M o D U L e 0 4 - 0 1 - 0 1 A Electronic Fundamentals: Diodes

AeroGATES: PART-66 courseware 04 – Electronic Fundamentals
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 01- Semiconductors

Level  1  2  3 01a- Diodes
Module 04-01-01a
Electronic Fundamentals
Diodes
04 - 01- 1
Table of contents
I. DIODE SYMBOLS .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4

1. DIODE SYMBOLS AND PROPERTIES: ............................................................................................................................................................................... 4
2. TERMINOLOGY: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
3. HYDRAULIC ANALOGY: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
II. DIODE CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES ................................................................................................................................................................ 9
1. PN JUNCTION: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
2. DIODE CHARACTERISTICS:.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 12
2.1. Forward-biased diode: .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
2.2. Reverse-biased diode: .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
2.3. Resume: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
3. DIODE MODELS: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 15
3.1. Ideal diode:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
3.2. Diode with threshold: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
3.3. Diode with threshold and resistance characteristic: ....................................................................................................................................................... 18
III. DIODE IN SERIES AND PARALLEL ................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
1. DIODES IN SERIES: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 19
2. DIODES IN PARALLEL: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
IV. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS AND USE OF SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS (THYRISTORS), LIGHT EMITTING DIODES, PHOTO
CONDUVTIVE DIODE, VARISTORS, RECTIFIER DIODES ....................................................................................................................................................... 23
1. THYRISTORS: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
2. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED): ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
2.1. LED symbol: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
2.2. LED display application – 7-segment display drivers: .................................................................................................................................................... 24
3. PHOTOCONDUCTIVE DIODES: .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
3.1. Photovoltaic mode: ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
3.2. Photoconductive mode : ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 28
4. VARISTORS:......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
4.1. Symbol and characteristics: ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 28
4.2. Metal oxide varistor: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 29
5. RECTIFIER DIODES: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 30
V. FUNCTIONAL TESTING OF DIODES .................................................................................................................................................................................. 32
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A replica of the first transistor
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HISTORY OF AN EXTRAORDINARY DISCOVERY: ELECTRONICS
Although the crystal semiconductor diode was popular before the thermionic diode, thermionic and solid state diodes were developed in parallel.
In 1873 Frederick Guthrie discovered the basic principle of operation of thermionic diodes. Guthrie discovered that a positively charged electroscope could be
discharged by bringing a grounded piece of white-hot metal close to it (but not actually touching it). The same did not apply to a negatively charged
electroscope, indicating that the current flow was only possible in one direction.
Thomas Edison independently rediscovered the principle on February 13, 1880. At the time, Edison was investigating why the filaments of his carbon-
filament light bulbs nearly always burned out at the positive-connected end. He had a special bulb made with a metal plate sealed into the glass envelope.
Using this device, he confirmed that an invisible current flowed from the glowing filament through the vacuum to the metal plate, but only when the plate was
connected to the positive supply.
Edison devised a circuit where his modified light bulb effectively replaced the resistor in a DC voltmeter. Edison was awarded a patent for this invention in
1884.There was no apparent practical use for such a device at the time. So, the patent application was most likely simply a precaution in case someone else
did find a use for the so-called Edison effect.
About 20 years later, John Ambrose Fleming (scientific adviser to the Marconi Company and former Edison employee) realized that the Edison effect could
.
be used as a precision radio detector. Fleming patented the first true thermionic diode in Britain on November 16, 1904
The crystal detector was developed into a practical device for wireless radio reception by Greenleaf Whittier Pickard, who invented a silicon crystal detector
in 1903 and received a patent for it on November 20, 1906. Other experimenters tried a variety of other substances, of which the most widely used was the
mineral galena (lead sulfide).
Other substances offered slightly better performance, but galena was most widely used because it had the advantage of being cheap and easy to obtain.
The crystal detector in these early radio sets consisted of an adjustable wire point-contact (the so-called "cat's whisker") which could be manually moved
over the face of the crystal in order to obtain optimum signal.
This troublesome device was quickly superseded by thermionic diodes, but the crystal detector later returned to dominant use with the advent of inexpensive
fixed-germanium diodes in the 1950s.
I. DIODE SYMBOLS
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with far greater ease than in the other. The most common type of diode in
modern circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist.
1. DIODE SYMBOLS AND PROPERTIES:
A diode and schematic representation are shown at figure below.
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A semiconductor diode consists of a P- N junction and has two terminals, an anode and a cathode. Current flows only from anode to cathode within
the diode.
In the symbol of the diode, arrows indicate the direction of electron current flow.
04 - 01- 5
Real appearance of diodes
2. TERMINOLOGY:
Consider a electrical lamp placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent current through the lamp, depending on the
polarity of the applied voltage.
 Diode forward biased: (a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward biased. When the polarity of the battery is such that
electrons are allowed to flow through the diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased.
 Diode reverse biased: (b) Current flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed biased. When the battery is “backward” and the diode
blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased.
A diode may be thought of as like a switch: “closed” when forward-biased and “open” when reverse-biased.
This convention holds true for all semiconductor symbols possessing “arrowheads:” the arrow points in the permitted direction of conventional flow,
and against the permitted direction of electron flow. Oddly enough, the direction of the diode symbol’s “arrowhead” points against the direction of
electron flow. This is because the diode symbol was invented by engineers, who predominantly use conventional flow notation in their schematics,
showing current as a flow of charge from the positive (+) side of the voltage source to the negative (-).
04 - 01- 6
(a) Current flow is permitted (b) Current flow is prohibited
3. HYDRAULIC ANALOGY:
Diode behavior is analogous to the behavior of a hydraulic device called a check valve. A check valve allows fluid flow through it in only one direction as
in Figure below.
04 - 01- 7
Electron flow permitted Electron flow prohibited

