LCD

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module

and find a wide range of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic
module and is very commonly used in various devices and circuits. These
modules are preferred over seven segments and other multi
segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily
programmable; have no limitation of displaying special & even custom
characters (unlike in seven segments), animations and so on. A 16x2
LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines.
In this LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has
two registers, namely, Command and Data. The command register stores
the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is an instruction
given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen,
setting the cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores
the data to be displayed on the LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the
character to be displayed on the LCD. Click to learn more about internal
structure of a LCD.
LCD PIN DESCRIPTION:

Pin No Function Name

1 Ground (0V) Ground

2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc
3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor VEE

4 Selects command register when low; and data register when high Register Select

5 Low to write to the register; High to read from the register Read/write
6 Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given Enable
7 DB0
8 DB1
9 DB2
10 DB3
8-bit data pins
11 DB4
12 DB5
13 DB6
14 DB7
15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+
16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-

7 DB0 H/L Data Bus Line

8 DB1 H/L Data Bus Line
9 DB2 H/L Data Bus Line
10 DB3 H/L Data Bus Line
11 DB4 H/L Data Bus Line
12 DB5 H/L Data Bus Line
13 DB6 H/L Data Bus Line
14 DB7 H/L Data Bus Line
15 A/Vee + 4.2V for LED/Negative Voltage Output
16 K Power Supply for B/L (OV)
 L293D MOTOR DRIVER

L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver integrated circuit (IC). Motor

drivers act as current amplifiers since they take a low-current control signal
and provide a higher-current signal. This higher current signal is used to
drive the motors. L293D contains two inbuilt H-bridge driver circuits. In its
common mode of operation, two DC motors can be driven simultaneously,
both in forward and reverse direction. The motor operations of two motors
can be controlled by input logic at pins 2 & 7 and 10 & 15. Input logic 00
or 11 will stop the corresponding motor. Logic 01 and 10 will rotate it in
clockwise and anticlockwise directions, respectively. Enable pins 1 and 9
(corresponding to the two motors) must be high for motors to start
operating. When an enable input is high, the associated driver gets
enabled. As a result, the outputs become active and work in phase with
their inputs. Similarly, when the enable input is low, that driver is disabled,
and their outputs are off and in the high-impedance state.

PIN DIAGRAM:
PIN DESCRIPTION:

Pin
Function Name
No
1 Enable pin for Motor 1; active high Enable 1,2
2 Input 1 for Motor 1 Input 1
3 Output 1 for Motor 1 Output 1
4 Ground (0V) Ground
5 Ground (0V) Ground
6 Output 2 for Motor 1 Output 2
7 Input 2 for Motor 1 Input 2
8 Supply voltage for Motors; 9-12V (up to 36V) Vcc 2

9 Enable pin for Motor 2; active high Enable 3,4

10 Input 1 for Motor 1 Input 3
11 Output 1 for Motor 1 Output 3
12 Ground (0V) Ground
13 Ground (0V) Ground
14 Output 2 for Motor 1 Output 4
15 Input2 for Motor 1 Input 4
16 Supply voltage; 5V (up to 36V) Vcc 1
Card reader

L293D motor driver

THE POWER SUPPLY UNIT
The power supply is 12 volt from a rechargeable battery. But due to
the voltage rating of the microcontroller which is 5volt voltage regulator is
required. So the power supply to every section of the circuit is 5 volt.

To determining the resistor value (R3, R4, R5)

a. Current Limiting Resistors
VS = 5V (Supply voltage), VLED = 2.2V, ILED = 35mA (Maximum allowable
current across the LED)
𝑽𝑺 −𝑽𝑬𝑫
R1 =
𝑰𝑳𝑬𝑫
(𝟓−𝟐.𝟐)𝑽 𝟗.𝟖
R1 = =
𝟑𝟓𝒎𝑨 𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟓

R1 = 280Ω
Therefore, current drawn by the 3 LED;
𝑽
ILED = 𝑹𝑺
𝟏

𝟓
ILED = 𝟐𝟖𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟑𝑨

ILED = 43mA

b. Peak Inverse Voltage

Peak Inverse voltage is twice the maximum voltage across the half wave [
That is P1V = 2Vm = 2VS

Therefore, PIV = 2 X 12 = 24V

The value of diode used in full wave bridge rectifier circuit was 1N4001
because it has voltage rating of 50V as required by the circuit. The rating is
also chosen to avoid any damage to the diode in case of reverse operation
occurs.
c. Average DC Current ( 1c)
The average DC current was calculated using the expression
𝟐𝑽𝒎
Idc =
𝝅𝑹𝑳

A 200Ω load resistance was considered across the outputs.

Root mean square (R.m.s) of the secondary = 12V

Maximum voltage across the secondary (VM) = 12 × √𝟐 − 𝟏𝟕𝑽

𝟐×𝟏𝟕 𝟑𝟒
Dc current flowing through the load Idc = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟒𝑨
𝟑.𝟏𝟒𝟐×𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟔𝟐𝟖.𝟒

Average dc voltage across the load (Vdc =Idc × 𝑹𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟒 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟖𝑽

However, the values of dc voltages (Vdc1, Vdc2, Vdc3) and currents (Idc1,
Idc2, Idc3) across the three phases were equally 10.8Volts and 54mA
respectively.

d. Filter capacitors (C2 and C4):

The filter capacitors were calculated using the expression

𝟏
C=
𝟒√𝟑𝒇𝒚𝑹

But for full wave rectifier circuit

f = frequency of ripple voltage = 50Hz
y = Ripple factor = 5% = 0.05
R = Diode resistance =?
𝑽𝒅𝒄
R= = 𝟐𝟎𝟎Ω
𝑰𝒅𝒄

𝟏
C= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟖𝑭
𝟒√𝟑×𝟓𝟎×𝟎.𝟎𝟓×𝟐𝟎𝟎

C = 288𝛍𝐅
𝑹𝟓𝑽𝟏
V_ =
𝑹𝟒 +𝑹𝟓
Since 288μF capacitor is not standard, 330μF capacitors were used as ( C2,
and C4) in the standard value in the design.

Switching of the buzzer

a. Collector Current (1c)

From the expression;

𝐼𝑐
IC = 𝛽

Where supply voltage (VCC) = 5V

Base emitter voltage (VEE) = 0.6;
Gain (HFE) = 25
Recall coil resistance RL = 400Ω
𝑉𝐶𝐶 12
IC = = = 0.03𝐴
𝑅𝐿 400

IC = 30mA
Base Current (IB)
0.03
IB = 35

IB = 0.0012A
But to ensure sufficient base current to drive the transistor into saturation,
the quantity of the base current is doubled.

i.e IB = 2 × 0.0012

IB = 0.002A

IB = 2mA
b. Base Resistance (R6)

𝑉𝐶𝐶 −𝑉𝐵𝐸
R6 = 𝐼𝐵
5−0.2 11.3
R6 = 0.002
=
0.002

R6 = 803Ω

In this case, since the resistor R6 is 803Ω approximately we will use the
available value in the market which is 1000Ω (1k)