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Physics
Contents
1. SI UNITS.................................................................................................4
1.1 base units....................................................................................1-1
1.2 derived units................................................................................1-2
2. FORCES.................................................................................................2-1
2.1 definition......................................................................................2-1
2.2 triangle of force............................................................................2-1
2.2.1 Graphical Method..........................................................2-1
2.3 polygon of force...........................................................................2-2
2.4 addition and subtraction of forces................................................2-3
2.5 vectors.........................................................................................2-3
2.6 resultants.....................................................................................2-3
2.7 equilibriums.................................................................................2-3
2.8 resolution.....................................................................................2-3
2.9 graphical solutions.......................................................................2-4
2.10 solutions by calculation................................................................2-5
2.11 moments and couples.................................................................2-7
2.12 centre of gravity...........................................................................2-8
2.13 1st moment of area.......................................................................2-11
2.14 stress...........................................................................................2-12
2.15 strain...........................................................................................2-12
2.16 shear...........................................................................................2-13
2.17 torsion.........................................................................................2-13
2.18 shear force diagrams...................................................................2-14
2.19 bending moment diagrams..........................................................2-16
3. ENERGY.................................................................................................3-1
3.1 work.............................................................................................3-1
3.2 conservation of energy................................................................3-2
3.3 power..........................................................................................3-2
3.4 momentum..................................................................................3-2
3.5 conservation of momentum.........................................................3-2
3.6 changes in momentum................................................................3-3
3.7 impulse of a force........................................................................3-3
3.8 inertia..........................................................................................3-3
3.9 moment of inertia.........................................................................3-3
3.10 2nd moment of area......................................................................3-4
4. GYROSCOPES......................................................................................4-1
4.1 principles.....................................................................................4-1
4.2 rigidity..........................................................................................4-1
4.3 precession...................................................................................4-1
4.4 torque..........................................................................................4-1
5. FRICTION...............................................................................................5-1
5.1 principles.....................................................................................5-1
5.2 friction calculation........................................................................5-1
6. KINEMATICS..........................................................................................6-1
6.1 principles.....................................................................................6-1
6.2 speed..........................................................................................6-1
6.3 velocity........................................................................................6-1
6.4 acceleration.................................................................................
Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.5 vectors.........................................................................................6-2
6.6 linear motion................................................................................6-3
6.7 distance-time graph.....................................................................6-3
6.8 velocity time graph.......................................................................6-3
6.9 area.............................................................................................6-4
6.10 construction and use of equations...............................................6-5
7. ROTATIONAL MOTION..........................................................................7-1
7.1 circular motion.............................................................................7-1
7.2 centripetal force...........................................................................7-1
7.3 centrifugal force...........................................................................7-2
8. PERIODIC MOTION...............................................................................8-1
8.1 pendulum.....................................................................................8-1
8.2 spring – mass systems................................................................8-1
9. HARMONIC MOTION.............................................................................9-1
10. VIBRATION THEORY.............................................................................10-1
11. FLUIDS...................................................................................................11-1
11.1 density.........................................................................................11-1
11.2 specific gravity.............................................................................11-1
11.3 buoyancy.....................................................................................11-1
11.4 pressure......................................................................................11-1
11.5 static and dynamic pressure........................................................11-3
11.6 energy in fluid flows.....................................................................11-3
12. HEAT 12-1
12.1 temperature scales......................................................................12-1
12.2 conversion...................................................................................12-1
12.3 expansion of solids......................................................................12-1
12.3.1 Linear.............................................................................12-2
12.3.2 Volumetric......................................................................12-2
12.4 expansion of fluids.......................................................................12-2
12.5 charles law..................................................................................12-2
12.6 specific heat................................................................................12-3
12.7 heat capacity...............................................................................12-3
12.8 latent heat / sensible heat............................................................12-3
12.9 heat transfer................................................................................12-3
13. GASES...................................................................................................13-1
13.1 laws.............................................................................................13-1
13.2 ratio of specific heats...................................................................13-1
13.3 work done by , or on, a gas.........................................................13-2
14. LIGHT 14-1
14.1 speed of light...............................................................................14-1
14.2 reflection......................................................................................14-1
14.3 plain and curved mirrors..............................................................14-1
14.4 refraction.....................................................................................14-2
14.5 refractive index............................................................................14-3
14.6 convex and concave lenses.........................................................14-4
15. SOUND...................................................................................................15-1
15.1 speed of sound............................................................................15-1
15.2 frequency.....................................................................................15-1
15.3 intensity.......................................................................................15-1
15.4 pitch.............................................................................................15-1
15.5 doppler effect...............................................................................15-2
16. MATTER.................................................................................................16-1
16.1 states of matter............................................................................16-1
16.2 atoms..........................................................................................16-1
16.2.1 The Structure of an Atom...............................................16-1
16.2.2 The Fundamental Particles............................................16-2
16.2.3 Particle Function............................................................16-2
16.3 periodic table...............................................................................
