264-65, 268 shelf-slope break and, 322
Rock varnish, 564 Sand, 160 transport and deposition, 160-61,
Rockfall, 420, 425-26, 579 on beaches, 582-83, 590 459-63, 466-70, 523-24, 549-50
Rocky Mountains, 395, 399, 426 in deserts, 566 water-saturated and earthquakes, 269,
formation of, 400-402 dunes, 554—56 273
Roosevelt, Theodore, 111 erosion, transport, and deposition, Sedimentary breccia, 165, 166, 167
Rotorua, New Zealand, geothermal 461, 549 Sedimentary facies, 173-75
energy, 507, 510 lithification of, 163 Sedimentary rocks, 18-19, 158-60,
Rounding, 161 sedimentary rocks from, 165, 166-67 165-87
Rubble, 166 Sandstone, 19, 151, 165, 166-67 chemical, 166, 168-73
Rubidium-strontium dating, 238, 239 formation, 163 detrital, 165-68
Runcorn, S. K., 350 porosity and permeability, 487, 488 environmental analysis of, 175—80
Running water, 454-79 Santa Maria volcano, Guatemala, 98 facies, 173-75
in deserts, 565-66 Saturn, 27, 30, 31, 44-45, 46 lithification of sediment, 162—63, 165
on Mars, 451-52 Sawkins, F., 371 mineral resources and, 158-60,
sheet flow vs. channel flow, 455-56 Scandinavia, isostatic rebound in, 305, 180-87
in streams. See Stream 307, 540 porosity and permeability, 487-88
velocity and discharge, 457, 459 Scarps (Mercury), 38, 359 radiometric dating, difficulty of, 236,
Runoff Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio, 451 245
channels on Mars, 452 Schist, 20, 202, 203-4 relative dating and, 219-20
defined, 454 Scientific literacy, 10 Sedimentary structures, 175-77
infiltration capacity and, 455-56 Scientificmethod, 13 Self dune, 555—56
Rupture, 256 Scoria, 114, 115 Seismic gap, 276

Scotland, 219, 220 Seismic profiling, 234, 317-18, 330
Secondary waves. See S-waves Seismic risk map, 276, 277
Sea (wave), 575 Seismic tomography, 299, 301
Sea arch, 591 Seismic waves, 256
Sahara, 548, 549, 550, 560 Sea cliff, 587, 588, 591 Earth's interior and, 289-90
Sahel, Africa, drought and desertification, Sea floor, 315-37 locating epicenters with, 263-64
548-49 continental margins, 318-19, 322-25 magnitude and, 266
Saidmarreh Valley, Iran, rock glide, 429, deep-ocean basin, 325-30 sea waves (tsunami), 274-75
430 hydrothermal vents on, 315-16 types, 261-63
St. Helens, Mount, Washington, 81-84, oceanic crust, composition of, 334 Seismogram, 256, 266
86, 87, 90, 92, 93, 94, 99, 300, 341 oceanographic research and, 317—18 Seismograph, 256, 257
Salinity, attempt to calculate Earth's age reefs, 332-34 Wood-Anderson, 266
from, 216, 218 resources on, 335-37 Seismology
Salinization, 548, 566 rip currents and, 581 Earth's interior and, 289-90
Salt dome, 127-28 sedimentation, 330—32 earthquakes and, 255-58
628 Index
Seimiarid region, 560 Slide-flow, 437, 439 Spring 595
tide,
Serpentine, 196, 197, 334 Slope Stalactites,498
Shale, 165, 168 gradient, 419-20, 456-57 Stalagmites, 498
contact metamorphism and, 199, 200 reducing, 445-46 Stars, evolution of, 29
oil,159-60, 183 shear strength, 418, 444 Staurolite, 201, 206
porosity and permeability, 487 soils, effect on, 153 Steinbeck, John, 136
spotted, 199, 200 stability maps, 439, 442, 443 Steno, Nicholas, 62, 219-20
Shallow-focus earthquake, 257, 266, 366 Slow mass movements, 425 Stishovite, 299
Shasta, Mount, California, 92, 93, 96, Slumps, 425, 426, 428-29 Stock, 125, 126
472 Smith, Robert Angus, 144 Stones (meteorites), 33, 34
Shear strength, 290, 418 Smith, William, 221 Stony-irons (meteorites), 33, 34
Shear stress, 379 Snider-Pellegrini, Antonio, 343 Stoping, 128
Shear waves, 261 Sodium chloride, 58-59 Storm surge, 578
Sheet erosion, 153 Soil(s),147-48 Strain, 379
Sheet flow, 456 desert, 564-65 Stratigraphic trap, 183
Sheet joint, 139, 140,389 erosion, 153-54 Stratified drift, 528, 531-32
Sheet silicate, 66 formation, factors controlling, kames and eskers, 531-32
Shelf-slope break, 319, 322 149-51, 153 ourwash plains and valley trains, 531
Shelley, Percy B., 7 horizons, 148-49 Stratovolcano, 96, 98
Shield(s), 193, 195 infiltration capacity, 455-56 Stream(s), 171, 418, 419, 455
and continental evolution, 405, 408 profile, 148-49 base 472-74
level,
Shield volcano, 93, 96-97 residual, 148 bedding in, 176-77
Shoestring geometry (of sedimentary salinization of, 548 defined, 456
bodies), 175, 176 transported, 148 in deserts, 565-66
Shoreline(s)/shoreline processes, 572-96 volcanic activity and, 4 discharge, 459
coasts, types of, 592-94 Solar nebula theory, 32—33 drainage basins and patterns, 470-72
defined, 574 Solar system erosion, 459-60
deposition, 581-87 characteristics,30-31 floods and floodplains, 463-66
erosion, 587, 591-92 Earth 47-49
in, graded, 474-75
nearshore currents, 577, 580-81 Earth-Moon system, 49-51 gradient, 456-57
tides, 594-96 meteorites, 33-34, 36-37 piracy, 475
wave dynamics, 575-77 origin and early history, 31-33 submarine canyons and, 319
Sialic, 12 planets, 30-31, 3S, 38-47 superposed, 476-77
Siccar Point, Scotland, angular Solid(s), 56 terraces, 477-78
unconformity, 223, 225 seismic waves and, 261 transport and deposition by, 160-62,
Sierra Nevada, California, 426, 561 Solifluction, 425, 435, 437 166, 460-63, 466-70
batholith, 125, 126 Solon, 320 valleys, development of, 475-76
normal faulting, 393 Solution, 141-42 velocity, 457, 459
sheet joints, 140 Solution valley, 496 volume of Earth's water in, 452, 453
Silica, 65 Sorting, 161 Stream-dominated delta, 468, 469
in cementation, 163, 165 Source rock, 182 Streamline, 454, 455
Silica tetrahedron, 65—66 South America Stress, 379
Silicates, 65-67, 85 and Africa, 343, 345, 347 Striations, 67, 348
bonding, 60 orogenesis in, 399 glacial, 523
ferromagnesian, 66-67 South American plate, 16, 17, 106 Strike, 380, 381, 390, 391
nonferromagnesian, 67 Spatter cone (lava flow), 89, 123 Strike-slip fault, 393-94
structure, 65-66 Specific gravity, 72, 74 Stromboli volcano, Italy, 102
Siliceous ooze, 332 Sphalerite, 71, 72, 209 Strong nuclear force, 29
Siliceous sinter, 509 Spheroidal weathering, 146-47 Structural geology, 5
Sillimanite, 199, 201, 202, 206, 209 581, 582, 584-85
Spit, Structural trap, 183
Sill(s), 117, 123-25 Spodumene, 131 Subduction zone, 16, 334, 362, 397
contact metamorphism and, 198, 199 Spotted shale, 199, 200 metamorphism and, 194
relative dating, 220-21 Spreading ridge(s), 357, 360-61. See also negative gravity anomalies at, 303
Silt, 160, 487, 550, 552, 556 Oceanic ridge orogenesis at, 397-405, 408
Siltstone, 165, 168 age of oceanic crust and, 16, 355-57 volcanism at, 105-6
Sima, 12 convection cells and, 370-71 Su Song, 215
Sinkhole, 495-96 earthquakes at, 259 Sublimation, 516
Slab-pull mechanism, 370-71 volcanism at, 103-5, 130 Submarine canyon, 319, 323, 587
Slate, 201-2, 203, 209 Spring(s), 490-91 Submarine fan, 322, 404
Slide, 425, 426, 428-33 hot, 506-8 Submergent coast, 592, 594
Index 629
and pressure metamorphic facies, Triton (moon), 27, 28, 88
Subsidence, 484, 502-3 in
588-89 207 Trough (wave), 575

