Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
INTRODUCTION
in economic, social and political activities has generated a lot of argument for a
government, development partners, and civil society groups - have come up with
many arguments to support their positions. Some are against the increased
They argue that gender inequality belief stipulates that women are restricted to the
home, to take care of the children; they can only play a subordinate role in the
economy, public affairs and even in the home. Others argue that, since gender
inequality belief that restricts women to the home and limits their role in the
Leavitt (1971) stressed that woman’s control over property and products
she produces, her level of involvement in economic, social, religious and political
and support survival, every known society divides and specialises labour tasks to
some extent and this division of labour has knowingly or unknowingly been done
along sex lines where men carry out tasks that take them outside the home and
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passive and their work is considered as unexciting and repetitive. In fact, women
are naturally mothers, their greatest pleasure and true fulfillment lies in maternity,
the one out of a few things that women are good at. These negative perceptions
about women have tended to marginalize women and have belittled women’s
work in the home, outside the home, therefore women’s contribution to the
economic well being of the home and society. To correct this imbalance and to
reverse the marginalization of women it is necessary for both men and women to
women’s voices need to be heard and included. It is very sad to note that not all
women have equal access to avenues that made their voices to be heard. Voices
heard are generally from one part of the world, the West and these voices
purported to speak for all women irrespective of location. While the west women
tried to help other women from the limited perspective of their own experiences, a
much was made of the unique strengths and institutionalized powers of women in
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1.1BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH
often ignored. Ample evidence points to the fact that traditional roles have been
altered for many men and women and even traditional professional roles that were
gender specific have become gender neutral. Women head several families and
others still are equal breadwinners with the men. In times gone by, it used to be
the case that only women were to be midwives. However, in contemporary times,
African societies, men would not be caught dead selling produce that were
considered women’s, but now everybody sells whatever would give them money.
Women are now in all kinds of professions all over the world Ufomata (2000)
thus, sex-ascribed roles are giving way to a more open environment in terms of
economic activity in the traditional sense has to a large extent been defined and
and policies have been designed along cultural lines, women’s role in the
Ghanaian economy, politics and religious have not been limited to the home alone
but has spanned all sectors of the economy, politics, religious with its impact felt.
and the education and health of their children. However, there are marked
achieve their economic and social goals when compared to their male
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counterparts. Women generally lack access to credit, land and education, which
Furthermore, the economic growth process in Ghana with its attendant turbulence
of decay and reforms has tended to worsen the plight of vulnerable groups in the
public life and the decision- making process. The 2000 census put the population
of Ghana at 18.9 million out of which women make up about 50.52%. With an
economically active population of 8.2 million (15 years +), women account for
approximately 50% of the labour force and are found in almost all kinds of
retail trade). The majority of women, however, are found in farming (agriculture,
fish processing, animal husbandry and forestry) and other informal sector
activities such as wholesale and retail trading, but few women are found in
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Rationale for the Study
Increasingly, women are getting out of their home jobs as home makers and are
forced to combine their work at home as mothers, wives and homemakers and
their jobs outside the home. As if this is not challenging, women’s work is
buffeted by the existence and /or non-existence of policies that aims to improve
the lot of women in Axim. This research therefore aims to shed light on how
women affect and are affected by the economy and how best to design appropriate
programmes and policies that will help women to achieve the best first for
This work sets out to investigate the role of women in Axim and to
identify factors that hinder their development. The work also investigate how
women affect and are affected by policies, programs and projects that are
instituted by the government, domestic and otherwise, how best to take advantage
of some of these programs and policies, and how best to minimize their negative
impact on women
The study uses primary and secondary data to discuss and analyze
women’s roles in the three main developmental sectors of Axim, both public and
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• Census data sources
• Ministry of Agriculture
Organization of Study
The paper is divided into four sections. Section one gives an introductory
note and background to the paper. Section two discusses the political
three sectors of the economy, the challenges they face and how these can be
turned into opportunities. Section four talks about the religious development and
concludes the study and goes on to give some recommendations for improving
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CHAPTER TWO
Axim is the capital of the Nzema East District, an area encompassing 2194
square kilometers. This relatively poor town has recently grown to become a
subsistence farming and government services. Axim is near Ivory Coast to the
west and the nearest substantial city, Takoradi. Recently oil was discovered some
50 miles off the coast of Axim. Axim people are mostly Nzema, Fante, English
The Fort Antonio is the centre of the town. The Dutch captured it in 1642.
