Differential Equations

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
(A Reference Text)
Prof. Francis Anthony G. Llacuna

Dr. Dante L. Silva
3rd Quarter
SY 2004-2005
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Lesson Page
1 Classification of Differential Equations,

Its Definition and Terminology 4
2 Elimination of Arbitrary Constants by Differentiation 11
3 Families of Curves 13
4 Variable Separable 14
5 Homogeneous Function 16
6 Equations with Homogeneous Coefficients 17
7 Exact Differential Equations 19
8 Reducing to Linear equation of Order One

Non-Exact Differential Equation 25
9 Transforming to Bernoulli’s Equation
10 Integrating Factor Found by Inspection

11 Integrating Factor Found by Formula

12 Miscellaneous Substitution
13 Coefficients Linear in Two Variables 34
14 Geometric Application – Orthogonal Trajectories 36
15 Law of Growth and Decay 38
16 Newton’s Law of Cooling 40
17 Continuous Compound Interest 42
18 Mixture Problem 43
19 Simple Electric Circuits 45
20 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 47
21 Higher-Order, First Degree Differential Equations 49
22 Homogeneous Linear Equations with

Constant Coefficient 52
23 The Method of Undetermined Coefficients

Non-Homogeneous Equations 55
24 Variation of Parameters
Non-Homogeneous Equations 58
25 R(x) is an Exponential Function

Inverse Operator 59
26 R(x) is a Trigonometric Function

Inverse Operator 61
27 R(x) is a Polynomial Function

Inverse Operator 63
28 R(x) is a Composite Function

Inverse Operator 64
29 By Inspection 66
30 The Laplace Transform 67
31 The Inverse Laplace Transform 70
References 72
Lesson 1
Classification of Differential Equations,

Its Definition and Terminology
Specific Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to accomplish the following:
 define differential equations
 distinguish between dependent and independent variables
 define parameter and arbitrary constants
 classify differential equation according to properties, types, and kinds.
Differential Equation
A statement that two expressions are equal and an equation which contains derivatives or
differentials. (Rainville, 2002)
Example 1.1 Which of the following describes a differential equation?
1. cos xdx + sin ydy = 0

2. – 3x + x 2y = 0
3. dy/dx = y/x + tan y/x
4. xdx + ydy = 0
5. (x2 – y2) + 2xy y’ = 0
Exercise 1.1 Which of the following describes a differential equation?
1. (x + 3y)dx – (2x-y)dy = 0
2. x2y’ + (y-1) = 2(x-3y)
3. x2 – y2 = 9
4. (x –y)dx/dy + 3x = x(x+y)
5. sec x tan y – tan y = sec2 x – tan2 y
The Dependent and the Independent Variable

Suppose y = f(x), which is read as “y is a function of x”, if y is differentiable with
respect to x then y is the dependent variable while x is the independent variable.
Example 1.2 Identify the dependent and the independent variable.
1. + k2 x = 0 t – independent variable; x – dependent variable
2. = a2 t, x – independent variable; w – dependent variable
Exercise 1.2 From the following differential equations, determine which among
the variables involved is the dependent variable and the independent variable:
1. dy/dx + 1 = x – 2y
2. (x-2y)
3. y’ – 2y = y” +2x
4. (2x + y) dx + (x + 2y) dy = 0
5. (cosx cosy) dx – (sinx siny) dy = 0
Parameter is a constant not to be eliminated while an Arbitrary Constant is a constant to

be eliminated.
Example 1.3 Identify the parameters.
1. 5 +6 + = 100 cos :  is a parameter/fixed constant

c is an arbitrary constant
Exercise 1.3 Identify the parameters.
1. ( d2i / dt2) + di/dt + i/c =  cost
Classification of Differential Equations
1. According to Properties: Order and Degree
Order of the Differential Equation

The order of the differential equation is the order of the highest - ordered derivative
appearing in the equation. (Rainville, 2002)
Example 1.4 Find the order of the following differential equations.
1. + k2x = 0 2nd order DE
Exercise 1.4 Find the order of the following differential equations.
1. y”’ – 2(y”)2 = (y’–2y)3
2.
3. 3
Degree of the Differential Equation:

The degree of the differential equation is the same as the exponent of the highest -
ordered derivative in the given equation after the equation has been rationalized or cleared of
fractions with respect to all the derivatives.
Example 1.5 Find the degree of the following differential equations
1. + k2x = 0 1st degree DE
2.
Note; Square both sides of the equation to remove
the fractional exponent, hence the degree of the equation is 2.
Exercise 1.5 Find the degree of the following differential equations.
1. y”’ - 2(y”)3 = (y’)2 + 3y
2.
3.
2. According to Types: Ordinary and Partial DE
Ordinary Differential Equation

An equation which contains total derivatives or differentials only and has only one
independent variable is called an ordinary differential equation.
Example 1.6 Which of the following describes an ordinary differential equations.
1. + k2x = 0: t – independent variable; x – dependent variable
Exercise 1.6 Which of the following describes an ordinary differential equation?
1. xy’ – y = 3(x+1)
2. y’’-2y’+3y = 0
3. x – 3y = 4
Partial Differential Equation