Check valves are essentially pressure-operated devices: they open and allow flow if the pressure across them is of the correct “polarity” to open the
gate (in the analogy shown, greater fluid pressure on the right than on the left). If the pressure is of the opposite “polarity,” the pressure difference
across the check valve will close and hold the gate so that no flow occurs.
Like check valves, diodes are essentially “pressure” operated (voltage-operated) devices. The essential difference between forward-bias and reverse-
bias is the polarity of the voltage dropped across the diode.
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II. DIODE CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES
A diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices, which has the characteristic of passing current in one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a
diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an exponential Current - Voltage relationship and therefore we can not
described its operation by simply using an equation such as Ohm's law.
1. PN JUNCTION:
A P-N junction is formed by combining P-type and N-type doped semiconductors. When combined, a diffusion gradient is created. That is unevenness in
the distribution of electrons and holes.
 Holes and electrons diffusion:

It only makes sense that the holes are going to start to diffuse from the P region into the N region, and the electrons will diffuse from
the N region into the P region.
04 - 01- 9
An equilibrium will be reached whereby electrons are diffusing out of the N-region, and drifting (pulled by the huge positive charge left
behind) back in at exactly the same rate.
The electric field caused by the positive ions left behind prevents all of the electrons from diffusing out of the N-region.
 Depletion region:
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Consider an electron that diffuses out of the N-region. When it enters the P-region, it is met with a layer of negatively charged ions,
and no holes (they all diffused into the N-region). So there’s nothing for the electron to recombine with.
The same holds true for holes; a hole that diffuses into the N-region is met immediately with a region devoid of electrons, and full of
positive ions. It can’t recombine; it must wait until it reaches the N-type area, with its abundance of free electrons, to do so.
In semiconductor physics, the depletion region, also called depletion layer, depletion zone, junction region or the space charge
region, is an insulating region within a conductive, where the mobile charge carriers have diffused away, or have been forced away by
an electric.
04 - 01- 11
2. DIODE CHARACTERISTICS:
2.1. Forward-biased diode:
When the diode is forward-biased and conducting current, there is a small voltage dropped across it, leaving most of the battery voltage dropped
across the resistor.
For silicon diodes, the typical forward voltage is 690 mV, nominal. For germanium diodes, the forward voltage is only 300 mV.
The chemical constituency of the P-N junction comprising the diode accounts for its nominal forward voltage figure, which is why silicon and
germanium diodes have such different forward voltages.
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Note - Influence of the temperature:

Also, since temperature is a factor in the diode characteristic. For the same value of the direct current, the anode-cathode tension decreases
when the temperature increases.
Example: For a silicon diode anode-cathode tension decreases about 2mV/°C .
2.2. Reverse-biased diode:

When the battery's polarity is reversed and the diode becomes reverse-biased, it drops all of the battery's voltage and leaves none for the lamp. If we
consider the diode to be a sort of self-actuating switch (closed in the forward-bias mode and open in the reverse-bias mode), this behaviour makes
sense.
04 - 01- 13
2.3. Resume:
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra
energy they require to cross the junction as the width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.
04 - 01- 14
Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage and narrows with an increase in the application of a forward
voltage. This is due to the differences in the electrical properties on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in physical changes taking place.
One of the results produces rectification as seen in the PN junction diodes static Current - Voltage.
3. DIODE MODELS:
This diode characteristic is quite fundamental to all of our work with semiconductors and we need to develop a "model" for its behaviour which allows a
mathematical description. We are going to consider three levels of model complexity - starting off very simply as follows.
04 - 01- 15
3.1. Ideal diode:
An ideal diode is like a light switch in your home.
 When the switch is closed, the circuit is completed; and the light turns on.
 When the switch is open, there is no current and the light is off.
However, the diode has an additional property; it is unidirectional, i.e. current flows in only one direction (anode to cathode internally).When a
forward voltage is applied, the diode conducts; and when a reverse voltage is applied, there is no conduction.
An ideal diode characteristic would be:
U(mV) > 0  I(mA) = I
U(mV) < 0  I(mA) = 0
Ideal diode
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3.2. Diode with threshold:

What this is saying is that if V is less than zero the PN diode is not conducting at all and the moment the applied voltage increases above zero the
diode becomes a perfect conductor.
Translating that into Mathematics: If the voltage applied to the diode V is less than zero then current flow = zero; if the voltage applied to the diode is
greater than zero then the current which flows is infinite.
Infinity is a bit unreal but what that is saying is that the model is a simple switch - it is either ON or it is OFF.
 Forward voltage:
U(mV) > U0  I(mA) = I
U(mV) < U  I(mA) = 0

0
 Reverse voltage:
U(mV) < 0  I(mA) = 0
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3.3. Diode with threshold and resistance characteristic:
The next more complicated model is shown in the following figure:
In this case the model appears like a 0.7 volt battery in series with a simple series resistor whose value is the (inverted value of!) the slope of this
straight line.
U(mV) > U  U(mV) - U = RI(mA)
0 0
U(mV) < U  I(mA) = 0
0
U(mV) < 0  I(mA) = 0
Diode with threshold and resistance
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III. DIODE IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
When designing high voltage, high power rectifiers or other types of high voltage converters where diodes are necessary, diodes can be used in series or
parallel blocks to increase ratings.
Because the exact characteristics of each individual diode cannot be guaranteed to be the same it is prudent to include additional simple circuitry to ensure
reverse voltage and forward current sharing occurs.
Without protection circuit-individual diodes can be destroyed due to over voltage or over current conditions.
1. DIODES IN SERIES:
If diodes are connected in series the combined effect is to increase the reverse blocking capability. When forward current flows in the forward direction
both diodes conduct the same current and the forward voltage drops are very similar.
However, reverse voltages across each individual diode could vary drastically dependant on the characteristic of each diode. In this figure it can be
seen that the voltage drop across D2 will not cause breakdown however, avalanche breakdown will occur in diode D1.
Ubattery - (U1 - U2 )
The direct current is: I=
R
The effect of using diodes with different characteristics on the reverse blocking capability
The simplest protection circuit is to connected high value resistors in parallel with each diode. Theoretically, if the exact characteristics
of each diode are known it would be possible to design the resistors so that exact voltage division is achieved. Practically however,
this is not possible and a simple design can be used.
04 - 01- 19
Example: Reverse series voltage protected