It was ceded to Britain in 1872. For some 300 years, it was a center for trading
gold, slaves, timber, cotton and other products. Today, the Fort houses some
offices and has some areas historically preserved to demonstrate how it was used
as a slave trading center. Every September, Axim host the Kundum festival. It
coincides with the fish season. Families return to their family homes. Deceased
ancestors are remembered and mourned. Family problems are sorted out in
dancing, drumming and feasting. Traditional leaders and honored guests are
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Attribrukusu III. The symbol of the royal house is a chicken nesting on a pole,
signifying the need of the king and the royal family to nurture the people.
authorities with responsibilities for the overall development and governance of the
again central o the overall strategy in terms of the provision of local governance,
8
local communities; secondly, because of the share size of their members relative
making process has been an uphill battle against patriarchy, poverty and
in African societies. Example is Yaa asantewaa, the queen mother of asante. It can
therefore be stated that women had access to governance in their traditional areas
before colonialisation.
In 2000, out of 110 districts chef Executives in Axm had only 10 women.
were only three women among the 110 districts and three out of the 110 presiding
before the local level elections were as follows; out of 7700 members of the 110
district assemblies, 385 were women. Seven out of 103 district chief executives
were women. Majority of the appointed assembly members were men. The
figures mentioned above, indicate that there is still a long way to go in achieving a
9
In an effort to address this issue, the government then as a matter of policy
level of the district assemblies by directing that all metropolitan, municipal and
appointees in 2002 to 2006 district assemblies was therefore1, 231 against 2,181
males. The number of women who filed for nomination in 2000 was 580 as
compared to 981 who filed in 2004. The western region which has Axim as one of
society, the matrilineal system, which accords women high status and significant
social and political influences, is practiced. This system therefore raises the status
monarchy whose king is chosen by a queen mother. The queen mothers play
important roles in local governance despite the fact that they are not supposed to
meddle in politics. They occupy remarkable positions in the courts of the chiefs
In spite of the position of women in Nzema culture, and their roles in the
governance. In 2000, there was no woman for Member of Parliament, and then in
2004, there were 2 out of the 15 members of parliament. Given the fact that the
women and also the fact that women are very influential in the appointment of
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chiefs, one would have expected a higher representation of women in local
governance. One therefore wonders what the underlining factors are. The
GOVERNANCE IN AXIM
The survey revealed that the women were punctual and regular at assembly
women respondents were motivated by the need to get involved in the leadership
GOVERNANCE IN AXIM.
On the issue of obstacles, the main ones identified were financial, cultural
and the multiple roles of women. Seventy-five percent of all the respondents
identified financial constraints as the major obstacle that has contributed to the
needs substantial amount of money to carry out extensive campaigns through the
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individuals in the campaign team. It also involves time, which means foregoing
campaigns. Some of the cultural obstacles mentioned in the course of the survey
perceptions of the society, about the role of a woman and education. Sixty-five
biased in favor of men as the main obstacle. Low self-esteem, shyness and lack of
confidence were also associated with the nature of socialization in the district.
This together with gender stereotyping of roles have contributed to the lack of
interest and general apathy of women in the process of local governance. Multiple
roles of women were identified as the main cultural obstacle that has given rise to
their low participation in local governance in Axim. The assembly indicated that,
it was collaborating with the women organizations such as FIDA and NCWD, to
their locality.
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CHAPTER THREE
economic activity has sparked a lot of controversy for a considerable time. To this
partners and civil societal groups have forwarded many arguments to support their
stand. Those who are against the increased participation of women in all spheres
of economic and political activities have argued that women are limited to the
home and children and must play a subordinate role in the economic public affairs
and even in the home. To correct this imbalance and to reverse the
marginalization of women, it was necessary for both men and women to realize
that women are not treated as equals of men. Furthermore, women’s’ voices
In general, employment in Ghana has not kept pace with growth in the
economically active population as result of the high population growth rate, slow
wealth to improve the worth and welfare of the citizenry and to reduce poverty.