An equation which contains partial derivatives only and has one or more independent
variables is called a partial differential equation.
Example 1.7 Which of the following describes a partial differential equation?
1. 2w/t2 = a2 (2w/x2 ) t, x - independent variable ; w - dependent variable
2. cosx dy + siny dx = 0
Exercise 1.7 Which of the following describes a partial differential equation?
1. ∂y/∂x – 3y∂y/∂z = (x- 2z)
2. (x-2y)dx – (3x+y)dy = 0
3. ∂f/∂t + ∂h/∂t = 0
3. According to Kind: Linear and Non-Linear
Linearity of an Equation
A differential equation is said to be linear if it satisfies the following conditions:
1. It should be linear in the dependent variable.
2. It should be linear in all the derivatives.
3. It should not contain a product of the dependent variable and its derivative or differential.
4. It should not contain any transcendental functions of the dependent variable
Note: If one of these conditions is not satisfied then the equation is considered non-linear.
Example 1.8 Determine which of the following differential equation is linear:
1. (x + y - 2) dx – (x - 2y) dy = 0
2. x dy/dx – 3y = 3x - 2x + 1
3. (y’) - 2y = 3 (x+y)
4. y dx/dy – 3x = x – 4y
5. (y-1) dx – ( x+2) dy = 0
Exercise 1.8 Determine which of the following differential equation is linear:
1. (y’’)2 + 10 (y’)3 + 3y = 3x4
2. 7xy’’ + 13 x2y’ (cos x) y = 0
3. (x – 2y)dy + (5x2 – 5y3)dx = 0
4. –6 –5=0
5. –5 – 15 =0
Solution of a Differential Equation

The solution of a differential equation is a non-derivative relation between the variables
which satisfies the given differential equation. It can be a General/Primitive Solution, Particular
Solution or Singular Solution.
Exercise 1.9 Determine which of the following equations is a solution of the

differential equation:
1. y = x - 2x + 3x – 4
2. y’ = 3x - 4x + 3
3. y = c1x -c x
1. General Solution or Primitive Solution

The general solution of a differential equation or primitive is a type of solution which
contains arbitrary constant/s which is/are usually represented by letters. Geometrically, this
represents family of curves.
Exercise 1.10 Determine which of the following equations is a general solution

or primitive:
1. y =
2. y = Ax + Bx + C
3. y = c x – c e
2. Particular Solution
The particular solution is obtained from the general solution by determining the value of
the arbitrary constant and substituting it in the general solution.
Exercise 1.11 Determine which of the following equations is a particular solution.
1. y = mx + b
2. y =
3. y = x - 2x + 2
3. Singular Solution
A solution free of arbitrary constants, and which is not obtained from the general
solution.
Exercise 1.12
1. Verify that y = e2x is a solution of
2. Show that the differential equation (4x3 – y3)dx + (2y – 3xy2)dy = 0

has x4 – xy3 + y2 = c as its solution where c is a constant.
Seatwork: Complete the following table:
Equation Order Degree Kind IV DV
1. xdy + ydx = 0
2.
3. y’’’ – 3y” + 3y’ + y = 0
4.
5. (y’’’)3 + (y”)4 + (y’)5 + y = 0
6. x (dy/dx) + x2 = 0
7. y (dy/dx) + x2 = 0
8.
9.
10. ∂y/∂x – 3y(∂y/∂z) = (x- 2z)
Homework: For each of the following differential equations, identify its order,
degree, kind, type, independent and dependent variables. Present in tabular
form.
1. 5 (y”)2 + 10 (y’)3 + 3y = 3x4
2. 7xy” + 13 x2y’ (cos x) y = 0
3. (x - 2y) dy + (5x2 - 5y3) dx = 0
4. 2y/x2 - 6y/x - 5 = 0
5. (3z/x3)2 - (52z/y2)5 - 15z/t = 0
Review: Differentiation Formula
Lesson 2
Elimination of Arbitrary Constants by Differentiation
Specific Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
 be familiar with the method of eliminating the arbitrary constants from a given
equation to obtain its differential equation and
 determine the differential equation from a given general solution or primitive.
Elimination of Arbitrary Constants:

To find the differential equation from the given general solution, the arbitrary constants
involved in the given equation must be eliminated.
Rules:
1. Differentiate the given equation as many times as the number of arbitrary constants.
2. The order of the resulting differential equation should be equal to the number of arbitrary
constants.
3. The desired equation is free from arbitrary constants.
Example: Find the differential equations of the following by eliminating the
arbitrary constants:
1. y = 3x2 + ce-2x
2. y = c1 sin4x + c2 cos4x + x
3. y = (x + c) e-x
4. x + y = tan (x + c) Recall: tan-1u =
5. (x – a)2 + y2 = a2 Family of Circles with center at (a,0)
6. x =  cos(t + ) Note: Eliminate  and ,  is a parameter not to

be eliminated, then differentiate with respect to t.
7. y2 = cx Parabola with Vertex at (0,0) - (Board Problem)
8. y = c1x + c2ex (Board Problem)
9. y = x + c1e-x + c2e-3x
Seatwork: Find the differential equations of the following by eliminating the

arbitrary constants.
1. y = 2x + cex ans: y’ - y + 2x - 2 = 0
2. y = c1ex + c2e2x + x ans: y” - 3y’ - 2x + 2y + 3 = 0
Homework: Find the differential equations of the following by eliminating the

1. y = c1e-2x + c2e3x ans: y” – y’ – 6y = 0
2. cxy + c2x + 4 = 0 ans: x3 (y’)2 + x2 yy’ + 4 = 0
3. y = c1 ex cos3x + c2 ex sin3x ans: y” – 2y’ + 10y = 0
4. ln y = c1x + c2e
5. y = Ax + Bx + C
6. y = c1 sin wt + c2 cos wt w is a parameter
7. (y – k)2 = 4a (x – h) parabola with vertex at (h,k), and a as parameter
8. y = c1eaxcosbx + c2eaxsinbx c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants and a and b

are parameters
Review: Equation of family of curves (straight line, parabola, circle, and ellipse)
Lesson 3
Families of Curves
Specific Objectives
 formulate an equation based on the given condition
 apply the appropriate method of eliminating the arbitrary constants.
A family of curves is usually defined by an equation containing one or more arbitrary

constant and sometimes a parameter.
The Differential Equation of the family of the curves may be obtained by eliminating the
Example. Find the differential Equations of the following:
1. Family of parabolas with vertex at (1,3) and axis parallel to the x–

axis. ans. 2y’(x - 1) = (y – 3)
2. All straight lines with slope and y-intercept equal.

