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Resolution
Analog – to – digital
• Instantaneous field of view (IFOV)
– f ( cone angle of optical system )
– Everything in that area contributes to
spectral response
• “mixels”
• Sampling rate
– Determines horizontal resolution
– # of sampling levels determines bits
• Instantaneous field of view (IFOV)
– f ( cone angle of optical system )
– Everything in that area contributes to spectral response
• “mixels”
– Dwell time – the time a sensor spends “looking” at any area
• Analog-Digital conversion process
– Photons strike detector, electrons flow proportional to the # photons
• # photons related to reflectance characteristics,
• λ (recall that shorter wavelengths carry more energy)
• Area viewed (more photons come from a larger area (at any λ))
• Spectral region width (wider region = more photons)
• Sampling rate
– Determines horizontal resolution
– # of sampling levels determines bit
• Spatial resolution
• Spectral resolution
• Radiometric resolution
• There are tradeoffs
– If you increase the spatial resolution (i.e. smaller area of coverage), detector is receiving energy from a
smaller area (less total energy received at detector at some λ)
• So, the spectral range needs to be increased to receive enough energy (or design a better detector)
– If you increase the spectral resolution (i.e. more bands each representing a smaller range of the EMS)
detectors are receiving energy in a narrower range of the spectrum (less total energy received at the
detector at some λ)
• So, the DWELL time needs to be increased to compensate, resulting in lower spatial resolution (or
design a better detector)
• Coverage area (altitude and field of view)
• Off-nadir capabilities (point sensor to side or front/aft)
Pushbroom System
Advantages
Fewer moving parts
Less energy drain
Less weight
Longer dwell time
Better geometric fidelity
Disadvantages
More sensors to calibrate
Limited spectral range
MSS
• G, R, NIR, NIR
– .5.-6, .6-.7, .7-.8,.8-1.1um
– Bands 4,5,6,7
• Landsat 3 and B8 10.4-12.6
– Failed
• 6 contiguous lines scanned
• IFOV = 79m
• A-D on-board 0-63 (6-bit)
– B4-6 rescaled to 0-127 (7-bit)
• On ground
• Sampling rate = 100000/s
– Results in 56m horizontal spacing
Landsat 4,5 7
– 16 day orbital return period
(i.e. the temporal resolution)
– Altitude 705km
– 185km swath width
– Sun synchronous orbit
• 98.2oinclination to equator
• Crosses at 9:45Am
• Successive orbits 2760km apart
• 104 minutes orbital period
• Also provides same illumination
conditions for comparing images
• Orbits (14.5/day)
• Overlap at equator 14%, at poles 84%
• 8 bit resolution
– Except band 6 is 7 bit
• 30m IFOV
– Except band 6 is 120m on
TM4,5…60m on TM7
– 15m Pan on TM7
• 16 detectors for all bands (4 for B6)
totaling 100 detectors Note: Landsat 7 Added a pan Band 8’ 15m res0.4 to 0.9um
SPOT satellite
• French satellite (Toulouse, France)
• SPOT 1,2,3
• 26 day repeat period
• 20 m res. MSS
– 3 bands (G,R, NIR)
• 10 m res. Pan
• SPOT 4 – launched March 1998
• HRVIR
– Includes Mid-IR band (20m)
– Pan band replaced by red band
• Vegetation instrument
– 2250 km swath, 1 km IFOV, same bands as
HRVIR but blue used instead of green
• For oceanographic appllications
• SPOT 5 - launched May 2002
• 5 m res. (pan HRGeometric)
– May be resampled to 2.5 m
• 10 m res G,R,NIR
• 20 m res MIR (due to CCD limitations)
• HRStereoscopic instrument
– Fore-aft instruments for DEM generation
– Global 10 m
Aster
• 3 unique instruments (has off-nadir capabilities)
– Visible and Near Infrared (VNIR)
• 3 bands on nadir (bands 1-3)
– G, R, NIR
• 1 band 27.5º rear-looking (NIR & same as B3 on nadir)
– Capable of DEM generation
• 15m res
– Short Wave Infrared (SWIR)
• 6 bands (bands 4-9)
• 30m res
– Thermal Infrared (TIR)
• 5 bands (bands 10-14)
• 90m res
Image Enhancement
• More effectively portray image data for visual interpretation
• Many techniques
– No set “best” way
– Trial and error
– Sometimes several enhancements to a single image are the best way
Image classification
• Quantitative techniques for automating the identification of features in a scene
– Multispectral data
– Statistical based decision rules
– Spectral pattern recognition
– LULC mapping
Statistics
• Mean
• Standard Deviation
• Histograms
– Graphical distribution of values in single band
• Used for interpretation
• And for enhancements
• Scatterplot & Ellipses
– Used for interpretation of band-pairs
Enhancements
• Process of making an image more interpretable
– Technique used f(dataset, desired result)
• Must know characteristics of dataset
• Have an objective
– Ex. Sharpening a dataset to better delineate boundaries
– Ex. Reducing the number of bands
• May be permanent or on-screen only
• Spectral enhancements
– Deals with pixels in different bands
• Spatial enhancements
– Deals with surrounding pixels in a single band
• Derive a new value based on values in surrounding pixels
– Moving window concept
Image enhancements
• Contrast enhancements
– Gray-level thresholding
– Level slicing
– Contrast stretching
• Spatial feature manipulation
– Filtering
– Edge enhancement
– Fourier analysis
• Multi-image manipulation
– Band ratioing
– Principle components
– IHS color space transforms
– Vegetation components
Contrast enhancements
• A form of spectral enhancements
• Increases the contrast in certain spectral ranges of the image
– Likely at the expense of others
– Goal – to make image more interpretable or features more identifiable
– Application in one band may not be appropriate for others (each band handled separately)
Contrast Stretching
• Linear contrast stretch
– Simple
• Sinusoidal stretch
– Divides histogram into several user-defined parts
• Doesn’t eliminate detail in some parts of image
• Histogram Equaliztion
– LUT values assigned based on frequency of occurrence
– Large regions of LUT reserved for common DN
– Small regions of LUT reserved for infrequent DN
– Concept based upon information yield
• Greatest information in most frequent pixels
• Special stretches
– Enhance whatever you’re interested in
• Water, veg, etc
Contrast enhancements
• Grey-level thresholding
– Segment image into 2 classes
– One above/below some user-defined value
– Often used to prepare a binary mask
• Level slicing
– Divide histogram into segments
– Each segment receives the same DN
• Each coded (colors)
• Elevations, Thermal imagery
Destriping
• “Sixth line striping” or …
• Variations in calibration (sensitivity) of same sensor on different lines
• Produces contrast variation parallel to scan
• Fix
– Averaging
– Histogram Normalization
• MUST be done prior to geometric correction