Error! Bookmark not defined.
1. SI UNITS
Physics is the study of what happens in the world involving matter and energy.
Matter is the word used to described what things or objects are made of. Matter
can be solid, liquid or gaseous. Energy is that which causes things to happen.
As an example, electrical energy causes an electric motor to turn, which can
cause a weight to be moved, or lifted.
As more and more 'happenings' have been studied, the subject of physics has
grown, and physical laws have become established, usually being expressed in
terms of mathematical formula, and graphs. Physical laws are based on the
basic quantities - length, mass and time, together with temperature and
electrical current. Physical laws also involve other quantities which are derived
from the basic quantities.
What are these units? Over the years, different nations have derived their own
units (e.g. inches, pounds, minutes or centimetres, grams and seconds), but an
International System is now generally used - the SI system.
The SI system is based on the metre (m), kilogram (kg) and second (s) system.
Basic SI Units
Length (L) Metre (m)
Mass (m) Kilogram (kg)
Time (t) Second (s)
Temperature;
Celsius () Degree Celsius (ºC)
Kelvin (T) Kelvin (K)
Electric Current (I) Ampere (A)
Derived SI Units
Area (A) Square Metre (m2)
Volume (V) Cubic Metre (m3)
Density () Kg / Cubic Metre (kg/m3)
Velocity (V) Metre per second (m/s)
Acceleration (a) Metre per second per second (m/s2)
Momentum Kg metre per second (kg.m/s)
1.2 DERIVED UNITS
Some physical quantities have derived units which become rather complicated,
and so are replaced with simple units created specifically to represent the
physical quantity. For example, force is mass multiplied by acceleration, which is
logically kg.m/s2 (kilogram metre per second per second), but this is replaced by
the Newton (N).
Examples are:
Force (F) Newton (N)
Pressure (p) Pascal (Pa)
Energy (E) Joule (J)
Work (W) Joule (J)
Power (P) Watt (w)
Frequency (f) Hertz (Hz)
Note also that to avoid very large or small numbers, multiples or sub-multiples
are often used. For example;
2.1 DEFINITION
Hence, "A Newton is the unit of force that when applied to a mass of 1 kg. causes
that mass to accelerate at a rate of 1 m/s2.
Forces can also cause changes in shape or size of a body, which is important
when analysing the behaviour of materials.
2.2.1GRAPHICAL METHOD
Consider two forces A and B. Choose a starting point O and draw OA to
represent force A, in the direction of A. Then draw AB to represent force B.
2.5 VECTORS
Again, a vector quantity is one that has magnitude and direction.
It has been seen that force is such a quantity. Velocity and acceleration are
further examples.
2.6 RESULTANTS
Resultants are created when vector quantities are added or subtracted as seen
previously.
2.7 EQUILIBRIUMS
In chapter 2.1, it was defined that a force applied to a body would cause that
body to accelerate or change direction.
If at any stage a system of forces is applied to a body, such that their resultant is
zero, then that body will not accelerate or change direction. The system of
forces and the body are said to be in the equilibrium.
Note that this does not mean that there are no forces acting; it is just that their
total resultant or effect is zero.
2.8 RESOLUTION
This topic is important, but is really the opposite to Addition of forces.
Recalling that two forces can be added to give a single force known as the
Resultant, it is obvious that this single force can be considered as the addition of
the two original forces.
Therefore, the single force can be separated or Resolved into two components.
It should be appreciated that almost always the single force is resolved into two
components, that are mutually perpendicular.
This technique forms the basis of the mathematical methods for adding forces.
Note that by drawing the right-angled triangle, with the single force F, and by
choosing angle relative to a datum, the two components become F sin and F
cos .
So if there are several vectors each can be resolved into two components.
e.g. F1 in direction 1, gives F1 sin 1, and F1 cos 1
F2 in direction 2, gives F2 sin 2, and F2 cos 2
F3 in direction 3, gives F3 sin 3, and F3 cos 3
etc, etc.