ans. y’(x + 1) – y = 0
3. Family of circles with center on the x–axis. (Board Problem)
ans. 1+yy” + (y’)2 = 0
4. Family of circles through the origin with center on the x-axis.

ans. 2xyy’ + x2 – y2 = 0
5. Family of circles with fixed radius r and tangent to the x-axis.

ans. (y - r)2 (y’)2 + y2 – 2ry = 0
Seatwork:
1. Find the DE in differential form the family of straight lines passing through the
origin. (Board Problem) ans. y dx – x dy = 0
2. Find the DE in differential form the family of parabolas having vertices at the origin and
then foci on the x axis. ans. y dx – 2xdy = 0
Homework:
1. Find the DE of the family of circles with center on the y-axis.

ans. (y’)3 – xy” + y’ = 0
2. Find the DE of the family of lines passing through (h,k).
ans. (y-k) dx – (x-h)dy = 0
3. Find the DE of the family of parabolas with axis parallel to the x-axis, the distance
between the vertex and the focus being a.
ans. 2ay” + (y’)3 = 0
Lesson 4
Variable Separable
Solution of First Order, First Degree Differential Equations
Specific Objectives:

 perform the solution to a differential equation and find the differential equations
from a given relation
 identify and distinguish differential equations whose coefficients are separable
Variable Separable Differential Equation
Given the general form of differential equation,
M(x,y)dx + N(x,y)dy = 0
Suppose M(x,y) and N(x,y) can be transformed to distinct functions of x and y

as M (x)N (y) and M (x)N (y) respectively, then the equivalent equation
is
M (x)N (y)dx + M (x)N (y)dy = 0
Which can be transformed to:
by means of separation of variables.
The resulting equation can now be integrated to find the general solution, thus
Note: To separate the variables, divide the equation by the unnecessary factor(s) or multiply the
equation by the reciprocal of the unwanted factor(s).
Example: Obtain the general solution of the following differential equations.
1. 3x2y dx – x3dy = 0 ans: x3 = yc
2. cosx siny dx + sinx cosy dy = 0 Recall:

ans: sinx siny = c
3. 2x(1-y2)dx – y(1+2x2)dy = 0 ans: (1 + 2x2)(1 - y2) = c
4. (y2-1)dx – 2(2y + xy)dy = 0 ans: (x + 2) = c (y2 – 1)
5. x siny dx + e-xdy = 0 ans: xex – ex + ln(cscy – coty) = c

Recall the following:
1. Integration By Parts (IBP)
2.
6. 2y2 dx + (x2y – 2xy) dy = 0 ans: y = cx / (x -2)

Recall: Integration By Partial Fraction (IPF)
7. y’ = ans: 2ey =
Seatwork: Obtain the general solution of the following differential equations
1. (xy2 + x) dx + (x2y – y) dy = 0 ans: (x2-1)(y2 + 1) = c

2. dx = t (1 + t2) sec2x dt ans: 2x + sin2x = (1+ t2)2 + c
Homework: Obtain the general solution of the following differential equations
1. y’ = y sec x (Board Problem) ans: y = c(sec x + tan x)
2. xy’ (2y - 1) = y (x - 1) (Board Problem) ans: x + 2y + c = ln (xy)
3. x (y - 1) dx + (x + 1) dy = 0; if y = 2
when x = 1, determine y when x = 2 (Board
Problem)
ans: y = 1.55
4. sin x sin y dx + cos x cos y dy = 0 ans: sin y = c cos x
5. sec 2x cos y dx + (cos 2x + cos 2x cot2 y) dy = 0

ans: tan 2x + 2 ln csc y - cot y = c
6. (xy + x) dx = (x2y2 + x2 + y2 + 1) dy ans: ln ( x2 + 1)/(y +1)4 – y2 + 2y = c
7. x (1-x2) dy = y dx ans: y2 (1- x2) cx2
Review: Homogeneous Function
Lesson 5
Homogeneous Function
The function f(x,y) = 0 is called a homogeneous function of degree n if and only

if f(kx,ky) = k f(x,y), of degree n.
Example: Test whether the given function is homogeneous or not, if it is

homogeneous then give the degree.
1. f(x,y) = 4x2 – 3xy + y2
2. f(x,y) = 2y +
3. f(x,y) = x sin (y/x) – y sin(x/y)
4. f(x,y) =
5. f(x,y) = x lnx – x lny
6. f(x,y) = x3 – xy + y3
7. f(x,y) = x lnx – y lny
Seatwork: Test whether the given function is homogeneous or not, if it is

homogeneous then give the degree:
1. f(x,y) = x + y - 2xy
2. f(x,y) = y tan
Homework: Test whether the given function is homogeneous or not, if it is

homogeneous then give the degree:
1. f(x,y) =
2. f(x,y) = x + y + sinx + cosy
3. f(x,y) = x ey/x -
Lesson 6
Equations with Homogenous Coefficients
Theorem:
If M(x,y) and N(x,y) are homogeneous and of

the same degree then
is homogeneous of
degree zero.
If M(x,y) and N(x,y) are homogeneous and

of degree zero then the ratio
can be
expressed as a function of a single
variable
alone, say v.
Thus, the equation can be transformed to