in coastal areas,
regulation of Earth's (Gaia hypothesis), Truncated spur, 525
Subsoil, 149
12-13 Tsunami, 274-75, 321, 578-79
Subsurface geology, 232
thermal expansion and contraction, Tuff, 102, 122
Suess, Edward, 343-44
139, 141 Tungsten, 209
Sulfates, 65, 68-69
75-76 Tensional stress, 379 Tunguska event, 36-37
rock-forming,
Terminal moraine, 530 Turbidity currents, 322-23
Sulfides, 65, 68, 371-72
Terrace graded bedding and, 176
Sun, 30, 31, 32, 33, 594-95
marine, 594 Turbulent flow, 454-55
Supergene enrichment of ores, 155
477-78 Turtle Mountain, Canada, rock glide,
Superposed stream, 476-77 stream,
Superposition, principle of, 219, 220, Terrestrial planets, 30-31, 35, 38-44 432, 433
221, 223, 227 composition, 31, 33

577 40-41
evolution of climate on,
Surf zone,
Surface creep, 549
358-59
plate tectonics on, u
Surface seismic waves, 261, 263 Teton Range, Wyoming, 377, 393 Ubehebe Crater, Death Valley, California,
Surface water, formation of, 316, 317 Tharp, Marie, 330-31 563
Suspended load Theory, 12-14, 16 Ultra-low frequency radio waves (as
460 Thera, volcanic eruption of, 320-21
streams, earthquake precursors), 278
Thermal convection cells, 12, 14, 300,
wind, 550 Ultramafic rocks, 119,405
Suspended water, 488 351, 370-71 lava flows and, 120
S-waves Thermal expansion and contraction, 139, Unconformities, 222-23, 224-26
Earth's interior, study of and, 289-90, 141 222-23, 225
angular,
305 Thorium-lead dating, 238, 239 disconformity, 222, 224
earthquakes and, 261, 262, 263-64 Thrust fault, 334, 393 nonconformity, 223, 226
shadow zone, 291, 292 Tide(s), 594-96 Undercutting, 418, 419
Swell (wave), 575 Tide-dominated delta, 468, 469 Uniformitarianism, principle of, 21-22,
357 Till, 348, 528-30
Sykes, L. R., 219
Sylvite, 170 drumlins, 530 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
Symmetrical fold, 382 moraines, 528-30 earthquake prediction by, 279-80
Syncline, 381-82 Tiltmeter, 94, 95, 277-78 flood prediction, 464-65
plunging, 383, 385 Time, 215 mineral resources and, 76, 78
geologic. See Geologic time sea-floor mapping, 317, 318
magnetic reversal time scale, 310-11 volcanoes, monitoring and forecasting
Time-distance graph, determining eruptions, 94-95
epicenters with, 263-64
Universe, origin of, 29
Taconic orogeny, 406 Tin, 209 Ural Mountains, Soviet Union, 404
Tailings (mine), 143 Titan (moon), 27, 45 238
Uraninite, 183,
Talc, 193, 199, 202, 204, 209 Toit, Alexander du, 344 Uranium, 183, 235
Talus, 138-39, 425 Tombolo, 584-85 fission track dating, 242-43, 245
Tambora volcano, Indonesia, 84, 90, 94, Tonga Trench, 257 Uranium-lead radioactive decay series,
542 Top soil, 148-49