Once the components have been resolved, they can be added to give a total
force in the Datum direction, and a total force perpendicular to the Datum.
These additions can be done laboriously 'by hand' but the modern scientific
When two equal but opposite forces are present, whose lines of action are not
coincident, then they cause a rotation.
There must be datum position, such that the total moment to one side, causing a
clockwise rotation, is balanced by a total moment, on the other side, which
causes an anticlockwise rotation. In other words, the total weight can be
considered to act through that datum position (= line of action).
If the body is considered in two different position, the weight acts through two
lines of action, W1 and W2 and these interact at point G, which is termed the
Centre of Gravity.
Hence, the Centre of Gravity is the point through which the Total Mass of the
body may be considered to act.
For a 3-dimensional body, the centre of gravity can be determined practically by
several methods, such as by measuring and equating moments, and thus is done
when calculating Weight and Balance of aircraft.
A 2-dimensional body (one of negligible thickness) is termed a lamina, which only
has area (not volume). The point G is then termed a Centroid. If a lamina is
suspended from point P, the centroid G will hang vertically below ‘P1’. If
suspended from P2 G will hang below P2. Position G is at the intersection as
shown.
A regular lamina, such as a rectangle, has its centre of gravity at the intersection
of the diagonals.
Other regular shapes have their centre of gravity at known positions, see the
table below.
A triangle has its centre of gravity at the intersection of the medians.
The centre of gravity can also be deduced as shown.
If the lamina is composed of a several regular shapes, the centre of gravity of
that lamina can be deduced by splitting it into its regular sections, calculating the
moments of these areas about a given datum, and then equating the sum of
these moments to the moment of the composite lamina.
2.14 STRESS
When an engineer designs a component or structure he needs to know whether it
is strong enough to prevent failure due to the loads encountered in service. He
analyses the external forces and then deduces the forces or stresses that are
induced internally.
Notice the introduction of the word stress. Obviously a component which is twice
the size in stronger and less likely to fail due an applied load. So an important
factor to consider is not just force, but size as well. Hence stress is load divided
by area (size).
(sigma) = (= Newtons per second metre).
Components fail due to being over-stressed, not over-loaded.
The external forces induce internal stresses which oppose or balance the
external forces.
Stresses can occur in differing forms, dependent on the manner of application of
the external force.
Torsional stress, due to twist, is a variation of shear.
2.15 STRAIN
If a length of elastic is pulled, it stretches. If the pull is increases, it stretch more;
if reduced, it contracts.
Hookes law states that the amount of stretch (elongation) is proportional to the
applied force.
The degree of elongation or distortion has to be considered in relation to the
original length. The distortion is in fact a distortion of the crystal lattice.
The degree of distortion then has to be the actual distortion divided by the
original length (in other words, elongation per unit length). This is termed Strain.
(epsilon) Strain =
Note that strain has no units, it is a ratio and is then expressed as a percentage.
2.16 SHEAR
In chapter 2.15, different stresses were introduced, including shear stress.
Shearing occurs when the applied load causes one 'layer' of material to move
relative to the adjacent layers etc. etc.
Shear stress is still expressed as load/area but is usually represented by another
2.17 TORSION
The shear strain is equal to the angular deflection multiplied by radius r divided
by the overall length L,
=
The first diagram is defined as +ve shear, the second diagram as –ve shear.
This can be shown on a shear force diagram (SFD).
Considering the beam AB, the SFD is drawn as
Note that each change to the SFD is equal to the load or force applied at that
position or point. In this diagram only concentrated or point loads exist.
Now consider an uniformly distributed load. The SFD will look like this.
Note that in this case, the BMD is all +ve (i.e. the beam is sagging everywhere)
and note also that it increases from zero as x increases to the left of B, up to a
maximum and then decreases as the effect of RB is reduced by the effect of
F , finally becoming zero at A.
(Note that BMD can be treated in the same way by considering distances
measured to the right of A - the solutions are exactly the same).
A uniformly distributed load, whilst obeying the same principles, modifies the
BMD.
As x increases left of B, RB causes , but the distributed load also increases and
causes .
The BMD now looks like this.
3.1 WORK
It has been stated that a Force causes a body (mass) to move (accelerate) and
that the greater the force, the greater the acceleration. But consider the case
where a man applied a force to move a small car. He applied a force to overcome
its inertia, and then maintains a somewhat lesser force to overcome friction, and
to maintain movement.
Now clearly he will become progressively more tired the further he pushes the
car. This suggests that there is another aspect to force and movement that must
be considered.