To achieve this objective, there is a need for an accelerated growth, which will be
13
economic stability and growth the main sectors of the economy; agriculture,
Axim are engaged in various economic activities and they predominate in the
must be noted that the micro and small-scale enterprise sector is the backbone of
the Ghanaian economy in terms of its potential for economic growth, employment
and wealth creation. Given the role women play in this sector and their
the economy.
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AXIM WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE
are responsible for clearing and preparing of the land, while women are
to market centre and marketing the produce. According to the 1984 census data in
Axim, women who are 15 years and above made up approximately forty-seven
considerable extent neglected. However, women are now recognized as more than
just wives of farmers but also farmers, farm labourers, food processors and
credit. Women are twice as much affected by these challenges that confront the
the home and the implication this has for the nutritional health of the household
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AXIM WOMEN IN SERVICES
wholesale trade, retail trade and tourism, infrastructural services such as transport,
storage and communications and others. The services sector contributes the
second largest share of GDP that comes to about thirty-three percent in 2000.
from Mr. Ambrose kanga, an economist who has lived in Axim for the past 15
years.
towards the whole and retail sub-sector. The distribution of women in this sector
sub-sectors have been the business activities of women; adding, cooking and
taking care of the home and the community in general. Very few women in Axim
are found in the relatively more specialized sub-sectors of services. The low level
requires more than the level of education for the average woman in Axim. It is
important to note that, while some women are generally un-ambitious, there are
specialization processes have been made to believe that they cannot aspire for
bigger things in life. In services sector, women are also faced with problems
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ROBLEMS FACING AXIM WOMEN IN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
and they come in many forms but two main areas stand out; social and economic
impediments. As noted earlier, the socialization process for both sexes one way or
the other influences the kind of economic activities that women in Axim find
themselves in. for instance, these women are perceived to be homemakers and
therefore they are reared to care for the home and children. This contributes to
low self-esteem for these women who are made to believe that they are inferior to
men and can therefore not stand up for themselves. There are some common
sayings that tend to perpetuate this low self-esteem of women. These sayings
For socio-cultural and other reasons women in Axim have little or no access to
education those who were fortunate to have had access have had little compared
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ACCESS TO TRAINING
Edward Yankah, women in Axim lack business and marketing skills that may
allow them to put together a viable business proposal. These women have less
access to formal channels that provide comprehensive skills training because they
are mostly unaware of the existence of such programmers and even when they are
aware, their time constraints may limit their access to such programmes.
Moreover, some of them may lack the needed basic educational qualification for
such skill training and are therefore cut off from benefitting from such
irrespective of the constraints that face them, women’s access to training and
groups and others to promote training for women at all levels and in all spheres of
endeavour.
ACCESS TO LABOUR
beside their own to carry out effectively their economic activities. The immediate
labour supply for women comes from that of their family; her husband, children
and other relatives. However, there have been short falls in family labour as a
result of migration into urban centres of older sons and daughters. Sometimes
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husbands also migrate leaving the women and children whose capacity to supply
become expensive as a result of the supply shortages especially in the rural areas.
This problem is especially serious for those women in the rural areas of Axim
who have to support their husbands in planting and harvesting of their crops
before attending to their own work on their individual farms, which have serious
implications for their health and well-being of the children. For this problem,
most women in the rural areas of Axim join mutual labour supply associations
where the group work together to help clear, crop and harvest each member’s
farm one after the other. Otherwise they will have to part with money to hire
woman but also almost all women in the face of the globe. Time budget studies
have shown that women generally have hours of labour and therefore far less
hours for leisure than men in their households. Despite their longer hours of work,
they receive much smaller incomes than their male counterparts probably because
women’s work are not specialized and may require no skill training or because it
as paid work.