238, 239, 240
Tangshan, China, earthquake, 253, 273, Tourmaline, 54 Uranus, 27-28, 30, 31, 33, 45, 47
280 Toxic waste, 505-6 U-shaped glacial trough, 524-26
Tarn, 527 Trace fossil, 177
Tar sands, 183 Trans-Atlantic cable, 323
Taylor, Frank B., 344 Transform, fault, 327, 357, 366
Teed, Cyrus Reed, 287 Transform plate boundaries, 16, 17

characteristics, 366 Vaiont Reservoir, Italy, disaster, 140,
Telegraph Plateau, 326-27
earthquakes and, 257 440-42, 579
Temperature
Transition zone (mantle), 297 Valles Marineris, Mars, 43, 44
chemical weathering and, 146
Transitional depositional environment, Valley(s)
contact metamorphism and, 198
162 hanging, 526
Curie point, 307
Transpiration, 454 solution, 496
deformation and, 379
Transported soil, 148 stream, development of, 475-76
of deserts, 561, 562, 564
297-300 Transverse dune, 556, 557 train, 531
of Earth's interior, 292,
509 Valley glacier, 518, 519
geothermal gradient, 103-4, 297 Travertine,
Tree-ring dating, 242, 245 erosional landforms, 524-27
Kelvin's calculation of the Earth's age
Trellis drainage, 472 movement, 520-22
and, 219
Trench, oceanic. See Oceanic trench van der Waals bonds, 60
mass wasting, 420
Trilobite, 178, 229, 231 Varve, 533
metamorphism and, 194
630 Index
Vegetation notable eruptions, 84 mechanical, 137-41
deserts and desertification and, shield, 93, 96-97 mineral resources and, 154—55
547-48, 564 types, 92-99 in rock cycle, 18,20, 136, 137
erosion and, 475 spheroidal, 146-47
mass wasting and, 420-21, 444 Wegener, Alfred, 14, 344, 345, 346, 349,
Velocity (stream), 457, 459, 461 w 351
Ventifact, 550-51 Weight, 302
Walvis Ridge, 330
Venus, 26, 28, 30, 33, 39, 42, 88 Welded tuff, 102, 122
Water. See also Groundwater; Lake;
greenhouse effect on, 40 Well log, 228, 232-34
Ocean; Stream; Wave
plate tectonics on, 359 Whin Sill, Europe, 123-24
hard, 144
Verne, Jules, 7, 287 Wilson cycle, 406
hydrologic cycle, 452, 454, 455,
Vesicular texture, 114, 115
486-87 Wilson, J. T., 357, 406
Vesuvius, Mount, Italy, 87, 98, 102 Wind, 549-59
on Mars, 451-52
Vinci, Leonard da, 7, 343 deposits (dunes and loess), 552-58
and mass wasting, 420, 442, 444
Vine F, 354 in deserts, 566
metamorphism, role in, 195-97
Viscosity, 86 erosion, 550-52
in oxidation, 142
Volatile element, 33 558-59, 560
global patterns,
running. See Running water
Volcanic ash. See Ash, volcanic on Mars, 552-53
as a solvent, 142
Volcanic breccia, 122 transport of sediment by, 161,
suspended, 488
Volcanic gases, 87, 90, 144 549-50, 587
volume of, on Earth, 452, 453
Volcanic island arcs, 326, 362-63, 397, wave generation by, 575, 577
Water gap, 476-77
399 Wind shadow, 554
Water table, 488-89
Volcanic neck, 125 Wizard Island, Oregon, 93, 97
desert, 565-66
Volcanic pipe, 125 Wood, H. O., 264
lowering, 500
Volcanic (extrusive igneous) rocks, 85, 113
perched, 490-91
Volcanism, 3-5, 80-107, 112-13, 122,
Water well(s), 491, 493
125, 144, 507, 542. See also Volcano
desertification and, 548
active continental margins and, 323
Wave(s), 160
carbon dioxide recycling and, 40, 41 Xian, China, earthquake, 253
coastal flooding, 578-79
at convergent boundaries, 362, 364
generation, 575—77
defined, 87
mass wasting and, 419, 426
fissure eruptions, 99, 101
nearshore sediment budget and, 587
heat flow and, 300
refraction, 580, 584 Yardangs, 551
lava flows and pyroclastic materials, seasonal effect on beaches, 583-84 Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming,
87, 89-91 shallow-water and breakers, 577 506, 508, 509
oceanic ridges and trenches, 326, 327 shoreline erosion and, 587, 591-92 Yellowstone Tuff, Wyoming, 102
on other planets, 28, 35, 42, 44, 50,
terminology, 575 Yosemite Falls, California, 526
88,358-59,451 tsunami, 274-75, 321, 578-79 Yuca Mountain, Nevada, 506—7
plate tectonics and, 16, 102—7 Wave base, 575, 577 Yungay, Peru, earthquake/landslide,
pyroclastic sheet deposits, 101-2
Wave-built platform, 591 275-76, 415-16, 439
surface water and atmosphere, role in
Wave-cut platform, 591-92
forming, 316, 317 Wave-dominated delta, 468, 469
Volcano(es), 3-5, 92-99. See also
Wave-formed ripple marks, 177
specific volcanoes Wave rays, 289
active, 87 Weak nuclear force, 29 Zion National Park, Utah, 214, 228, 230
cinder cone, 96, 97-98 Weather/weather patterns. See Climate Zircon, 238
composite, 96 Weathering, 134-55 Zone of accumulation, 149
distribution, 102 chemical, 141-47 glaciers, 519
dormant, 87 defined, 136 Zone of aeration, 488
extinct (inactive), 87 in deserts, 564 Zone of saturation, 488
guyots and seamounts, 327, 329 differential, 136-37 Zone of wastage (glacier), 519
lavadomes, 98-99 mass wasting and, 420 Zoned plagioclase, 116
monitoring and forecasting eruptions,
94-95
Index 631
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CREDITS
ENDSHEETS Earth, ©1980, p. 11. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-