This introduces Work, which is defined as the product of Force x Distance (i.e.
the greater the distance, the greater the work). As with force, the derived unit of
work becomes complicated – i.e. Work = Newtons x metres, and so is
replaced by a dedicated unit – the Joule, defined as:
“The work done when a force of 1 Newton is applied through a distance of
1 metre”.
A further question arises. Work may be "done", but it doesn’t just “happen”,
where does it come from? The answer is by expending Energy.
Energy can be thought – of as “stored” work. Alternatively, work is done when
Energy is expended. The unit of Energy is the same as for Work, i.e. the Joule.
Energy can exist or be stored in a number of different forms, and it is the change
of form that is normally found in many engineering devices.
Energy can be considered in the following forms.
Electrical
Chemical
Heat
Pressure
Potential
Kinetic - and there are other.
They will all be expressed in Joules.
One important principle underlies the conversion of one form to another. It is
known as the Conservation of Energy, which is:
“Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be changed from one form
to another”.
This allows scientific equations to be derived, after investigation and analysis
involving physical experiments.
3.3 POWER
Recalling the man pushing the car, it was stated that the greater the distance the
car was pushed, the greater the work done (or the greater the energy expended).
But yet again, another factor arises for our consideration. The man will only be
capable of pushing it through a certain distance within a certain time. A more
powerful man will achieve the same distance in less time. So, the word Power
is introduced, which includes time in relation to doing work.
Power =
Again, for simplicity and clarity, a dedicated unit of power has been created, the
Watt.
“The Watt is the Power output when one Joule is achieved in one second”.
3.4 MOMENTUM
Momentum is a word in everyday use, but its precise meaning is less well-known.
We say that a large rugby forward, crashing through several tackles to score a
try, used his momentum. This seems to suggest a combination of size (mass)
and speed were the contributing factors.
In fact, momentum = mass x velocity (mv).
3.8 INERTIA
Inertia is resistance to a change of momentum. We are familiar with this, e.g. a
person standing in a moving vehicle; if the vehicle stops, the person lurches
forward, as his mass contains momentum. The greater the mass, the greater will
be its inertia.
It will be easier (require less torque) to cause the LH cylinder to rotate. This is
because the RH cylinder appears to have greater inertia, even through the
masses are the same.
So the moment of inertia () is a function of mass and radius. Although more
detailed study of the exact relationship is beyond the scope of this course, it can
be said that the M of I is proportional to the square of the radius.
4.1 PRINCIPLES
Gyroscopes are rotating masses (usually cylindrical in form) which are
deliberately employed because of the particular properties which they
demonstrate. (note, however, that any rotating mass may demonstrate these
properties, albeit unintentionally).
Basic concepts can be gained by reference to a hand-held bicycle wheel.
Imagine the wheel to be stationary; it is easy to tilt the axle one way or another.
4.2 RIGIDITY
Now rotate the wheel. Because the mass of the wheel is rotating, it now has
angular momentum. Two properties now become apparent.
The rotating wheel is now difficult to tilt, this is resistance is termed Rigidity.
4.3 PRECESSION
If sufficient force or torque is applied to tilt the wheel, the manner or direction in
which it tilts or moves is interesting.
4.4 TORQUE
The torque required to cause precession, or the rate of precession resulting from
applied torque, depends on moment of inertia and angular velocity. Remember
that direction of rotation will determine direction of precession.
5. FRICTION
5.1 PRINCIPLES
Friction is that phenomenon in nature that always seems to be present and acts
so as to retard things that move, relative to things that are either stationary or
moving slowly. How large that frictional force is depends on the nature of the two
surfaces of the object concerned. Rough surfaces generally produce more
friction than smooth surfaces, and some materials are naturally 'slippery'.
Friction can operate in any direction, but always acts in the sense opposing
motion.
The diagram shows a body (mass m) on an inclined plane. As the angle of the
plane () is increased, the body remains stationary, until at some particular value
of , it begins to move down the plane. This is because the frictional force (F)
opposing motion has reached its maximum value.
= = tan
This ratio (tan ) is termed the Coefficient of Friction. It is generally considered in
mechanics to have a value less than 1, but some materials have a 'stickiness'
associated with them which exceeds this value.
Note also that cases occur where static friction (friction associated with
stationary objects) is greater than running friction (where objects are now in
motion).
A useful example is in flying-control systems, where engineers have to perform
both static and running friction checks.
