Continuous-Time Control Systems

Lecture: Root-Locus Analysis

Dr. Chris S. Edrington

Arkansas State University

Copyright 2006
• Introduction
– The response of a system is related to the position of
the closed-loop poles.
– When adding a controller there will be one, if not
more, gain(s) that are adjustable.
– Adjusting this gain will in essence move the position
of the closed-loop poles and thus adjust the response
of the system.
– Often just adjusting the gain will not be sufficient to
obtain the desired performance and thus a more
complex controller must be designed.
• Introduction
– The root-locus method was first developed by W. R.
Evans.
– The root-locus is basically the technique of finding the
locus of roots as a single gain is changed, by solving
for the roots of the characteristic equation at each
gain.
– The gain that is to be varied typically will be the open-
loop gain. Note this does not mean the gain of the
open-loop system, that is typically fixed; this refers to
cascading a controller in the feedforward path.
• Introduction
– It would also be possible to obtain a root-locus of a
varying system parameter i.e. R or L of an RL circuit.
– Unless otherwise stated the gain will be varied from
zero to infinity.
– Using the root-locus method the control systems
engineer can predict the effects that the varying gain
will have on the closed-loop poles, or what effects will
be caused by adding open-loop poles or open-loop
zeros.
• Introduction
– The basic idea behind the root-locus method
is that the value of s that makes the transfer
function around the loop equal -1 must satisfy
the characteristic equation of the system.
– The root-locus method is very useful since it
provide both graphical and analytical
information as to were open-loop poles and
zeros should be placed.
• Chapter Outline
– 6.1 Introduction
– 6.2 Root-locus Plots
– 6.3 Summary of General Rules for
Constructing Root-loci
– 6.4 Root-locus Plots With MATLAB
– 6.5 Positive Feedback Systems
– 6.6 Conditional Stability Systems
– 6.7 Root Loci for Systems with Delay
• Root-locus Plots: Angle and Magnitude
Conditions
– Consider the following general system
C(s) G(s)
=
R(s) 1+ H(s)G(s)
– The characteristic equation of the system is
obtained by setting the denominator of the
closed-loop system to zero as follows:
1 + H (s)G(s) = 0
∴
H (s)G(s) = −1
• Root-locus Plots: Angle and Magnitude
Conditions
– Since a complex variable has both an angle
and a magnitude we can split the previous
equation into two separate equations as
follows:

Angle
Condition
∠G(s) H (s) = ±180°(2k + 1) (k = 0,1, 2,...)

Magnitude
Condition G(s) H (s) = 1
• Root-locus Plots: Angle and Magnitude
Conditions
– The values of s that fulfill both the angle and
magnitude conditions are the roots of the
characteristic equation i.e. the closed loop poles.
ONLY these values will be the roots.
– As we vary the gain, these values of s that satisfy
both conditions will change.
– The resulting collection of points in the s-plane i.e. the
roots of the characteristic equation, are called loci.
• Root-locus Plots: Angle and Magnitude
Conditions
– In many cases G(s)H(s) will involve a gain term, K,
and will be written in the following form:
( s + z1 )( s + z2 )...( s + zm )
1+ K =0
( s + p1 )( s + p2 )...( s + pn )
– The root-loci for the system are the loci of the closed-
loop poles as the gain K is varied from 0 to infinity.
• Root-locus Plots: Angle and Magnitude
Conditions
– Note: it is necessary, in order to start the root-locus
procedure, to know the poles and zeros of the loop
transfer function i.e. G(s)H(s).
– Note: angles are measured as positive in the counter
clockwise manner i.e. from a horizontal line bisecting
a test point to a line connecting the test point to either
a pole or a zero.
– The angle that is given for a zero is denoted as, φ.
– The angle that is given for a pole is denoted as, θ.
• Root-locus Plots: Angle and Magnitude
Conditions
– For example if we had the following generic
system:
K (s + z1)
G(s)H (s) =
(s + p1)(s + p2 )(s + p3 )(s + p4 )

∠G(s)H(s) = ϕ1 −θ1 −θ2 −θ3 −θ4

K B1
G (s)H (s) =
A1 A 2 A3 A 4
• Root-locus Plots: Example
– Given
K(s +1)
G(s) = ; H(s) = 1
s(s + 2)(s + 5)

– STEP #0: Set up the angle and magnitude

criterion formulae
• Root-locus Plots: Example
– Step #1: Determine the root locus on the real axis.
• Select generic test points on the real axis before and after
every pole and zero.
• Compute the total angle.
• Answer the question does this satisfy the angle criterion?
• If yes, then there is a segment of the root locus on the real
axis that lies either between two poles or a pole and zero
(could be at negative or positive infinity).
• If no, then there is no segment of the root locus on the real
axis at this point.
• Root-locus Plots: Example
– STEP #1(cont.): Determine the root locus on
the real axis.
• Note: When K = 0 the starting location of the root
locus will be at the open-loop poles
• Note the order of the system determines the
number of separate root loci
• Root-locus Plots: Example
– STEP #2: Determine the asymptotes of the root loci.
• The asymptotes of the root loci are the “ideal” lines for which
the root loci will eventually travel along.
• Theoretically one can select a test point that is very far away
from the origin by setting the gain to infinity.
• By doing this it can be seen that there will be n-m distinct root
loci.
• Each of the root loci will travel along an asymptote that is at
an angle with respect to the negative real axis.
• Root-locus Plots: Example
– STEP #2 (cont.) The angle of the asymptote is
given by the following formula:
±180°(2k + 1)
ϕk = , k = 0,1, 2,..., n − m
n−m