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The customary use of women’s time on men’s fields without appropriate
which inadvertently leads to the recording of a higher productivity for men than
women. Furthermore, women and girls in Axim are responsible for water and fuel
provision in the home and this impose significant physical and time burdens on
them. Women also take time off work for reproductive purposes as well as caring
for the children and the home. This hampers their participation in business and
social activities and this comes about as a result of the unequal distribution of
labour in the home. Their role, which is subordinate to that of their men, reduces
environment for ambitious women. Women’s time burdens reduce their time
available to them for working on their own farms and businesses as well as their
areas of Axim, while those in the township operate marginal enterprises in the
because the enterprises experience little or no growth during the lifetime of their
owners. Thus, these women form the bulk of the poor in Axim. Programmes to
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specifically, which has the potential to effectively fight poverty and improve on
In some programmes that target both men and women, the average loan
size for women’s businesses is smaller than that of men. In the rural areas,
any of these institutions develop policy measures that set aside a significant
proportion of loan funds to women, the volume of loans lent to men is always
going to be higher than those made to women. However, in many instances loans
repayment among women borrowers ids often higher than for men. This was
susu collectors and from community based organizations, savings and loans, rural
and community banks, and credit unions, have been the formal sources of
to the needs of their clients, some of these micro-financial institutions have used a
cash collateral. These strategies have helped to ensure high loan repayments from
clients and have ecured the quality of the micro-financial institutions credit
21
portfolios. However, the majority of the MFIs in Axim face operational
constraints, which affect their ability to scale up their level of financial service
provision. These constraints include a weak capital base lending to small and
training. In the last two decades, as part of efforts to integrate women into
some NGOs have and continued to organize training and retraining programmes
for women in both rural and township of Axim. Other training programmes in
leadership, awareness raising and human and legal rights have been also been
provided. Common among these programmes are skills training for unskilled
the informal sector. In the formal sector, women in Axim have lower access to
management positions. They also do not take care of the specific needs of women
thus affect the effectiveness of these progammes. The impact of socialization and
social pressures on women’s performance in the work place are also not taken
into account. Some other training programmes have sought to improve women’s
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access technology. However these programmes have been largely inadequate. The
providers of these training programmes especially the NGOs also face financial
training and retraining for women in economic activity but also to improve quality
of such programmes to meet the needs of women in various sectors and to sustain
them.
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CHAPTER FOUR
Overview
history of the church, the beliefs, and then to the roles of women in the church.
sent by the Apostolic church, Bradford Uk. This missionary was called Pastor
James McKeon. According to primary sources, Pastor McKeon broke away from
the Apostolic church because of spiritual differences which made some of the
worshippers in the Apostolic church join the new church of Pastor McKeon. In
1953, there was a constitutional crisis that saw that the followers of Pastor
McKeon expanding rapidly and it led to the changing of the name to Gold Coast
Apostolic church. After this, the spilt in 1953 did not end and the new conflicts
compelled the then president Dr. Nkrumah to advice the leader to change the
name in order to bring peace. In august 1, 1962, Gold Coast Apostolic church was
Also an elder of the church narrated the history of the church. He added
that the church of Pentecost was first established in Asamankese by Pastor James
McKeon. This man was sent to Gold Coast as a missionary and he came to meet
the Faith Terminacle church which was headed by Pastor Peter Annin in 1937. He
said the Pastor got ill and the church refused to take him to the clinic for proper
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medication instead they believed that God could heal him through the Holy
Ghost. It was at this point that Pastor Mckeon disagreed and with time he parted
BELIEFS
According to one elder of the church said that, the mission of the church
of Pentecost is to bring all people everywhere together and preach to them about
the knowledge of Jesus Christ through the proclamation of the gospel. The church
is mandated to create new churches and equipping believers for God’s glorifying
service. He added that the church’s mission is to demonstrate the love of God
the church. He said that every member of the church should and must know the
converts are taught the beliefs of the church which include the Bible, that is, it
gives divine inspiration and they believe the bible is the ultimate and its true in its
declaration, final in its authority and all sufficient in its provision. He further said
that the church believed in the one true God. This, he said that they believe in the
existence of God as one, Elohim, maker of the universe. They also believe in the
holy trinity thus, the father son and the Holy Spirit.