If U = U1 + U2 = 400 V and the reverse leakage current for each (same) diode is specified as Ireverse max = 50 mA .
u1 u 400/2
Then, R1 = R 2 = = 2 = = 4kΩ
Ir1 Ir2 50 × 10-3
A standard value of 4.7 kΩ is preferred.
The power loss in each resistance is:
P1 = R1(I1 )2 = P2 = R 2 (I2 )2 = 4.7 ×103 × (0.05)2 = 11.75 W .
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For further transient voltage equalization an additional series connected RC network can be placed across each diode in addition to R1 and R2.
2. DIODES IN PARALLEL:
Connecting diodes in parallel will increase the current carrying capability.
If it is possible to match the diodes so that approximately equal current sharing is achieved this should be done.
I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
 Reverse voltage protected:
04 - 01- 21
U U U U
R1  ; R2  ; R3  ; R4 
I 1max I 2max I 3max I 4max
04 - 01- 22
IV. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS AND USE OF SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS (THYRISTORS), LIGHT EMITTING
DIODES, PHOTO CONDUVTIVE DIODE, VARISTORS, RECTIFIER DIODES
1. THYRISTORS:
The Silicon Controlled Rectifier or thyristor (SCR) is simply a conventional rectifier controlled by a gate signal. The main circuit is a rectifier, however the
application of a forward voltage is not enough for conduction. A gate signal controls the rectifier conduction.
In power electronics the choice of the switch, gate to be used is always very important for the designer: cost, reliability, ruggedness and easiness to be
driven must be permanently kept in mind.
This is especially important in power plants where the designer has to optimize the numerous switching devices implemented for a wide field of
applications: ignition circuits, various electric motor controls, actuators in security systems, etc...
In the large family of electronic switches, thyristor must be considered as a low cost and powerful device for many functions in a aircraft.
2. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):
2.1. LED symbol:

The schematic symbol for an LED is a regular diode shape inside of a circle, with two small arrows pointing away (indicating emitted light):
04 - 01- 23
This notation
otation of having two small arrows pointing away from the device is common to the schematic symbols of all light-emittinglight semiconductor
devices.
LEDs offer benefits in terms of maintenance and safety.
The typical working lifetime of a device, including the bulb, is ten years, which is much longer than the lifetimes of most other
o light sources.
Further, LEDs fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burnburn-out
out of incandescent bulbs. LEDs give off less heat than incandescent light bulbs
and are less fragile than fluorescent lamps.
2.2. LED display application – 7-segment

segment display drivers:
The inputs A-D of a display driver are connected to the BCD (binary coded decimal) outputs QA QA-DD from a decade counter.
A network of logic gates inside the display driver makes its outputs a-g become high or low as appropriate to light the required segments a-g a of a 7-
segment display.
A resistor is required in series with each segment to protect the LEDs, 330 is a suitable value for many displays with a 4.5V to 6V supply.
Because they are monochromatic, LED lights have great power advantages over white lights where a sspecific pecific colour is required. Unlike the white
lights, the LED does not need a filter that absorbs most of the emitted white light. Coloured fluorescent lights are made, but bu they are not widely
available.
LED lights are inherently coloured, and are available in a wide range of colours. One of the most recently introduced colours is the emerald green
(bluish green, about 500 nm) that meets the legal requirements for traffic signals and navigation lights.
The largest LED display in the world is 36 metres high (118 feet), at Times Square, Manhattan.
04 - 01- 24
7-segment display driver
04 - 01- 25
LED display - Times Square, Manhattan

04 - 01- 26
3. PHOTOCONDUCTIVE DIODES:
Photo-conductive diode symbol

A photo-conductive diode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a
window or optical fibre connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device.
Many diodes designed for use specifically as a photodiode will also use a PIN junction rather than the typical PN junction.
Photo-conductive diode
04 - 01- 27
A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode, it excites an electron thereby creating a mobile
electron and a positively charged electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it, these
carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode,
and a photocurrent is produced.
3.1. Photovoltaic mode:
When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out of the device is restricted and a voltage builds up. The diode becomes
forward biased and "dark current" begins to flow across the junction in the direction opposite to the photocurrent. This mode is responsible for the
photovoltaic effect, which is the basis for solar cells, in fact, a solar cell is just an array of large photodiodes.
3.2. Photoconductive mode :
In this mode the diode is often (but not always) reverse biased.
This increases the width of the depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance resulting in faster response times. The reverse bias
induces only a small amount of current (known as saturation or back current) along its direction while the photocurrent remains virtually the same.
4. VARISTORS:
4.1. Symbol and characteristics:
Varistor is an electronic component with a significant non-ohmic current-voltage characteristic.
The name is a variable resistor. Varistors are often used to protect circuits against excessive transient voltages by incorporating them into the circuit
in such a way that, when triggered, they will shunt the current created by the high voltage away from the sensitive components.
A varistor is also known as Voltage Dependent Resistor or VDR. A varistor’s function is to conduct significantly increased current when voltage is
excessive.
04 - 01- 28
Varistor symbol and characteristic
 Only non-ohmic variable resistors are usually called varistors.