6. KINEMATICS
In previous topic, we have seen that a force causes a body to accelerate
(assuming that it is free to move). Words such as speed, velocity, acceleration
have been introduced, which do not refer to the force, but to the motion that
ensues. Kinematics is the study of motion.
6.1 PRINCIPLES
When considering motion, it is important to define reference points or datums (as
has been done with other topics). With kinematics, we usually consider datums
involving position and time. We then go on to consider the distance or
displacement of the body from that position, with respect to time elapsed.
It is now necessary to define precisely some of the words used to describe
motion, (which are common in everyday speech).
Distance and time do not need defining as such, but we have seen that they must
relate to the datums. Distance and time are usually represented by symbols
x and t (although s is sometimes used instead of x).
6.2 SPEED
Speed = rate of change of displacement or position
=
v = where v represents speed.
A word of caution - this assumes that the speed is unchanging (constant). If
not, the speed is an average speed.
6.3 VELOCITY
Velocity is similar to speed, but not identical. The difference is that velocity
includes a directional component; hence velocity is a vector (magnitude and
direction - the magnitude component is speed).
Acceleration = rate of change of velocity
=
a = where a represents acceleration.
(In the above, v, represents the initial velocity, v2 represents the final velocity
during time period t).
6.4 ACCELERATION
Note that as acceleration = rate of change of velocity, then it must also be a
vector quantity. This fact is important when we consider circular motion, where
direction is changing.
Remember, speed is a scalar, (magnitude only)
Velocity is a vector (magnitude and direction)
If the final velocity v2 is less than v1, then obviously the body has slowed. This
implies that the acceleration is negative. Other words such as deceleration or
retardation may be used.
6.5 VECTORS
In exactly the same way as force vectors were added (either graphically or
mathematically), so velocity vectors can be added. A good (aeronautical)
example is the vector triangle used by pilots and navigators when allowing for the
effects of wind.
Here the pilot intended to fly from A to B (the vector AB represents the speed of
the aircraft through the air), but while flying towards B the effect of the wind
vector BC was to 'blow' the aircraft off-course to C. So how is the pilot to fly to B
instead of C?
Obviously, the answer is to fly (head) towards D, so that the wind blows the
aircraft to B (see diagram).
Note that this is a vector triangle, in which we know 4 of the components;
i.e. the wind magnitude and direction
the air speed (magnitude)
the track angle (direction)
The other two components may therefore be deduced, i.e. the aircraft heading
and the aircraft groundspeed. Note that the difference between heading and
track is termed drift. The aircraft groundspeed, (i.e. the speed relative to the
ground) is used to compute the travelling time.
This is a particular aeronautical example. More generally, if there are two vectors
v1 and v2, then we can find relative velocity.
6.9 AREA
x = (v2 + v1)t
The acceleration present = , where v is the (constant) speed and r is the radius
of the circular path.
The force causing that acceleration is known as the Centripetal Force = , and
acts along the radius of the circular path, towards the centre.
7.3 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
More students are familiar with the term Centrifugal than the term Centripetal.
What is the difference? Put simply, and recalling Newton's 3rd Law, Centrifugal is
the equal but opposite reaction to the Centripetal force.
This can be shown by a diagram, with a person holding a string tied to a mass
which is rotating around the person.
Tensile force in string acts inwards to provide centripetal force acting on mass.
Tensile force at the other end of the string acts outwards exerting centrifugal
reaction on person.
(Note again - cases involving changing speeds as well as direction are beyond
the scope of this course).
8. PERIODIC MOTION
Some masses move from one point to another, some move round and round.
These motions have been described as translational or rotational.
Some masses move from one point to another, then back to the original point,
and continue to do this repetitively. The time during which the mass moved away
from, and then returned to its original position is known as the time period and
the motion is known as periodic.
Many mechanisms or components behave in this manner - a good example is a
pendulum.
8.1 PENDULUM
If a pendulum is displaced from its stationary position
and released, it will swing back towards that position.
On reaching it however, it will not stop, because its
inertia carries it on to an equal but opposite
displacement. It then returns towards the stationary
position, but carries on swinging etc, etc. Note that the
time period can be measured from a any position,
through to the next time that position is reached, with
the motion in the original direction
The resulting motion, up and down, can be plotted against time and will result in
a typical graph, which is sinusoidal.
9. HARMONIC MOTION
Analysis of oscillating systems such as the pendulum or the spring-mass will
show that they often obey simple but strict laws. For example, the instantaneous
acceleration is given by the term -2x.
a = = -2x
(This basically states that the acceleration is proportional to the displacement
from the neutral (undisturbed) position, and in the opposite sense to the
direction of the velocity)
The constant is the frequency of the oscillation. (The period of the oscillation
= ).