homogeneous type by replacing
y = vx dy = v dx + x
dv
or x = vy dx = v dy + y
dv
If both M and N are homogeneous and are of

the same degree, then the differential equation
M(x,y)dx + N(x,y)dy = 0 is homogeneous.
Note: Change the variable whose differential has simpler coefficients.
Example: Test whether each equation is homogeneous or not, if it is homogeneous

then find the general solution.
1. + y )dx + xydy = 0 ans: x2(x2 + 2y2) = c
2. xy dx + 2 (x2 + 2y2) dy = 0 ans: (3x2 + 4y2)(y4) = c
3. ydx = (x + ) dy ans:
Recall:
4.  x csx (y/x) – y dx + x dy = 0 ans: lnx – cos (y/x) = c
Recall:
5. (x - xy + y )dx – xydy = 0 ans: c(y - x) =
6. x dx + sin2(y/x) [ y dx – x dy] = 0 ans: lnx4 – 2(y/x) + sin2(y/x) = c
Recall:
7.  x – y tan-1(y/x)dx + x tan-1(y/x) dy = 0 ans:
Recall: If we let u = , then du =
Seatwork: Test whether each equation is homogeneous or not, if it is homogeneous

1. (x2 - y2) dx + 2xy dy = 0 ans: x2 + y2 = cx
Homework: Test whether each equation is homogeneous or not, if it is homogeneous

1. xy(ydx +xdy) – 6y dy = 0 ; when y = 1 and x = 2 ans: y2x2 – 3y4 = 1
2. - x dy = 0 (Board Problem)
ans: + y = c
3.
Lesson 7
Exact Differential Equation
Specific Objectives
 differentiate partially given functions of two variables
 test given equations for exactness
 solve equations using the four methods for exact equations
Consider the General Form of DE:
M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy = 0
Suppose separation of variables does not hold, assume that there is a function
F(x,y) such that M = and N = . Then differentiate M with respect to y and N with
respect to x. That is,
but
Therefore,
which is a necessary and sufficient condition to be an exact equation.
Exact differential equations may be solved using any of the four methods:
1. Integrable Combination
2. Partial Derivatives
3. Line integral
4. Alternative Solution
1. Integrable Combinations
Integrable combinations consist of group of terms that forms an exact differential, thus
it is readily integrable. It may be obtained by rearranging the terms in the given DE until
a group of terms forms an integrable combination.
Some of the integrable combinations are listed below:
1. xdy + ydx = d(xy)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9. mxm – 1 yndx + nxm yn – 1dy = d(xmyn)
10. mxm – 1 yndx – nxm yn – 1dy/(yn)2 =
Example 7-1: Find the general solution of the differential equation.
1. (2x + 3y – 5) dx + (3x – y – 2) dy = 0 ans: 6xy + 2x2 – 10x – y2 – 4y = c
2. (3x2y – 6x) dx + ( x3 + 2y) dy = 0 ans: x3y – 3x2 + y2 = c
3. 3y (x2 – 1) dx + (x3 + 8y – 3x) dy = 0 ans: 4y2 + x3y – 3xy = c

4. (4x3y3 + 1/x) dx + (3x4y2 – 1/y) dy = 0 ans: x4y3 + ln x/y = c
Seatwork 7-1: Find the general solution of the differential equation.
1. +3)dx + (3y .
ans:
2. 2
ans:
Homework 7-1: Find the general solution of the differential equation.
1. x (3xy – 4y3 + 6) dx + (x3 – 6x2y2 – 1) dy = 0
ans: x3y – 2x2y3 + 3x2 – y = c
2. (xy2 + x – 2y + 3) dx + x2y dy = 2(x+y)dy when x = 1 and y = 1
ans: (xy – 2)2 + (x+3)2 = 2y2 + 15
3. (2x + y + 1) dx + (x + 2y – 1) dy = 0
ans: x2 + y2 + x - y + xy = c
4. (cos x cos y – cot x) dx + (– sinx sin y) dy = 0
ans: sin x cos y – ln sin x = c
5. (2x3 – xy2 – 2y + 3) dx – (x2 y + 2x) dy = 0
ans: x4 - x2 y2 - 4xy + 6x = c
2. Partial Derivatives
Consider the equation: M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy = 0 ––––––––– (1)
If , then (1) is an exact equation.

Therefore, its solution is F = c where
–––– (2) and –––-– (3)
Determine F from (2) by integrating both sides with respect to x, treating y as

constant where the usual arbitrary constant in indefinite integration is a function T(y)
which is yet unknown. To determine T(y), obtain , equate it to (3) and integrate. This
time, no arbitrary constant is needed in obtaining T(y) since one is being introduced on
the right side in the solution F = c.
1. 3y (x2 – 1) dx + (x3 + 8y – 3x) dy = 0
2. (4x3y3 + 1/x) dx + (3x4y2 – 1/y) dy = 0
1. x (3xy – 4y3 + 6) dx + (x3 – 6x2y2 – 1) dy = 0
3. (2x + y + 1) dx + (x + 2y – 1) dy = 0
5. (2x3 – xy2 – 2y + 3) dx – (x2 y + 2x) dy = 0
3. Line Integrals
Consider
where a, b = arbitrary constants for which M and N are defined.
If M and N are polynomial functions, set a = b = 0 since a polynomial function is

always defined at the origin except when the functions become undefined. In this case,
try substituting other values for a and b that will make the functions defined.
Note: In the first integral, treat y as constant.