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CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 1 3-2: Wyoming State Museum. 3—3 and 3-4: Layout by
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1983): 504. Reprinted by permission of the Geological So- CHAPTER 4
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CHAPTER 2 dell, U.S. Geological Survey. 4-4a: Keith Ronnholm.
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From Howel Williams, Crater Lake: The Story of Its Or- CHAPTER 7
igin (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press): Illus- 7-2: R.L. Elderkin, U.S. Geological Survey. 7-3, 7-7,
trations from page 84. Copyright ©1941 Regents of the 7-14, 7-19, 7-20, 7-21, 7-33, and 7-34: Precision
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Geological Survey. 4-21: Solarfilma/GeoScience Features. From M.B. Cita, "Mediterranean Evaporite: Paleontolog-
4—22: Lawrence R. Solkoski, consulting geologist, Vancou- ical Arguments for a Deep-Basin Desiccation Model." In
ver, B.C. Canada.4-24: I.C. Russell, U.S. Geological Sur- C.W. Drooger, ed., Messinian Events in the Mediterranean,
vey. 4—25: Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Inc. Geodynamics Scientific Report no. 7 (1973): 212, Figure 3.
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liker, and T.L. Wright, Eruptions of Hawaiian Volcanoes: ics. From the U.S. Geological Survey. 7—31: Alan L. Mayo,
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CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 8
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634 Credits
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9—1: Darwen and Vally Hennings. Modified from Geo- E.V. Leyendecker, U.S. Geological Survey, National Geo-
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ican Geology, 1983 Geologic Time Scale." Geology (Boul- U.S. Geological Survey, National Geophysical Data Center,
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Roberts, "Depositional Sequence Mapping as a Technique Survey. 10—18: Hebei Provincial Seismological Bureau,
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of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Perkins, "A Probabilistic Estimate of Maximum Accelera-
9-19: Precision Graphics. Data from S.M. Richardson and tion in the Contiguous United States." U.S. Geological Sur-
H.Y. McSween, Jr., Geochemistry— Pathways and Pro- vey Open-File Report 76-416. July 1976. 10-26: From
cesses (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1989). 9-20a: The Loma Prieta Earthquake of October 17, 1989. 1989.
Precision Graphics. From Don L. Eicher, Geologic Time 2d U.S. Geological Survey. 10-27: Precision Graphics. Re-
ed., ©1976, p. 120. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall,

printed with permission from Predicting Earthquakes,
Inc. Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632. Perspective 9-2, Figure 3:

1976. Published by National Academy Press, Washington,
Rolin Graphics. Data from Environmental Protection Agency. D.C. 10-28: Precision Graphics. Reprinted with permis-
9-24: Precision Graphics. From E.K. Ralph, H.N. Michael, sion from Geotimes 10 (1966): 17.
and M.C. Han, "Radiocarbon Dates and Reality." MASG4