– Note: n = # poles and m = # zeros

– k could take on an infinite number of values
but we limit it to n-m because repetition of the
angle occurs for values greater than n-m.
• Root-locus Plots: Example
– STEP #2 (cont.) All the asymptotes will break
away from a single point on the real axis
denoted as α.
– This point may be calculated via the following
expression.

α = ∑ pi − ∑ zi
n − m
• Root-locus Plots: Example
– STEP #3: Determine the “break-away” points,
at which the root loci “break-away” from the
real axis.
• We write the characteristic equation as :
f(s) = B(s) + KA(s)
• Note the following:
df ( s )
when =0
ds
then
f ( s ) = 0 has multiple roots
• Root-locus Plots: Example
– STEP #3 (cont.)
• In other words there is a gain K such that at that
value the system will multiple roots.
• Thus we seek those roots since any increase in K
will cause the roots to “break away” from the real
axis.
• Note for values of K less than this critical value
where multiple roots exist, the roots will be distinct
and real.
• Root-locus Plots: Example
– STEP #3 (cont.)
• If we take the derivative of f(s) and set it equal to
zero we obtain the following:
df ( s )
= B′( s ) + KA′( s ) = 0
ds

• Solving the above equation for K and substituting it

into the characteristic equation we obtain the
following:
F ( s ) = B ( s ) A ′( s ) − B ′( s ) A ( s ) = 0
• Root-locus Plots: Example
– STEP #3 (cont.)
• Solving for the roots of the foregoing equation will
give us the point at which the roots will “break
away” from the real axis.
• Note: valid roots must be real.
• Note: there may be several solutions depending on
the order of the system and thus for one or more of
them to be “break away” points then they must
make sense intuitively.
• Root-locus Plots: Example
– STEP #4: Determine where the root locus crosses the
imaginary axis.
• We may do this by setting up the Routh array corresponding
to the characteristic equation.
• Now we simply solve for the value of K that will make the 1st
element of a row in the 1st column zero.
• Next we set up an auxiliary equation created from the row
above the one that you just created a zero in.
• Finally, solve for the roots of this auxiliary polynomial. The
root locations indicate the crossing point on the imaginary
axis.
• Note: Just because you can create and solve an auxiliary
polynomial does not indicate that there is a crossing point.
Remember, that the roots must follow the asymptotes!
• Root-locus Plots: Example
– STEP #5 (optional): Selection of test points in
the s-domain.
• This is an optional step that can be used to create
a less crude root-locus plot by iteratively satisfying
the angle criterion to obtain points that lie on the
root locus.
• By this point however you have enough
information to sketch the plot and get a general
idea what the system is doing
• Root-locus Plots: Example
– STEP #6: Draw the root locus plot
• Given the previously calculated information, as
shown below, one should be able to obtain a
adequate sketch of the root locus
– Asymptote angles
– Asymptote break away points
– Root locus break away points
– Segments of the root locus on the real axis
– Points at which the root loci cross the imaginary axis
• Root-locus Plots: Example
– STEP #7: Design Stage
• This point depends on what the specifications for the problem
are such as:
– Desired damping ratio
– Natural frequency
– Time domain specifications
– Steady state error requirements
• At this stage one must often take an iterative approach,
selecting a controller topology based on engineering
judgment, analyzing stability, root locations, damping,
steady-state error, and time domain response. Thus utilizing
a software package like MATLAB has great benefit and
reduces the difficulty and time associated with “by-hand”
analysis.
• Root Locus plots with MATLAB
– Example #2 1
G p ( s) = 2
s
– In this case we have an unstable open-loop
plant, thus we must employ feedback to
provide stabilization.
– Computing the overall transfer function
without any controller we have the following:
C(s) 1
T(s) = = 2
R(s) s +1
• Root Locus plots with MATLAB
– Example #2 cont.
– Clearly a simple proportional control will not
work i.e. Gc(s) = K will yield the following
overall transfer function:
K
T(s) =
s2 + K
– Thus a 1st order controller such as a PI or PD
may work well for us.
• Root Locus plots with MATLAB
– Example #2:
• No matter what controller we choose, we will have
multiple degrees of freedom.
• The root locus technique only allows for one gain
to be varied at a time so we will need to write the
equation to reflect this condition.
• Conditionally Stable Systems
– Many time systems are conditionally stable, in
other words for various ranges of a gain the
system is stable and for other ranges the
system is unstable.
– If a system is conditionally stable it is
important to note for what ranges of K the
system exhibits stability and instability.
• Conditionally Stable Systems
– Example #3: Consider the example that is
shown in the text where we have a unity
feedback system and the following open-loop
transfer function.
K ( s 2 + 2 s + 4)
G (s) =
s ( s + 4)( s + 6)( s 2 + 1.4 s + 1)