25
Another member also added that the church believed in man’s depraved
nature, thus all men have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God and have
been subjected eternal penalty. The rest include the saviour, repentance,
justification, the sacraments of baptism and the Lords supper, baptism, gift and
fruit of the Holy Spirit, next life, tithes and offering and last being divine healing.
Just like all institutions, the church has two governing bodies. There is the
general council which is the highest decision-making body of the church which
chairman of boards and committees and movement directors. It then moves to the
executive council which is headed by the chairman of the church who sees to the
day to day administration of the church the next body is the area administrative
senior Pastor and he is assisted by an area executive. This followed by the district
administrative structure and is headed by the district Pastor. Finally, the district
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HISTORY OF THE COMMUNITY REVIVAL CHURCH IN AXIM
Due to the fact that the church’s mission is to reach out to people all over
the world in order to spread the gospel of the Lord and to create awareness, lots of
branches have been established across the country and the community revival in
Axim one of such branches before a church is established, it should have the
consent of the mother church because the church has its own rules and regulations
school till there was a decree that no church should be held in schools again.
Following that then the church went to join another community. It was during the
reign of Pastor Cudjoe now an Apostle who bought a land in order to build a
church for the community revival. But they were denied, they then moved to look
for a new land and that is d land the church building is located now. It was a
drinking spot for a white man but he left for his country and a woman in the
church got the permit. After they had the permit, they started the building.
Fortunately for them the contractor was a member of the church. A committee
was set to manage the affairs of the construction. The church was constructed in
October 1995 and completed in june 1996. The first presiding elder who is
currently a judge in the high court,the church was spirit filled. One day, through
prayers the Holy Spirit spoke with an elder to name the church, Revival
Assembly. The church started with very few people but gradually people joined
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and the church kept increasing in population. Some of the presiding elders of the
church included elder Adja, elder kaku elder otto and currently elder Annor
Women’s fellowship
women’s leader, secretary and treasurer. As part of its functions, they study the
Bible, learn new songs, and help women n the managing of the home and
Men’s fellowship
executive body consisting of men’s leader, secretary and treasurer. Meetings are
Youth Ministry
This consists of all young men and women in the church. The age range is
from 10 years to 40 years. It is also managed by a youth leader, secretary and the
treasurer. The youth ministry is divided into two thus the junior youth with the
ages ranging from 10-17 years and the adult youth ranging from 18-40 years.
28
Revival Choir
include the president, vice president, secretary, treasurer and welfare. This group
plays a vital role during church activities. They also sing praises and back the
worship leaders during prayers. They learn new songs and rehearse for the next
service or programmes outside the church. They meet twice every week.
Children’s Movement
This consists of children from 3 months to 9 years. They are seen as the
future of the church. This group is also managed by an executive body thus
children’s leader,, secretary and treasurer. They meet once in a week at the church
premises.
The role of women started in the church when Sophia McKeon, the wife
of Pastor James McKeon saw that women in Ghana did not know how influential
their lives are to the home, church and the society at large. He therefore created
the women’s movement in the church in order to teach women their roles in the
home, church and the society in general. Sophia taught women how to take care
of the home, how to evangelize better since people have soft spot for women as
citizens in both the church and the society, and how to be prayerful. And this was
according to Deaconess Portia Annor. She also said that women stood as the
backbone of the church, they serve as deaconesses which mean a woman who
29
renders service, a helper, or a person who gives support. She added that every
Christian should be a servant to another for the Lord’s sake. Women also serve as
women leaders in the church. This position is very broad; this leader is in charge
of all women in the church. They teach how to dress properly, cook, and decorate
their homes and church, service to their husbands and taking care of their
holy in all their doings, to know the scriptures and carry the good news to the
unsaved, to influence their families and homes with the good news, to
demonstrate love to their husbands, to emulate the character of the faithful holy
women in the bible, to take responsibilities in the church and render benevolent
Deaconess Jane, a member of the church also said that with prayers of the
woman, the church spirituality is very high. She further said that, it is believed
that the prayers of the women are heard faster than that of the men. This is
whatever they ask are heard by God. Also women in the church serve as great
hospitality. They clean the church, accept and serve visitors especially pastors,
apostles, and even more members of the church when they come to visit.