Such motion is often referred-to as Harmonic motion and analysis reveals the
sinusoidal pattern of such motion (beyond the scope of this course).
10. VIBRATION THEORY
Vibration Theory is based on the detailed analysis of vibrations and is essentially
mathematical, relying heavily on trigonometry and calculus, involving sinusoidal
functions and differential equations.
The simple pendulum or spring-mass would according to basic theory, continue
to vibrate at constant frequency and amplitude, once the vibration had been
started. In fact, the vibrations die away, due to other forces associated with
motion, such as friction, air resistance etc. This is termed a Damped vibration.
If a disturbing force is re-applied periodically the vibrations can be maintained
indefinitely. The frequency (and to a lesser extent, the magnitude) of this
disturbing force now becomes critical.
Depending on the frequency, the amplitude of vibration may decay rapidly (a
damping effect) but may grow significantly.
This large increase in amplitude usually occurs when the frequency of the
disturbing force coincides with the natural frequency of the vibration of the system
(or some harmonic). This phenomenon is known as Resonance. Designers
carry out tests to determine these frequencies, so that they can be avoided or
eliminated, as they can be very damaging.
11. FLUIDS
Fluid is a term that includes both gases and liquids; they are both able to flow.
We will generally consider gases to be compressible and liquids to be
incompressible.
When considering fluids that flow, it is obvious that some flow more freely than
others, or put another way, some encounter more resistance when attempting to
flow. Resistance to flow introduces the word Viscosity, highly viscous liquids do
not flow freely. Gases generally have a low viscosity.
11.1 DENSITY
Density of a solid, liquid or gas is defined as = =
A large mass in a small volume means a high density, and vice versa. The unit
of density depends on the units of mass and volume; e.g. density = kg/m3 in SI
units.
Solids, particularly metals, often have a high density, gases are of low density.
11.3 BUOYANCY
Buoyancy implies floatation, and may involve solids immersed in liquids or gases,
one liquid in another, one gas in another and so on. It is a function of relative
Densities.
An object that floats has a R.D. less than the medium in which it floats. Its
weight is obviously supported by some interactive force (upthrust) between the
object and that medium.
Archimedes states that the upthrust is equal to the weight of the volume of the
medium that was displaced by the floating object, i.e. the volume of object below
the surface.
11.4 PRESSURE
Previous topics have introduced forces or loads, and then considered stress,
which can be thought of as intensity of load. Stress is the term associated with
solids. The equivalent term associated with fluids is pressure, so pressure = .
p = .
Pressure can be generated in a fluid by applying a force which tries to squeeze it,
or reduce its volume. Pressure is the internal reaction or resistance to that
external force. It is important to realise that pressure acts equally and in all
directions throughout that fluid. This can be very useful, because if a force
applied at one point creates pressure within a fluid, that pressure can be
transmitted to some other point in order to generate another force. This is the
principle behind hydraulic (fluid) systems, where a mechanical input force drives
a pump, creating pressure which then acts within an actuator, so as to produce a
mechanical output force.
throughout the fluid. This pressure acts on area A2, and hence an output force F2
is generated.
If the pressure P is constant, then = and if A2 is greater than A1, the output
force F2 is greater than F1.
A mechanical advantage has been created, just like using levers or pulleys. This
is the principle behind the hydraulic jack.
But remember, you don't get something for nothing; energy in = energy out or
work in = work out, and work = force x distance. In other words, distance moved
by F1 has to be greater than distance moved by F2.
11.5 STATIC AND DYNAMIC PRESSURE
Static and Dynamic pressure.
In this diagram, the pressure acting on x x1 is due to the weight of the fluid (in this
case a liquid) acting downwards.
This weight W = mg (g = gravitational constant)
But mass = volume density
= height cross-sectional area density
= h.A.
Therefore downward force = h..g. A. acting on A
Therefore, the pressure =
= hpg
This is the static pressure acting at depth h within a stationary fluid of density p.
This is straightforward enough to understand as the simple diagram
demonstrates. (we can "see" the liquid)
But the same principle applies to gases also, and we know that at altitude, the
reduced density is accompanied by reduced static pressure.
We are not aware of the static pressure within the atmosphere which acts on our
bodies, the density is low (almost 1000 times less than water). Divers, however,
quickly become aware of increasing water pressure as they descend.