Newsletter 9 (1973): 5, Figure 8. 9-25: Rolin Graphics. CHAPTER 11
From Stokes and Smiley, An Introduction to Tree-Ring Dat- Opener: Wilfred A. Elders, Professor of Geology, Univer-
ing (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1968): 6, Il- sity of California, Riverside. 11-2: Victor Royer. 11-3;
lustration #2. 9-27: Michael Thomas Associates. From L.W. 11-4; 11-5; 11-7; ll-8b; 11-9; 11-10; 11-11; Per-
Mintz, Historical Geology: The Science of a Dynamic Earth, spective 11-1, Figure 1; 11-15; 11-16; 11-17; 11-18;
3d ed. (Westerville, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Com- 11-19; 11-20; 11-21; 11-22; 11-23; 11-24; 11-27;
pany, 1981): 27, Figure 2.18. 11-28; 11-29; 11-30; 11-31; 11-32; and 11-33: Pre-
cision Graphics. 11-6 and 11-12: Precision Graphics.
CHAPTER 10 From G.C. Brown and A.E. Musset, The Inaccessible Earth
Opener: J. P. Stacy, U.S. Geological Survey. 10-la; 10-13; (London: Chapman &
Hall, 1981): 17 and 124, Figures
and Perspective 10-2, Figure 1: Rolin Graphics. 10-lb: 12.7a and 7.11. Reprinted by permission of Chapman 5c
Credits 635
1
Hall. 11— 8a: Kort-og Matrikelstyrelsen (National Survey logic Observatory Columbia University, courtesy Scripps
,
and Cadastre — Denmark). 11-13: Precision Graphics. Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San
From D.P. McKenzie, "The Earth's Mantle." Original illus- Diego. 12-21: Rolin Graphics. From T.A. Davies and D.S.
tration by Ian Worpole. Copyright ©September 1983 by Gorsline, "Oceanic Sediments and Sedimentary Processes."
Scientific American, Inc. All rights reserved. Perspective In J. P. Riley and R. Chester, eds., Chemical Oceanography
11 — 1, Figure 2: Precision Graphics. From Keith G. Cox, 5, 2d ed. (Orlando, Florida: Academic Press, 1976): 26,
"Kimberlite Pipes." Original illustration by Adolph E. Figure 24.7. Reprinted with permission from Academic
Brotman. Copyright ©April 1978 by Scientific American, Press and T.A. Davies. 12-22: Bruce Berg/Visuals Unlim-
Inc. All rights reserved. 11 — 14: Precision Graphics.From ited. 12-24: Frink/Waterhouse, H. Armstrong Roberts.
Inside the Earth by Bruce A. Bolt. Copyright ©1982 by 12-25: John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited. 12—27
W.H. Freeman and Co. Reprinted by permission. Perspec- and 12—28: Rolin Graphics. From U.S. Geological Survey.
tive 11—2, Figure 1: Precision Graphics. Andrew Christie/
Copyright ©1987 Discover Publications. 11 -25a: Rolin CHAPTER 13
Graphics. From Beno Gutenberg, Physics of the Earth's Opener: NASA. 13-1 left; 13-7; 13-8; Perspective
Interior (Orlando, Florida: Academic Press, 1959): 194, 13-1, Figure Id; 13-14; 13-22; 13-24 right; and 13-
Figure 9.1. Reprinted by permission of Academic Press. 27: Rolin Graphics. 13-1 right, 13-16, 13-18, 13-19,
11 -25b: Rolin Graphics. From R.F. Flint, Glacial and 13-20, 13-21, 13-24 left, and 13-26: Carlyn Iverson.
Quaternary Geology (New York: John Wiley &c Sons, Inc., 13-2: U.S. Geological Survey. 13-4: Bildarchiv Preussis-
1971): 363, Figure 13-13. 11-26: Fundamental Photo- cher Kulturbesitz. 13—5: Rolin Graphics. From E. Bullard,
graphs. J.E. Everett, and A.G. Smith, "The Fit of the Continents
Around the Atlantic." Philosophical Transactions of the
CHAPTER 12 Royal Society of London 258 (1965). Reproduced with
Opener: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 12—1; permission of the Royal Society, J.E. Everett, and A.G.
12-3; Perspective 12-1, Figure 2; 12-17; 12-19; and Smith. 13-6: Rolin Graphics. Reprinted with permission
12-29: Rolin Graphics. 12-2: From John M. Edmond, of Macmillan Publishing Company from R.J. Foster, Gen-
"The Geochemistry of Ridge Crest Hot Springs." Oceanus eral Geology, 4/e, Fig. 20-2, p. 351. Copyright ©1983 by
27, no. 3: 16. Copyright ©1984, Woods Hole Oceano- Merrill Publishing Company. 13-9: Rolin Graphics. Mod-
graphic Institution. 12-4: Scripps Institution of Oceanog- ified from E.H. Colbert, Wandering Lands and Animals
raphy, University of California, San Diego. 12—5: Precision (1973): 72, Figure 31. 13-10: Michael Thomas Associ-
Graphics. From U.S. Geological Survey. 12—6, 12—7, ates. From A. Cox and R.R. Doell, "Review of Paleomag-
12-8, 12-9, 12-10, 12-11, 12-13, and 12-23: Preci- netism." GSA Bulletin 71 (1968): 758, Figure 33. Re-
sion Graphics. Perspective 12-1, Figure 1: Rolin Graphics. printed by permission of the Geological Society of America.
From Phyllis Young Forsyth, Atlantis: The Making of a Perspective 13 — 1, Figure la: Rolin Graphics. From R.K.
Myth (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press): 13, Bambach, C.R. Scotese, and A.M. Ziegler, "Before Pangea:
Figure 2. Perspective 12—1, Figure 3: Painting by Lloyd K. The Geographies of the Paleozoic World." American Sci-
Townsend copyright ©
National Geographic Society. 12— entist 68, no. 1 (Jan.-Feb. 1980): 29, Figure 5.Reprinted
12: Precision Graphics. Modified from Bruce C. Heezen by permission of American Scientist, journal of Sigma Xi,
and Charles D. Hollister, The Face of the Deep (New York: The Scientific Research Society. Perspective 13-1, Figure
Oxford University Press, 1971): 297, Figure 8.15. 12-14: lb,c: Rolin Graphics. From R.S. Dietz and J.C. Holden,
Rolin Graphics. From Alyn and Alison Duxbury, An In- "Reconstruction of Pangaea: Breakup and Dispersion of
troduction to the World's Oceans. Copyright ©1984 Continents, Permian to Present." Journal of Geophysical
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, Mas- Research 75, no. 26 (1970): 4939-56. Copyright by the
sachusetts. Reprinted by permission of Wm. C. Brown Pub- American Geophysical Union. Reprinted with permission
lishers, Dubuque, Iowa. All rights reserved. 12—15: From from The American Geophysical Union, R.S. Dietz, and
Bruce C. Heezen and Charles D. Hollister, The Face of the J.C. Holden. 13-11: Precision Graphics. From A. Cox,
Deep (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971): 329, "Geomagnetic Reversals." Science 163 (17 January 1969):
Figure 8.48. 12-16: Precision Graphics. From B.C. 240, Figure 4. Copyright 1969 by the AAAS. Reprinted by
Heezen, M. Tharp, and M. Ewing, "The Floors of the permission of the AAAS. 13-12: Rolin Graphics. From
Oceans, Part 1, The North Atlantic." Geological Society of The Bedrock Geology of the World. Copyright ©1984 by
America Special Paper 65. 1959. 12-18 and 12-26: Car- R.L. Larson and WC. Pitman III. Reprinted with permis-