– Let us utilize MATLAB to see what the root

locus of the system looks like.
• Conditionally Stable Systems
– Based on the root locus computed in MATLAB
we can see the system is stable for the
following gain conditions
– Note: the gain ranges can also be compute
with some effort via Routh Analysis

0 < K < ~ 15.6

~ 67.9 < K < ~ 164
• Systems With A Time Delay
– Some systems have a time delay associated
with them, which is sometimes known as
transport lag or dead time.
– It is important to model this delay since it may
be substantial enough to effect the overall
response of the system.
– Recall that in the Laplace domain the
representation of a delay (shift in time) can be
given as (see p19, or Table 2-2 #11):
L[ f (t − α )U (t − α )] = e−α s F (s)
• Systems With A Time Delay
– Since we are speaking of delay in the plant and of
finite value T then we have the following:
G p ( s ) = e − sT G p' ( s )
– Where G’p(s) represents the part of the plant without
delay.
– It is important to note that we must model the delay as
a transfer function.
– If the delay in the plant is very small then we may
model the delay as follows:
• Systems With A Time Delay
– This approximation is often called a 1st order lag.
1
e − sT 
Ts + 1
– Another approximation of the time delay that is used
when the delay is not small is the Pade
Approximation.
– The Pade Approximation is obtained by expanding
the exponential in a McLauren Series:

(sT )2 (sT )3
e−sT = 1− sT + − ...
2! 3!
 • Systems With A Time Delay
– Since we desire a transfer function we will try
to equate the time delay to a transfer function
of whose denominator and numerator are of
the same order.
– One example would be to try and equate the
time delay (in the exponential form) to a 1st
order rational function such as:

n1s + n0 n0 ⎛ d0n1 − n0d1 ⎞ ⎛ d12n0 d1n1 ⎞ 2 ⎛ d12n1 d13n0 ⎞ 3

= +⎜ ⎟ s + ⎜ 3 − 2 ⎟ s + ⎜ 3 − 4 ⎟ s + ...
d1s + d0 d0 ⎝ d02
⎠ ⎝ d0 d0 ⎠ ⎝ d0 d0 ⎠
• Systems With A Time Delay
– Now equating all the terms in powers of s, the
following relationships are obtained:
n0
=1
d0
⎛ d 0 n1 − n0 d1 ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟ = −T
⎝ d0 ⎠
⎛ d12 n0 d1n1 ⎞ T 2
⎜ 3 − 2 ⎟=
⎝ d0 d0 ⎠ 2
⎛ d12 n1 d13 n0 ⎞ T3
⎜ 3 − 4 ⎟=−
⎝ d0 d0 ⎠ 6
• Systems With A Time Delay
– Solving for the n terms and the d terms we
obtain the following 1st order transfer function
that represents a time delay of T.

− T2 s +1
2 s +1
T

– Clearly we would not want to try and obtain

higher order approximations by hand, thus we
may once again use MATLAB to aid us.
• Systems With A Time Delay
– In MATLAB we will use the pade function.
– Example #4: Lets approximate a system that
has a 1 second delay, and additionally look at
a comparison of various orders of
approximation.
– Assume we have a unity feedback system
with the following stable transfer function.
• Systems With A Time Delay
e − sT ( s + 1)
G ( s) = ; H (s) = 1
( s + 2)( s + 5)
• Let us obtain an overall transfer function for the cases of
N = 1, 5, 10.
• We obtain the Pade approximation in MATLAB as:
• [num, den] = pade(T,N), where T is the delay and N is
the desired order.
• The following illustrates how we would enter in the data
in MATLAB:
• Systems With A Time Delay
[num1,den1]=pade(1,1)
[num5,den5]=pade(1,5)
[num10,den10]=pade(1,10)
Gd1=tf(num1,den1)
Gd5=tf(num5,den5)
Gd10=tf(num10,den10)
G=zpk([-1],[-2,-5],1)
G1=Gd1*G
G5=Gd5*G
G10=Gd10*G
T1=feedback(G1,1)
T5=feedback(G5,1)
T10=feedback(G10,1)
T=feedback(G,1)
• Systems With A Time Delay
– The response to a step input for the various orders of the Pade
Approximations to the time delay are shown in the following
graph:
– Note: Although the system has a better approximation as the
order increases, there will be a considerable number of zeros
that occur in the overall transfer function as a result. Typically,
this will cause the complexity of the controller design to increase.
– In order to keep the complexity of the controller design low it is
usually acceptable for industrial applications to model the delay
as 1st or 2nd order.
– In no case does one want to model the delay with a Pade
approximation of greater than 10th order.
• Systems With A Time Delay
Step Response
0.15

0.1

0.05
A m p litu d e

-0.05 No Delay
1st Order
5th Order
10 Order
Ideal Response

-0.1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (sec)