 Other, ohmic types of variable resistor include the potentiometer and the rheostat
4.2. Metal oxide varistor:

The most common type of varistor is the Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV). This contains a ceramic mass of zinc oxide grains, in a matrix of other metal
oxides (such as small amounts of bismuth, cobalt, manganese) sandwiched between two metal plates (the electrodes).
The boundary between each grain and its neighbour forms a diode junction, which allows current to flow in only one direction. The mass of randomly
oriented grains is electrically equivalent to a network of back-to-back diode pairs, each pair in parallel with many other pairs.
04 - 01- 29
When a small or moderate voltage is applied across the electrodes, only a tiny current flows, caused by reverse leakage through the diode junctions.
When a large voltage is applied, the diode junctions break down because of the avalanche effect, and a large current flows.
The result of this behaviour is a highly nonlinear current-voltage characteristic, in which the MOV has a high resistance at low voltages and a low
resistance at high voltages.
For example, follow-through current as a result of a lightning strike may generate excessive current that permanently damages a varistor. In general,
the primary case of varistor breakdown is localized heating caused as an effect of thermal runaway.
This is due to a lack of conformality in individual grain-boundary junctions, which leads to the failure of dominant current paths under thermal stress.
Varistors can absorb part of a surge. How much effect this has on risk to connected equipment depends on the equipment and details of the selected
varistor.
Varistors do not absorb a significant percentage of a lightning strike as energy that must be conducted elsewhere is many orders of magnitude greater
than what is absorbed by the small device.
5. RECTIFIER DIODES:
Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process called rectification. They are also used
elsewhere in circuits where a large current must pass through the diode.
All rectifier diodes are made from silicon and therefore have a forward voltage drop of 0.7 V.
An example of rectifier diode:

a) First alternance:
During positives half-cycles, D1 is forward-biased and D2 is reverse-biased.
04 - 01- 30
b) Second alternance:
During negatives half-cycles, D1 is reverse-biased and D2 is forward-biased.
04 - 01- 31
V. FUNCTIONAL TESTING OF DIODES
The test just mentioned tests the diode for forward bias operation. No diode test would be complete without a reverse bias test as well.
Diodes can be tested with a Digital Multimeter (DMM) to determine either:
 if they are working correctly, or
 whether they are germanium or silicon.
Most modern DMMs have a setting specifically for testing diodes.

This setting is identified on the DMM's dial by the diode symbol.
When they DMM's positive red lead is connected to the diode's anode and the DMM's blue (or black) negative lead is connected to the diode's cathode, a
reading of approximately 0.3 V indicates the diode is germanium, a reading of approximately 0.7 V indicates the diode is silicon and a reading significantly
different from either of these would indicate the diode is defective.
In ohmmeter position, DMM indicates a low resistance.
Simply reverse the diode so the positive red lead connects to the cathode of the diode and the blue (or black) negative Tip lead connects to the anode of the
diode. When reverse biased, the ohmmeter should indicate that no current is flowing through the diode.
04 - 01- 32
If current does flow through the diode when it is reversed biased, the diode is defective.
In ohmmeter position, DMM indicates a high resistance.
Forward biased diodes will have very little resistance; reverse biased diode will have significant resistance.
If either of two readings are not as specified diode is faulty. Replace.
04 - 01- 33

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AeroGATES: PART-66 courseware 04 – Electronic Fundamentals

Category  A  B1  B2  B3 01- Semiconductors

I. DIODE SYMBOLS .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4

A replica of the first transistor

Real appearance of diodes

(a) Current flow is permitted (b) Current flow is prohibited

Electron flow permitted Electron flow prohibited

 Holes and electrons diffusion:

Note - Influence of the temperature:

2.2. Reverse-biased diode:

3.2. Diode with threshold:

U(mV) > U0  I(mA) = I

U(mV) < U  I(mA) = 0

Diode with threshold and resistance

Example: Reverse series voltage protected

 Reverse voltage protected:

2.1. LED symbol:

2.2. LED display application – 7-segment

7-segment display driver

LED display - Times Square, Manhattan

Photo-conductive diode symbol

Varistor symbol and characteristic

 Only non-ohmic variable resistors are usually called varistors.

4.2. Metal oxide varistor:

An example of rectifier diode:

Most modern DMMs have a setting specifically for testing diodes.

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