lyn Iverson. Perspective 12—2, Figure 1: World Ocean sion by W.H. Freeman and Company. 13-13, 13—25, and
Floor map by
Bruce C. Heezen and Marie Tharp, 1977. Review Questions 15 — 18: Precision Graphics. Perspective
Copyright ©Marie Tharp 1977. Reproduced by permission 13-2, Figure 1: AP/Wide World Photos. Perspective 13-2,
of Marie Tharp, 1 Washington Ave., South Nyack, NY Figure 2a: Rolin Graphics. From Geology 18 (February
10960. 12-20: Dr. Bruce Heezen, Lamont-Doherty Geo- 1990): 99, Figure 1. Reprinted by permission of the Geo-
636 Credits
logical Society ofAmerica and James W. Head. Perspective 14-36: Michael Thomas Associates. Modified from Gra-
13-2, Figure 2b: From L.S. Crumpler, James W. Head, and ham, Dickinson, and Ingersoll, Himalayan-Bengal Model
Donald B. Campbell, "Orogenic Belts on Venus." Geology for Flysch Dispersal in the Appalachian-Quachita System
14 (December 1986): 1031, Figure 1. Courtesy Depart- 86 (1975). Perspective 14-3, Figure 1: Reproduced by per-
ment of Geological Sciences, Brown University. Perspective mission of Earth Observation Satellite Company, Lanham,
13-2, Figure 3: Precision Graphics. From Geology 18 Maryland, USA. 14-39: Michael Thomas Associates.
(February 1990): 102, Figure 4. Reprinted by permission of From R.A. Goes Back 2 Billion
Kerr, "Plate Tectonics
the Geological Society of America and James W. Head. Years." Science 230 (20 Decmeber 1985): 1366. Copyright
13-15: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 13-17: 1985 by the AAAS. Reprinted by permission of the AAAS.
Alice Thiede. 13-23: Rolin Graphics. Data from J.B. Min- 14-40: Rolin Graphics. From Zvi Ben-Avraham, "The
ster and T.H. Jordan, "Present-day Plate Motions." Journal Movement of Continents." American Scientist 69: 291-
of Geophysical Research 83 (1978): 5331-51. 299, Figure 9, p. 298. Reprinted by permission of Ameri-
can Scientist, journal of Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research
CHAPTER 14 Society.
14-2: Precision Graphics. From Structural Geology of
North America by A.J. Eardley. Copyright ©1951 by CHAPTER 15
Harper &c Row, Publishers, Inc. Copyright ©1951 by A.J. Opener: Hong Kong Government, Geotechnical Control
Eardley. Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Pub- Office. 15-115-13 right; 15-16 top; 15-17 top;
left;
lishers. 14-3 and 14- 19b: U.S. Geological Survey. 14-4; 15-26a, and 15-31 top: Rolin Graphics. 15-1 right:
14-8; 14-9; 14-lla; 14-13; 14-15; 14-16; 14- George 15—2: U.S. Geo-
Plafker, U.S. Geological Survey.
17a,b; 14-18; 14-19a,c; 14-21; Perspective 14-1, Fig- logical Survey.15-3; 15-4a,b; 15-5a-c; 15-6; 15-8;
ure 3; 14-26a; 14-29; 14-31a; 14-33; 14-34; 14-37; 15-9; 15-12; 15-14; 15-17a; 15-18a; 15-19; 15-
and Perspective 14-3, Figure 2: Precision Graphics. 14-5, 20a; 15-21 top, a; 15-24a; 15-25; 15-27a; 15-28; 15-
14-17c, and 14-27: John S. Shelton. 14-6: Precision 29a; and 15— 30a: Precision Graphics. 15-7: Boris Yaro,
Graphics. Reprinted with permission of Merrill, an imprint Los Angeles Times. Perspective 15 — 1, Figure 1 top: Rolin
of Macmillan Publishing Company, from Structural Geol- Graphics. Perspective 15—1, Figure 1 bottom: Precision
ogy: Principles, Concepts, Problems by Robert D. Hatcher, Graphics. Figure 15-1 from A.C. Waltham, Catastrophe:
Jr. Copyright ©1990 by Merrill Publishing Company. 14- The Violent Earth (New York: Macmillan, 1978): 71. Per-
14: Martin F. Schmidt, Jr. 14-19d; 14-22; 14-23; 14- spective 15-1, Figure 2: T. Spencer/Colorific! 15-11:
28; 14-30; Perspective 14-3, Figure 3; and 14-38: Rolin W.R. Hansen, U.S. Geological Survey. 15-13 left: John S.
Graphics. 14-20 and Perspective 14—1, Figure 2: S.W. Shelton. 15-15 15-15 bottom: Pre-
top: Rolin Graphics.
Lohman, U.S. Geological Survey. 14— 25a: B. Bradley, Uni- cision Graphics. From A.C. Waltham, Catastrophe: The
versity of Colorado Geology Department. 14— 25b: W.H. Violent Earth (New York: Macmillan, 1978): 51. 15-16b:
Monroe, U.S. Geological Survey.14—32: Michael Thomas Steven R. Lower, GeoPhoto Publishing Company. 15 -17b,
Associates. Reproduced by permission of the Geological 15-22b, and 15-24b: B. Bradley and the University of
Society and A.M. Spencer from A.M. Spencer, ed., Colorado's Geology Department to National Geophysical
Mesozoic-Cenozoic Orogenic Belts (Bath: Geological Soci- Data Center, NOAA, Boulder, Colorado. 15-21b: Depart-
ety Publishing House, 1974). Perspective 14—2, Figure 1: ment of the Army, U.S. Army Engineer District, Alaska
Michael Thomas Associates. From C.W. Stearn, R.L. Car- Corps of Engineers. 15— 22a: Rolin Graphics. From O.J.
roll, and T.H. Clark, Geological Evolution of North Amer- Ferrians, Jr., R. Kachadoorian, and G.W Greene, U.S.
ica, 3d ed. (New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1979): Geological Survey Professional Paper 678. 1969. 15—23:
376, Figure 16-13. Perspective 14-2, Figure 2: Rolin OJ. Ferrians, Jr., U.S. Geological Survey. Perspective 15—2,
Graphics. From WR. Dickinson and WS. Snyder, "Plate Figure 1: Rolin Graphics. Reprinted with permission
Tectonics of the Laramide Orogeny." In V. Matthews, ed., ASCE. From G.A. Kiersch, "Vaiont Reservoir Disaster."
Laramide Folding Associated with Basement Block Fault- Civil Engineering 34 (1964). Perspective 15-2, Figure 2:
ing in the Western United States. GSA Memoir
151 (1978): UPI/Bettmann. Perspective 15-2, Figure 3: Precision
359, Figure 2. Reprinted with permission from W.R. Dick- Graphics. Reprinted with permission ASCE. From G.A. Ki-
inson. Perspective 14-2, Fig. 3: Rolin Graphics. From S.H. ersch, "Vaiont Reservoir Disaster." Civil Engineering 34
Knight in D.L. Blackstone, Jr., "Traveler's Guide to the (1964). 15— 26b,c: Reprinted with permission of Merrill
Geology of Wyoming." Geological Survey of Wyoming Publishing Company, an imprint of Macmillan Publishing
Bulletin 67 (1988): 43-44. 14-35: Rolin Graphics. From Company, from Keller, Environmental Geology 6e, copy-
Peter Molnar, "The Geologic History and Structure of the right ©1992. 15-29b: John D. Cunningham/Visuals Un-
Himalaya." American Scientist 74: 144—154, Fig. 4, 15-30b: Dell R. Foutz/Visuals Unlimited. 15-
limited.
pp. 148 — 149. Reprinted by permission of American Scien- 31a: From R.H. Jahns, Bulletin 170,
Rolin Graphics.
