CAPE PHYSICS

Unit 1: Module 3

6 Mechanical Properties of Materials

Objective 6.5: Distinguish between the structure of crystalline and non-crystalline solids,
with particular reference to metals, polymers and glasses

In general, a solid is a crystal in which the particles are arranged in a three dimensional
manner. There are two main types of solids: crystalline and non-crystalline.

In a crystalline solid, the atoms are arranged in a definite repeating pattern in three
dimensions. (diagram on the left) examples include iron, diamond, metals

In non-crystalline solids, the atoms are randomly arranged and do not form defined
patterns or lattice structures. (diagram on the right)

Polymers are large molecules built from smaller units. Some polymers can be crystalline
while others are amorphous (non-crystalline)
Crystalline polymers will break easily if a force is applied rather than bend eg. Glass;
while amorphous polymers are flexible with some form of elasticity eg. rubber

Objective 6.6 discuss the stretching of springs and wire in terms of load extension

When a force is added to a spring, it will stretch continuously as more load is added. Once
the weight has been removed, it will return to its original position. This force is exerted by
the spring on whatever is pulling its free end. This relationship is known as Hooke’s Law
and can be represented mathematically:
F = -kX
Where k is the constant which is a characteristic of the stiffness of the spring and X is the
change in the length of the spring. The negative sign indicates that the restoring force acts
opposite to the deformation of the spring. This relationship is always true as long as X is
small compared to the total possible deformation of the spring. Alternatively, the
relationship between the force applied and the amount of elongation is
F = kX
If too much force is applied, the spring or wire may be stretched beyond a certain point
that deformation will occur. On subsequent release of the stress (load), the spring will
become permanently deformed which will be different from its original shape.

Objective 6.7: Use the relationship among ‘stress’, ‘strain’ and ‘the Young modulus’ to
solve problems

When external forces are applied to objects made of elastic materials, they produce
changes in shape and size of the object.
Strain – the relative change in shape or size of an object due to externally applied forces.
This has no units
Stress – the internal force associated with a strain. Units – force per unit area or force per
unit length
Hooke’s law can also be expressed in terms of strain and stress

‘Stress is directly proportional to strain’

Instead of drawing a force-extension graph, if a graph of stress against strain is plotted for
an object which shows elastic behavior, you get a straight line. This is because stress is
proportional to strain. The gradient is the
Young’s modulus, E
The units are Nm-2 or Pa
E = stress/strain

If the graph is plotted for the material beyond the elastic region, the graph becomes non-
linear because Hooke’s law is not being obeyed and stress is no longer proportional to
strain.

Objective 6.8: perform experiments to determine the Young modulus of a metal in the
form of a wire
Objective 6.9: demonstrate knowledge of the force - extension graphs for typical ductile,
brittle and polymeric materials

Material A is brittle
Material B is ductile
Material C is polymeric

Objective 6.10: deduce the strain energy in a deformed material from a force-extension
graph

All the work done in stretching a material is stored as potential energy or elastic strain
energy. This can be found by finding the area under the force extension graph.

E = ½ kx2

Some force-extension graphs have two curves, one measured when the force is being
applied (loading) and one where that force is being removed (unloading). The unloading
curve may be below the loading curve which means that less energy is given out when a
force is removed from the sample than was put in. Some of the energy may be transferred
to another form eg heat.

Objective 6.11: distinguish between elastic and inelastic deformations of a material

Elastic deformation is a change in shape of a material at low stress which is recoverable

after the stress is removed. The bonds in these materials will stretch but the atoms do not
slip past each other.
Inelastic deformation will permanently deform the material and it cannot return to its
original shape even after the stress is removed.

Objective 6.12: Discuss the importance of elasticity in structures

Some materials are able to withstand a certain amount of force which is applied and then
it will break or collapse. With a greater degree of elasticity, different materials will exhibit
different properties and ultimately different functions.