In the second integral, replace x by the value of a.
Applicable only when M and N are either polynomial functions or transcendental

functions but never a combination of polynomial and transcendental functions.
1. 3y (x2 – 1) dx + (x3 + 8y – 3x) dy = 0
2. (4x3y3 + 1/x) dx + (3x4y2 – 1/y) dy = 0
1. x (3xy – 4y3 + 6) dx + (x3 – 6x2y2 – 1) dy = 0
3. (2x + y + 1) dx + (x + 2y – 1) dy = 0
5. (2x3 – xy2 – 2y + 3) dx – (x2 y + 2x) dy = 0

4. Alternative Solution
Consider the equation: M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy = 0
For M: integrate x and treat y as a constant

N: set x = 0, then integrate y
1. 3y (x2 – 1) dx + (x3 + 8y – 3x) dy = 0
2. (4x3y3 + 1/x) dx + (3x4y2 – 1/y) dy = 0
1. x (3xy – 4y3 + 6) dx + (x3 – 6x2y2 – 1) dy = 0
3. (2x + y + 1) dx + (x + 2y – 1) dy = 0
5. (2x3 – xy2 – 2y + 3) dx – (x2 y + 2x) dy = 0

Lesson 8
Reducing to Linear Equation of Order One
Non–Exact Differential Equations
Consider the General Form of DE
M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy = 0 ––––––––– (1)
where .
To transform (1) into an exact equation, multiply it by an integrating factor,

(lambda).
Non - Exact differential equations may be solved using any of the four methods:
1. Reducing it to Linear Equation of Order One
2. Transforming to Bernoulli’s Equation
3. Integrating Factor by Inspection
4. Integrating Factor found by Formula (Partial Differentiation)
1. Reducing to Linear Equation of Order One
Specific Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to :
 identify a first order linear differential equation
 find an integrating factor
 solve a linear equation of order one
If the given equation is not exact, reduce it to either form listed below and find an
integrating factor, :
Linear in y: dy + y P(x) dx = Q(x) dx
G.S.:
Linear in x: dx + x P(y) dy = S(y) dy
Example: Find the general solution of the differential equation.
1. (x5 + 3y) dx – x dy = 0 ans: 2y = x5 + cx3
2. dy = ( x- 2y cot 2x) dx ans: 4ysin2x = c–2x cos2x+sin 2x
Recall:
3. 2y (y2 – x) dy = dx ans:
4. e-y sec2y dy = dx + x dy ans: xey = tan y + c
Recall:
Seatwork: Find the general solution of the differential equation.
1. dy + = x2dx ans: 4xy = x4 + c
2. yey dx = ( y3 + 2x ey) dy ans: x + y2e-y = cy2
Homework: Find the general solution of the differential equation.
1. (2x3 – y) dx + xdy = 0 ans: x3 + y = cx
2. (2y sin x – cos3 x) dx + cos xdy = 0 ans: y sec2 x = x + c
3. (3x2 + y + 3x3y) dx + xdy = 0 ans: ex (xy + 1) = c

Lesson 9
Transforming to Bernoulli’s Equation
2. Transforming to Bernoulli’s Equation
Specific Objectives
At the end of the lessons, the students should be able to :
 transform a particular equation into a Bernoulli’s form
 identify a Bernoulli’s Equation
 solve a Bernoulli’s Equation
The standard form of the Bernoulli Equation takes a form similar to that of the
linear differential equation of the first order. The main difference is on the factor yn and or
xn contained at the right side of the Bernoulli equation:
Standard Forms:
dy + y P(x) dx = yn Q(x) dx ––––––– (1)
dx + x P(y) dy = xn S(y) dy ––––––– (2)
Consider (1) and multiply by y–n:
y–n dy + y1–n P(x) dx = Q(x) dx ––––––– (1’)
let u = y1–n
du = (1–n)y–n dy
Substitute in (1’):
1. dy + ydx = 2xy2ex dx ans: 1/yex = - x2 + c
2. ans: y = x2 y sin y + x2 cos

y + cx2
3. ans: (x2/y2)= (-4/9) x3 - (2/3) x3 ln x + c
4. (3x2y2 – 3x2) dx + x3ydy – (y2 – 1) 3/2 dy = 0

ans: 3x3 (y2 - 1)1/2 = y3 - 3y + c
1. 2xyy’ = 4x2 + 3y2 ans. y2 = -4x2 + Cx3
2. xydx + (x2 – 3y)dy = 0 ans. x2y2 = 2y3 + C
3. 2yxdx + x(x2lny – 1)dy = 0 ans. y (1 + x2-x2lny) = cx2

4. 6y2dx – x(2x3 + y)dy = 0 ans. y = x3(2 + Cy1/2)
5. dy/dx = y(xy3 – 1) ans. 3 = xy3 + y3 + Ce3xy3
1. x dy/dx + y = 1/y2 ans. y3 = 1 + cx-3
2. t 2dy/dt + y2 = ty ans. et/y – ct
3. 2x3y’ = y(y2 + 3x2) ans. y2(c – x) = x3
4. y’tanx sin2y = sin2x + cos2y ans. (sin2x+ 3cos2y)sinx=c
5. (y4 –2xy)dx + 3x2dy = 0 ,

when x =2, y = 1 ans. x2 = y3(x + 2)
Lesson 10
Integrating Factor Found by Inspection
3. Integrating Factor Found by Inspection
Specific Objectives
 identify the appropriate exact differentials in the equation
 use the exact differentials in solving the given equation
 solve a given differential equation observing the method
The achievement of a learner in finding the integrating factors by inspection depends

largely upon his familiarity and creativity, but he might do well to keep in his mind the
differentials of common functions, namely:
1. xdy + ydx = d(xy)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9. mxm – 1 yndx + nxm yn – 1dy = d (xmyn)
10. mxm – 1 yndx – nxm yn – 1dy/(yn )2 =
1. 2xydx + (y2 – x2) dy = 0 ans: x2 + y2 = cy
2. 3x2y dx + (y4 – x3) dy = 0 ans: 3x3 + y4 = cy
3. ydx + (x + x3y2) dy = 0 ans: -1/2(xy)2 + ln y = c
4 y(x2 + y) dx + x(x2 – 2y) dy = 0 ans: x2 y – y2 = cx
1. (x2 + y2 – y) dx + xdy = 0 ans:

2. y(2xy + 1) dx – xdy = 0 ans: x2y + x = cy
3. y(x3 – y) dx – x(x3 + y) dy = 0 ans: x3 + 2y = cxy2
1. (x2y2 + 1)dx + x4y2dy = 0 ans. lnx3 + x3y3 = C
2. y(x3+x5)dx – x(x3+ y5)dy = 0 ans. x4 – 4xy5 = Cy4
3. x4y’ = -x3y – csc(xy) ans. 2x2cos(xy) – 1 = Cx2

4 y(x3exy – y)dx + x(y + x3exy)dy = 0 ans. x3yexy + y2 = Cx
5. y(y2 + 1) + x(y2 + 1)y’ = 0,

when x = 2 , y = -1 ans. xy2 + x = -4y
Lesson 11
Integrating Factor Found by Formula (Partial Differentiation)
4. Integrating Factor found by Formula (Partial Differentiation)
Specific Objectives
 identify the integrating factor using partial differentiation;
 solve the a particular differential equation using correct integrating factor
 solve a given differential equation observing the method
Consider the General Form of DE
M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy = 0 ––––––––– (1)
where .
1.
2.
3. If the given equation is a homogeneous equation, then
provided that xM + yN  0.
4. If the given equation can be transformed into the form

y f(x,y) dx + x g(x,y) dy = 0, then provided that xM – yN  0.
1. (x2 + y2 + x) dx + xydy = 0 ans: 3x4 + 6 x2 y2 + 4x3 = c
2. (x2 – y2) dx + xydy = 0 ans: 2x2 ln x + y2 = cx2
3. (xy2 + y) dx + (x2y – x) dy = 0 ans: xy + ln (x/y) = c
4. (2xy4ey + 2xy3 + y) dx + (x2y4ey – x2y2 – 3x) dy = 0

ans: x2 y3 ey + x2 y2 + x = cy3
1. y (4x + y) dx – 2(x2 – y)dy = 0 ans. 2x2 + xy + 2ylnIyI = cy
2. y(y + 2x – 2)dx – 2(x + y)dy = 0 ans. x(2x + y) = cex
3. (x2 + y2 + 1) + x(x – 2y)y’ = 0 ans. x2 – y2 + xy – 1= cx
Homework. Find the general solution of the differential equation.
1. y(8x – 9y)dx + 2x(x – 3y)dy = 0 ans. X3y (2x – 3y) = c
2. (2y2+3xy–2y +6x)dx + x(x +2y –1)dy = 0 ans. x2(y2 + xy –y + 2x) = c

More Exercises: Find the integrating factor of the following equations.
1. 2y(x2 – y + x )dx + (x2 – 2y)dy = 0 ans. e2x
2. y2dx + (3xy + y2 – 1)dy = 0 ans. y
3. y(2x – y + 1)dx + x(3x – 4y + 3)dy = 0 ans. y2
Lesson 12
Substitution Suggested by the Equation
(Miscellaneous Substitution)
In this topic, a new variable is introduced to simplify the form of the given equation
and the choice depends on the form of the given equation. Usually, we replace the
repeated quantity or the transcendental function by a new variable.
1. dx – (x + y)2dy = 0 ans: tan –1 (x + y) – y = c
2. ans: sin (y – x) = cx
3. ans: xy2 – x2 = c
4. (x2 + y2)(xdy + ydx) – xy(xdx + ydy) = 0 ans: x2y2 = c (x2 + y2)
Lesson 13
Coefficients Linear in Two Variables
Consider the equation:
(a1x + b1y + c1) dx + (a2x + b2y + c2) dy = 0 –––––––– (1)
1. If c1 = c2 = 0, then (1) is a Homogeneous DE
2. If c1 and c2 are not both zero, then two cases arise, namely:
Case I: (intersecting lines)
To reduce (1) to a homogeneous DE, use the substitution

x = u + h, dx = du and y = v + k, dy = dv –––––––– (2)
where h, k are the coordinates of the intersection point.

– find h, k using the equations a1h + b1k + c1 = 0 and a2h + b2k + c2 = 0
– substitute h,k in (2) and in turn can be substituted in (1), making it
a homogeneous DE
Substitute v = uz, dv = u dz + z du
Case II. (parallel lines)
Use the substitution:
a1x + b1y = u hence a1 dx + b1 dy = du or

a2x + b2y = u hence a2 dx + b2 dy = du
which ever of the two has smaller coefficients and the resulting DE becomes
variable separable.
1. (x + y – 1)dx + (2x + 2y + 1)dy = 0 ans: x + 2y – 3ln ( x+ y+2) = c
2. (2x + 3y – 5) dx + (3x – y – 2) dy = 0 ans: 2x2 - 10x + 6xy – 4y – y2 = c
3. (6x – 3y + 2) dx – (2x – y – 1) dy = 0 ans: 3x – y – 5 ln (2x – y + 4) = c
1. (2x + 3y – 1) dx – 4 (x + 1) dy = 0 ans: (2x – y + 3)4 = c (x + 1)3
1. (2x + 3y – 1) dx + (2x + 3y + 2) dy = 0 ans: x + y + 3 ln (2x + 3y – 7) = c
2. (x + 2y – 4) dx – (2x + y – 5) dy = 0 ans: (x – y – 1)3 = c (x + y – 3)