tist, journal of Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society. Geology of Southern California, California Division of
Credits 637
Mines. 15 -3 lb: Los Angeles County Department of Public Polytechnic Institute and State University. 18—7: Frank
Works. Awbrey/Visuals Unlimited. 18 — 8 and Perspective 18—1,
Figure 1: Alice Thiede. 18-12: National Park Service pho-
CHAPTER 16 tograph by Ruth and Louis Kirk. 18-22, 18— 31b, and
16-1 and 16-2: JPL. 16-3; 16-7; 16-8; 16-9; 16-10; 18-33a: John S. Shelton. 18-23: Bob and Ira
Spring/Kirkendall-Spring Photographers. 18-24: Swiss
16-11; 16-15; 16-16; 16-21; Perspective 16-1, Figures
National Tourist Office. 18-25: Alan Kesselheim/Mary
1 and 2; 16-22b; 16-23; 16-24a; 16-26a; 16-29; 16-
Pat Ziter, ©JLM Visuals. 18-27: National Park Service
30; 16-32; 16-33; 16-36; 16-37; 16-38; and 16-40:
16-4: Martin G. Miller/Visuals Un- photograph by Bruce Paige. 18-34: Canadian Geological
Precision Graphics.
Survey. Perspective 18-1, Figures 2 and 3: P. Weis, U.S.
limited. 16-6 and 16-25a,b: Rolin Graphics, 16-17, 16-
Geological Survey. 18—37: Michael Thomas Associates.
18, 16-22a, and 16-41: John S. Shelton. 16-25c: Rolin
Graphics. From W.L. Fisher et al., Delta Systems in the
From H.E. Wright and D.G. Frey, eds., Quaternary Geol-
ogy of the United Copyright ©1965 by Princeton
States.
Exploration for Oil and Gas— A Research Colloquium
University Press. Reprinted by permission of Princeton Uni-
(1969). 16-26b: Alan L. Mayo, GeoPhoto Publishing
versity Press. Perspective18-2, Figure 1: Rolin Graphics.
Company. 16—28: Alice Thiede. 16-31: Alan Smith/Tony
From and Farrand, "The Glacial Lakes Around
Kelley
Stone Worldwide. 16-35: Petley Studios. 16-39: J.R.
Michigan." Geological Survey Bulletin 4 (1967). Michigan
Stacy, U.S. Geological Survey. Perspective 16-2, Figure 2:
Department of Natural Resources. Perspective 18-2, Fig-
Precision Graphics. From Natural Bridges. National Park
ure 2: Rolin Graphics. From V.K. Prest, Geology and Eco-
Service.
nomic Minerals of Canada: Department of Energy, Mines,
and Resources Economic Geology Report 1, 5/e (1970):
CHAPTER 17
90-91, Figure 7—6. Reproduced with the permission of
Opener: Sarah Stone/Tony Stone Worldwide. 17-la,c: Ro- the Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1991. 18-38:
lin Graphics. From Trapped by Robert K. Murray and Michael Thomas Associates. From J.T. Andrews, "Earth
Roger W. Brucker. Copyright ©1979 by Murray and Science Symposium on Hudson Bay, Ottawa, 1968." Ca-
Brucker, copyright renewed. Used by permission. 17- lb: nadian Geological Survey Paper 68-53 (1969): 53. Repro-
Brown Brothers. 17-2, 17-3, 17-4, 17-6, 17-8, 17-9, duced with the permission of the Minister of Supply and
17-10, 17-12, 17-15, 17-18, 17-21, 17-25, and 17- Services Canada, 1991.
30: Precision Graphics. 17-5: G.E. Seaburn, U.S. Geolog-
ical Survey. 17-7: Linda D. Mayo, GeoPhoto Publishing CHAPTER 19
Company. Perspective 17-1, Figure 1: Ed Cooper. Perspec- Opener; 19— 13b; 19-26a,b; 19-31a; and Perspective
tive 17-1, Figure 2: W.L. McCoy. 17-11: J.R. Stacy, U.S. 19-2, Figure 2: John S. Shelton. 19-1 and 19-19: Alice
Geological Survey. 17—13: Alice Thiede. 17— 14a: Frank Thiede. 19-2: Steve McCurry/Magnum. 19-3; 19-6a
Kujawa, University of Central Florida, GeoPhoto Publish- 19-9a,b; 19-10; 19-11; 19-13a; 19-14a; 19-15a
ing Company. 17— 14b and 17-22 right: U.S. Geological 19-17a; 19-23; and 19-29a: Precision Graphics. 19-4
Survey. 17-16b: John S. Shelton. 17-17: R.F. Ashley/Vi- Walt Anderson/Visuals Unlimited. 19-5, 19-8, and 19-
suals Unlimited. 17-19: Daniel W
Gotshall/Visuals Un- 27: Martin G. Miller/Visuals Unlimited. Perspective 19—1,
limited. 17-20: Rolin Graphics. From J.B. Week:, et al.,
Figure 1: Mary A. Dale-Bannister, Washington University,
U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1400-A. 1988. St. Louis. Perspective 19-1, Figures 2 and 3: NASA. 19-
17-22 left: Rolin Graphics. 17-24: City of Long Beach 14b, 19-15b, and 19-28: Alan L. and Linda D. Mayo,
Department of Oil Properties. Perspective 17-2, Figure 1: GeoPhoto Publishing Company. 19-16: Willard Clay/
Precision Graphics. Modified from U.S. News &
World Tony Stone Worldwide. 19-18: Steve McCutcheon/Visu-
Report (18 March 1991): 72-73. 17-27: Rolin Graphics. als Unlimited. 19-20: Alex Teshin Associates. Based on
From G.A. Waring, U.S. Geological Survey Professional F.K. Lutgens and E.J. Tarbuck, The Atmosphere: An Intro-
Paper 492. 1965. 17-28: British Tourist Authority. duction to Meteorology (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, 1979): 150, Figure 7.3. 19-21: Rolin
CHAPTER 18 Graphics. Perspective 19—2, Figure 1: Precision Graphics.
Opener: David Hiser, Photographers/Aspen, Inc. 18 -la: From C.B. Hunt and D.R. Mabey, U.S. Geological Survey
Offentliche Kunstsammlung, Kupferstichkabinett Basel. Professional Paper 494 A (1966): A5, Figure 2. Perspective
18- lb: Reproduced courtesy of the Board of Directors of 19—2, Figure 3: John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited.
the Budapest Museum of Fine Arts. 18-2: Tom Bean. Perspective19-2, Figure 4: United States Borax 8e Chem-
18-3, 18-10, 18-11, 18-14, 18-17, 18-18, 18-32, ical Corporation.
18-35, and 18-39: Precision Graphics. 18-4a: National
Park Service photograph by Bruce Paige. 18—5; 18—9; 18- CHAPTER 20
28; 18-36; and Perspective 18-2, Figure 1: Rolin Graph- Opener: Jim Pickerell/Tony Stone Worldwide. 20—1 and
ics. 18-6 and 18-29: Engineering Mechanics, Virginia 20—2: Rosenberg Library, Galveston, Texas. 20—3: Susan
638 Credits
Trossbach, University of Virginia. 20-4; 20-5; Perspec- ton. 20-12: Michael Slear. 20-21 and Perspective 20-2,
tive 20-2, Figure 2; and 20-32: Rolin Graphics. 20-7, Figure Rolin Graphics. From U.S. Geological Survey
1:
20-11, 20-13, 20-14, 20-16, 20-17a, 20-18a, 20- Circular 1075. 20-22a: P. Godfrey. 20-22b: NASA. Per-
23, 20—25, 20-26, and 20-27a: Precision Graphics. Per- spective 20-2, Figure 3: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
spective 20-1, Figure 1: Steve Starr/SABA. Perspective 20-27b: Nick Harvey. 20-28. GEOPIC®, Earth Satellite
20-1, Figure 2: D.J. Miller, U.S. Geological Survey. 20-9, Corporation. 20-31: Karl Kuhn.
20-10, 20-15, 20-19, 20-24, and 20-27c: John S. Shel-
Credits 639
""^ Geologic Time Depicted in a Spiral History of the Earth (Figure 9-1)
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PHYSICAL