Women help in the preparation of the Lord’s super. They lay tables; wash
the cups before and after use. Whenever it is communion service, these women
see to it that all the necessary things needed are provided before the service
begins. The communion table is always laid before the beginning of the church
service. Women encourage and teach the new converts that are won into the
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church. Here the new converts are being thought the basic tenets or beliefs of the
church, the word of God, in order to strengthen their faith as well as addressing
various problems and questions bothering them. In view of this, they are
encouraged to join the various groups in the church to enable them to contribute
Women are very important in the church because, they tend to support the
church and develop with their contributions with their activeness within and
outside the church. Based on their activities performed in the church, their faith is
being strengthened. Due to this, it becomes very easy whenever they are assigned
new roles or promoted or given the platform to share the word of God. Because
women who participate in the church activities do this with much enthusiasm, it
motivates other members in the church to also partake in church activities and
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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions
or another during the slower periods in their lives. The large majority of these are
such as basket-weaving and petty trading among others. Women switch from one
time. Women with childcare or other heavy domestic obligations (such as the care
of the sick or elderly) may select a less profitable off-farm productive activity in
generate from their operations may be small, but it plays a significant role in
meeting family food needs. This is particularly the case when a harvest is poor.
Women also buy clothing for babies and children and often pay for school fees
and health care. In carrying out these micro and small-scale activities, women are
hampered by lack of time, lack of literacy skills and poor marketing opportunities.
Shortage of working capital and (lack/) inadequate training are other constraints
that makes it difficult for women to buy and store raw materials, invest in labor-
collateral and restricted access to formal credit, they have primarily relied on
sources can have high interest rates, or they may not always have the funds
available for making loans. Care needs to be taken to ensure that income-
32
generating activities are profitable and loan products appropriate. Otherwise,
women may need to convert “savings goods” into cash for loan repayment, thus
Recommendations
women in economic, political and religious activities so that the government and
Axim. Having completed this task, the following recommendations have been
into five distinct components that are critical to promoting integration of women
sectors, both male and female and prioritizing types of potential users to target in
growth;
33
• Addressing women’s time constraints.
There are indications that many of the previous and existing lending and
enterprise support programs for women have not adequately represented the
small and medium enterprises. Some recommended steps for ensuring that loan
with little or no education and women in the informal sector, policymakers and
establish guidelines;
female loan officers will be essential for meeting designated targets of numbers of
women borrowers. Female loan officers can more freely approach women to
borrowers.
businesses based inside versus outside women’s homes. The values of individual
loans extended to women’s businesses based outside the home are potentially
greater than the values of individual loans extended to home based businesses.
34
However, the population of women with home-based businesses may be greater
than the population of women with businesses outside the home. Even if we
businesses is smaller than among businesses based outside the home, the potential
for the number of loans extended is still significantly higher among the former
group.
addressing women’s concerns about the high cost of credit, access to collateral,
and high interest rates, such as by increasing their access to information about
Agricultural enterprises:
risk, in that they are long term; subject to seasonal unpredictability; and can carry
are also considered high risk since their business are largely unregistered and do
not necessarily keep good accounts. But some of these risks can be reduced,
alleviate the higher costs of service delivery and also if the women are put into
35
cooperatives. Moreover, peer influence could be used to serve as a means of
extending loans to these women and to free them from moneylenders and traders
who tend to over exploit them. Some the recommendations are reproduced from
the Women's Manifesto for Ghana (2004), which was initiated by Abantu for
Development, Ghana. For detailed analysis of women's access to land see the
• As part of the land tenure reform, customary laws of access to land and
Furthermore, Customary and other tenancies are reformed to ensure that rents are
• The government should ensure that achieving equity in access to and control of
• Measures should be put in place to ensure that land registration and titling
36
• The state takes steps, in conjunction with national house of chiefs and traditional
councils to address customary laws and practices of access to and control over
particularly when proprietors lack basic knowledge and skills related to business
must identify and carry out training programmes such as expansion of business
37
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