Lesson 14
Geometric Application – Orthogonal Trajectories
Elementary Applications of First–Order, First Degree
Ordinary Differential Equations
Specific Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
 translate the rate of change into mathematical symbols,
 apply the appropriate technique in solving a particular rate
equation,
 use the concept of slopes to solve a geometric applications,
1. Geometric Application – Orthogonal Trajectories

Two families of curves such that every member of either family cuts each member
of the other family at right angles are called orthogonal trajectories.
where = slope of the original family of curves
= slope of the other family of curves
Example: Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves
1. y2 = 2x + c (Board Problem) ans: y = ce –x
2. y = cx2 ans:
3. x2 + y2 = cx ans: x2 + y2 = cy
4. y2 = 4cx ans:
Seatwork: Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves
1. x – 3y = C. ans. y + 3x = C
2. Circles through the origin with centers on the x – axis.

Homework: Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves
1. y ( x2 + k ) + 2 = 0 ans. y3 = -6 ln |cx |
2. x = C exp (-y2) ans. y = C1 exp (x2)
3. Ellipses with centers at (0,0) and two vertices at (1,0) and (-1,0).
ans. x2 + y2 = 2 ln |cx|
4. y = k ( csc x + cot x) ans. y2 = 2 (C – cos x )

Lesson 15
Law of Growth and Decay
2. Law of Growth and Decay
The rate of growth/decay of a certain population is directly proportional to the

amount present.
–––– (1)
where = rate of growth/decay of a certain population

k = constant of proportionality
x = number of population present
t = time
By separating the variables in (1), it yields to
Integrating both sides, we have
Example:
1. Radium decomposes at a rate proportional to the amount at any instant. In

100 years, 100 mg of radium decompose to 96 mg. How many mg will be left after 200
years? (Board Problem) ans: 92.13 mg
2. Initially, there are 250 bacteria and after seven hours, 800 bacteria are
observed in the culture. Find:
a) the approximate number of bacteria that will be present in the culture after 24
hours
b) the time it will take the bacteria to increase to 2500.
ans: a) x = 13,433 bacteria

b) t = 13.9 hrs.
3. If the population of the country doubles in 50 years, how many years it would
triple? ans: 79.2 yrs.
Seatwork:
1. Initially, there is 50 mg of a certain radioactive material present and after 2

hours, it is observed that the material has lost 10 % of its original mass. Find:
a) the mass of the material after 4 hours
b) the time at which the mass has decayed to one–half of its initial mass (half–life
of the material)
ans: a) x = 40.45 mg
b) t = 13.10 hrs.
Homework:
1. The population of a city doubles in 50 years. How many years will it be four
times as much? Assume that the rate of change is proportional to the number of
inhabitants. ans. 120 years
2. A certain substance decomposes at a rate proportional to the to the amount

present. If one-third of it disappears after 1000 days, what is the percentage lost in 100
days? ans. 3.97%
3. Thirty percent of a radioactive substance disappears in 15 years. Find the

half – life of the substance. ans. 29.12 years
4. Sugar decomposes in water at a rate proportional to the amount still unchanged.

If there were 50 lb of sugar present initially and at the end of 5 hours this is reduced to 20
lb, how long will it take until 90% of the sugar is decomposed?
5. Water leaks from a cylinder at a rate proportional to the square root of the
volume remaining at any time. If initially there are 64 gallons present and 15 gallons leak
out on the first day, how much will be left after 4 days? When will there be 25
gallons? ans. 16 gal; 3 days
Lesson 16
Newton’s Law of Cooling
3. Newton’s Law of Cooling
Newton’s Law of Cooling states that the time rate of change of the temperature of
the body is proportional to the temperature difference between the body and its
surrounding medium.
––––- (1)
where = time rate of change of the temperature of the body
T = temperature of the body
Tm = temperature of the medium
k = constant of proportionality
t = time
By separating the variables in (1), it yields to
Example: Solve the following
1. A body at a temperature of 50F is placed in an oven whose temperature is

kept at 150 F. If after 10 minutes the temperature of the body is 75F, find the time
required the body to reach a temperature of 100F
ans: t = 24.10 mins.
2. A body with a temperature of 100C is immersed in a liquid that is kept at a

constant temperature of 20C. After 15 minutes, the temperature of the body decreased
to 60C.
a) Find the time it will take for the temperature of the body
to decrease to 40C.
b) What will be the temperature of the body after 40 minutes?
ans: a) t = 30 mins.
b) T = 32.6C
Seatwork: Solve the following:
1. If a thermometer is taken from a room in which the temperature is 75ºC into

the open, where the temperature is 35ºC, and the thermometer reading is 65ºC after 30
sec,
a) How long after the removal will the reading be 50ºC?
b) What will be the thermometer reading 3 minutes after
the removal?
ans. a) 102 sec
b) 42.1°C
Homework: Solve the following
1. At 1:00 pm, a thermometer reading 70º F is taken outside where the air
temperature is - 10º F. At 1:02 pm, the reading is 26º F. at 1:05 pm, the thermometer is
taken back indoors where the air is at 70º F. What is the thermometer reading at 1:09
pm? ans. 56° F
2. A body at a temperature of 50º F is placed in an oven whose temperature is

kept at 150º F. If after 10 minutes the temperature of the body is 75º F, find the time
required for the body to attain a temperature that is within a half degree of the oven
temperature. ans. 184.16 min
Lesson 17
Continuous Compound Interest
4. Continuous Compound Interest
Rate Equation: αP or = rP
Let P = amount of money at any time