James S. Monroe ReedWicander

Upwelling gp" Asthenospnere

"^ Three Principle Types of Plate Boundaries (Figure 1 - 14)

WEST PUBLISHING COMPANY

Iverson, Precision Graphics, Rolin Graphics, and St. Paul, MN 55164-0526

Cotopaxi (1862). Oil on canvas, 48 in. x 7 ft. 1

in. Copyright © The Detroit Institute of Arts,

century. His paintings were magnificent in scope QE28.2.M655 1992

»-^^ ' K- '

Preface xvii 12 The Sea Floor 314

Preface xvii Chapter Summary 22

UNDERSTANDING THE EARTH:

An Introduction to Physical Geology

Mineral Groups 64 System 88

Dynamic Metamorphism 200 Radiocarbon Dating Methods 239

Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics 208 Time 244

THE SEA FLOOR

THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH Oceanographic Research 317

Alfred Wegener and the Continental Drift

GLACIERS AND GLACIATION

The Earth dynamic planet that has changed contin-

shape, and geographic distribution of the continents and

Text Organization xvii

more easily visualize the salient features of these pro-

Noel Eberz Gary Rosenberg

Richard H. Fluegeman, Jr. Charles P. Thornton

R. W. Hodder Geology Department of Cen-

Michael McKinney Kathleen Chiras in coordinating the Guest Essay feature.

University of Tennessee at Knoxville

General Study Skills xxiii

xxiv Developing Critical Thinking and Study Skills

out your answers as if you were taking a test.

Improving Your Memory xxv

going to or look over the last chapter

unfamiliar material. For example, the order of

material relates to it. offered, be sure to attend. If you are having

and label its parts and the type of

topography it forms. you have trouble with a particular type of

xxvi Developing Critical Thinking and Study Skills

"w First of all, relax. Then look over the exam

Concluding Comments xxvii

Volcanic peaks of the island of Moorea, part

4 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Physical Geology

^ INTRODUCTION mineralogy, the study of minerals; petrology, the study

However, before one can interpret the Earth's an past,

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Physical Geology

^ FIGURE 1-6 (a) Geologists

Geology and the Human Experience

quently served as political boundaries.

^ HOW GEOLOGY AFFECTS

"^ FIGURE 1-8 Felix Mendelssohn was

8 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Physical Geology

Bend area of southern California during the 1950s (Fig.

humans, in increasing numbers, have on the environ-

"^ FIGURE 1-9 References to geology are frequently

of mineral exploration. The buildings that we live and

How Geology Affects our Everyday Lives

HOW MUCH SCIENCE DOES

The Earth as a Dynamic Planet 11

Geology and the Formulation of Theories 13

— FIGURE 1-12 The Earth's

-r." "' . r. 11: "i —:-•;