But we do become aware of greater air pressures whenever moving air is
involved, as on a windy day for example. The pressure associated with moving
air is termed dynamic pressure.
In aeronautics, moving air is essential to flight, and so dynamic pressure is
frequently referred-to.
Dynamic pressure = ½ v2 where = density, v = velocity.
Note how the pressure is proportional to the square of the air velocity.
12.2 CONVERSION
An engineering student should be able to convert from one temperature to
another;
e.g. convert ºF to ºC - Subtract 32, then multiply by
convert ºC to ºF - Multiply by , then add 32
convert ºC to ºK - add 273º
Example #1: Convert 20ºC to Fahrenheit.
20 x + 32 = 36 + 32 = 68ºF
Example #2: Convert 15ºC to Kelvin
15 + 273 = 288K
Note also that when thermodynamic principles and calculations are considered, it
is usually vital to perform these calculations using temperatures expressed in
Kelvin.
Note also that 0ºK is often termed absolute zero (it is the lowest temperature
theoretically possible).
So L2 - L1 = L1 (2 - 1)
Where L2 and L1 are final and initial lengths,
2 and 1 are final and initial temperatures
And is a material constant (coefficient of linear expansion).
12.3.2 VOLUMETRIC
Expansion can be considered as a change in length (see above), a change in
area or change in volume.
The change in volume, v2 - v1 = v1 (2 - 1)
Where = the coefficient of volumetric expansion. (note that = 3 (see
above)).
Different materials expand at different rates, and this may be used, for
example, when shrink fitting components
If a fixed mass of gas (e.g. air) is heated from temperature T1 to T2, its initial
volume V1 increases to V2. Note that the increase is linear (the graph follows a
straight-line). Note that if the line is extended back, it crosses the T (x) axis at
-273ºC, or absolute zero.
The slope is constant, therefore is constant, or = (temperature must be
expressed in ºK).
This illustrates Charles Law.
"The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure is proportional to the
absolute temperature".
12.6 SPECIFIC HEAT
Heat is a form of energy, so how much heat is needed to increase the
temperature of a substance? Again, the answer is obvious.
The heat required depends on the temperature rise, the amount or mass of the
substance, and on the actual substance being heated. As a formula,
Q = mc (2 - 1)
Where Q is the heat energy supplied (in joules), m is the mass (kg) 2 and 1 are
final and initial temperatures, and c is the specific heat of the substance
considered in J .
kg.k
12.7 HEAT CAPACITY
Here specific heat c is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1kg of a substance by 1ºK.
Heat capacity (C) of a body is the mass of the body x specific heat.
C = mc
shown by AB. At B, corresponding to 100ºC (the boiling point of water) the graph
follows BC, which represents the constant temperature of 100ºC. After a time,
the graph resumes its original path, CD.
What was happened to the heat supplied during the time period between B and
C?
The answer is that it was used, not to raise the temperature, but to change the
state from water into steam. This is termed latent heat, and also features when
ice melts to become water.
So latent heat is the heat required to cause a change of state, and sensible
heat is the heat required to cause a change of temperature.
13.1 LAWS
Charles Law has already been referred to. Boyle’s law assumes constant
volume.
Boyle's Law states that "the pressure of a given mass of gas at constant
temperature is inversely proportional to its volume".
Summarised:
is constant
is constant
pV is constant
These laws are often combined to give:
is a constant
= mR where m is the mass of gas considered, and R is the Gas Constant.
The work done by or on the gas is given by the area under the p-v curve.
If we go from v1 to v2 (expansion) work is done by the gas.
If we go from v2 to v1 (compression) work is done on the gas.
The exact amount of work depends on the exact nature of the expansion /
compression, i.e. is the relevant gas law pv = constant or pvn = constant or pv
= constant?
These different equations give different curves, and hence different work values,
but this is beyond the scope of this module.
Note also that an expanding gas tends to cool; a gas being compressed tends to
heat-up.
14. LIGHT
14.2 REFLECTION
Light can also be reflected, usually by mirrors, which are made by depositing a
thin layer of metal on one side of a piece of glass. Some interesting facts may be
obtained.
When you look in a mirror, you see a reflection, usually termed an image. The
diagram above shows 2 reflected rays, viewing an object O from two different
angles. Note the reflected rays appear to come from I which corresponds to the
image, and lies on the same normal to the mirror as the object, and appears the
same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front.
Note also that the image is a virtual image, it can be seen, but cannot be shown
on a screen.
Note also that it appears the same size as the object, and is laterally inverted.
These are features of images in plane mirrors.
Mirrors can also be curves, sometimes they are spherical, sometimes parabolic.
The basic law, incidence equals reflection - still holds, but the curved surface
allows the rays to be focussed or dispersed.
FP is known as the focal length.
Note the rays actually pass through F, and a
real image can be formed.
14.4 REFRACTION
across the boundary, but ray (2) has been internally reflected at the boundary.
There is a critical angle of incidence when the ray in the denser medium does not
emerge, but travels along the boundary.
As with mirrors, images can be real or virtual, erect or inverted, and larger or
smaller. The nature of the image will depend on the type of lens, and the
position of the object in relation to the focal length of the lens, (the focal length
is a function of the curvature of the lens surfaces).
15. SOUND
15.2 FREQUENCY
Frequency (f) of sound is related to the number of vibrations that the molecules
perform in a unit of time. The amount (or distance) which the molecules vibrate
about their main position is termed the amplitude.
Another term exists, i.e. wavelength (). A formula exists, linking frequency and
wavelength.
f. = constant = speed of sound
High-pitches sounds are of high frequency, and vice versa.
15.3 INTENSITY
The intensity of sound (its 'loudness) is dependent on the intensity of the
pressure variations, and thus is related to the amplitude. The amplitude of the
vibration is proportional to the energy input into the generation of the wave.
15.4 PITCH
Pitch is another word for frequency (see previous paragraph).
15.5 DOPPLER EFFECT
Doppler effect is the effect that is noticeable when for example, a car is heard
speeding towards the listener, then speeding away. The sound is initially at a
high-pitch, which then becomes lower. This is because the source of the sound
(the car) is moving, which causes a change in the time interval between
successive pressure variations in the ear of the listener (i.e. there appears to be a
change in frequency, which is proportional to the speed of the car).
16. MATTER
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and may be classified in a
number of ways.
16.2 ATOMS
If a water molecule could be magnified sufficiently it would be seen to consist of
three smaller particles closely bound together. These three particles are ATOMS,
two of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
The water is a compound, the oxygen and hydrogen are elements. Every
element has atoms of its own type. There are 92 naturally occurring elements
and therefore 92 types of naturally occurring atoms.
Every molecule consists of atoms. Molecules of elements contain atoms of the
same types, for example the hydrogen molecule consists of two atoms of
hydrogen joined together, the oxygen molecule consists of two atoms of oxygen
joined together, but the molecules of compound contain different atoms joined
together.
Most molecules contain more than one atom but some elements can exist as
single atoms. In such a case the atom is also the molecule. For example the
Helium atom is also the Helium molecule.
An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element which can take part in a
chemical change.
The nucleus has a positive charge of electricity and the electron an equal
negative charge; thus the whole atom is electrically neutral and the electrical
attraction keeps the electron circling the nucleus. Atoms of other elements have
more than one electron travelling around the nucleus, the nucleus containing
sufficient positive charges to balance the number of electrons.
Protons and Neutrons. The particles in the nucleus each carrying a positive
charge are called protons. In addition to the protons the nucleus usually contains
electrically neutral particles called neutrons. Neutrons have the same mass as
protons whereas electrons are very much smaller – only of the mass of a proton
16.2.3.1 Protons
The number of protons in an atom determines the kind of material:
Eg. Hydrogen 1 proton
Helium 2 protons
Lithium 3 protons
Beryllium 4 protons
etc
Copper 29 protons
etc
Uranium 92 protons
The number of protons is referred to as the atomic number, thus the atomic
number of copper is 29.
16.2.3.2 Neutrons
The neutron simply adds to the weight of the nucleus and hence the atom. There
is no simple rule for determining the number of neutrons in any atom. In fact
atoms of the same kind can contain different numbers of neutrons. For example
chlorine may contain 18 – 20 neutrons in its nucleus.
The atoms are chemically indistinguishable and are called isotopes. The weight
of an atom is due to the protons and neutrons (the electrons are negligible in
weight), thus the atomic weight is virtually equal to the sum of the protons and the
neutrons.
16.2.3.3 Electrons
The electron orbits define the size or volume occupied by the atom. The
electrons travel in orbits which are many times the diameter of the nucleus and
hence the space occupied by an atom is virtually empty! The electrical properties
of the atom are determined by how tightly the electrons are bound by electrical
attraction to the nucleus.
16.3 PERIODIC TABLE