r = annual rate of interest
t = time
By separating the variables, it yields to

Example: Solve the following:
1. An annual interest of 4% is given on an account . What is the accumulated

amount of Php 100,000 after 5 years? ans. Php 122,140.27
2. If Php 50,000 is borrowed at an interest of 12% per year compounded

continuously, and the loan is to be repaid in one payment at the end of 2 years, how
much must the borrower repay? ans. Php 63,562.05
Seatwork: Solve the following
1. If an amount of money doubles itself in 10 years at an interest compounded

continuously, how long will it take for the original amount to triple
itself? ans. 15.85 years
Lesson 18
Mixture Problem
5. Mixture Problem
The mixing of two salt solutions of differing concentrations gives rise to a first–
order differential equation for the amount of salt contained in the mixture. If x(t) denotes
the amount of salt in the tank at time t, then the rate at which x(t) changes is a net rate:
where and
Let x = amount of substance present at any time
qi = volumetric flow rate of the solution coming in
qo = volumetric flow rate of the solution going
out ci = concentration of the solution coming in
co = concentration of the solution going out
t = time
= rate of change
Example: Solve the following
1. A tank initially contains 100 gal. of salt solution, where 50 lbs. of salt is added.
Salt solution containing 1 lb/gal of salt goes into the tank at the rate of 2 gal/min and the
solution thoroughly mixed goes out at the rate of 1 gal/min. Find the amount of pure salt
after 100 minutes. ans: x = 175 lbs.
2. Find the amount of pure salt after 100 minutes described in the previous
problem if the solution thoroughly mixed out goes at the rate of 2 gal/min.
ans: x = 92.93 lbs.
1. A tank initially contains 50 gal. of fresh water. Brine (water in which a certain
number of pounds of salt have been dissolved), containing 2 lb/gal of salt, flows into the
tank at the rate of 2 gal/min and the mixture kept uniform by stirring runs out at the
same rate. How long will it take to increase from 40 lbs. to 80
lbs.? ans: t = 27’ 28”
1. A tank contains 100 liters of fresh water and brine containing 2 kg of salt per
liter, flows into the tank at the rate of 3 liters per min and the mixture, kept uniform by
stirring, flows out at the same rate. How many kg of salt are there in the tank at the end
of 30 minutes. ans. 118.7kg
2. Into a 100 - gal tank initially filled with brine containing 50 lb of salt flow 3
gal/min of brine containing 2 lb/gal of salt and the solution, kept uniform by stirring, flows
out at the rate of 2 gal/min. How much salt is in the tank at the end of 100
minutes? ans. 350 lb
3. A sewage disposal plant has a big holding tank of 100,000-gal capacity. It

is ¾ filled with liquid to start with and contains 60,000 lb of organic material in
suspension. Fresh water runs into the tank at the rate of 20,000 gal/hr and the well-
stirred mixture leaves at the rate of 15,000 gal/hr. How much organic material is in the
tank at the end of 3 hours? ans. 34,722.2 lbs
4. A tank initially holds 80 gal of brine containing 1/8 lb of salt per gallon.
Another brine solution, containing 1 lb/gal of salt, is poured into the tank at the rate of 4
gal/min and the well-stirred mixture leaves at the rate of 8 gal/min. Find the amount of
salt in the tank a) at any time, b) after 3 minutes and c) the time when the tank will hold
40 gallons of solution.
Lesson 19
Simple Electric Circuits
6. Simple Electric Circuits
Only simple electric circuits containing a resistor and an inductor or a capacitor in

series with an electromotive force is considered in this section. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
will be used to solve the problems.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of the voltage drops in a
simple closed electric circuit is zero.
Figure: R
L
Let t (seconds) = time
Q (coulombs) = quantity of electricity; e.g. charge on a capacitor
i (amperes) = current, time rate of flow of electricity
E (volts) = electromotive force or voltage
R (ohms) = resistance
L (henrys) = inductance
C (farads) = capacitance
Thus,
1. If the circuit contains resistance and inductance only (R-L circuit), the
differential equation will be
L + Ri = E
2. If the circuit contains resistance and capacitance (R–C circuit), the

differential equation will be
R + Q=E
Example: Solve the following:
1. A resistance and inductance are connected in series in a circuit containing an

impressed voltage of 100 V. If R = 10 ohms, L = 2 henries and i = 0 when t = 0, find i
when t = .02second.
ans. 0.95 amp
2. A resistance of 3 ohms and an inductance of 2 henries are connected in

series with an electromotive force of 8e-.0001t volts. When will the current be 0.8
amperes if no current flows initially?
ans. 0.237 sec
1. An inductance of 2 henries and a variable resistance r = ohms are

connected in series with a constant emf of E volts. Ifi = 0 when t =0 and i = 50 amp
when t = 5 seconds, find the emf , E .
ans. 28.42 V
1. When a simple electric circuit, containing no condensers but having

inductance and resistance, has the electromotive force removed, the rate of decrease of
the current is proportional to the current. The current is i amperes t seconds after the
cut-off,and i = 40 amperes when t = 0. If the current dies down to 15 amperes in 0.01
sec, find i in terms of time, t .
ans. I =
Lesson 20
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
7. Newton’s Second Law of Motion
The unbalanced force acting on the body is proportional to the product of the
mass and its acceleration and is in the direction of the acceleration.
Let F be the unbalanced force

F  ma or F = kma where k = 1 based on experiment
but F = P – f , m = w/g and a = dv/dt
hence
P – f = w/g ( dv/dt)
Where: F = force
m = mass
v = velocity
a = acceleration
t = time
g = acceleration due to gravity
32 ft/ sec2 or 9.8
Example: Solve the Following
1. A wagon weighing 256 lbs is pulled by a constant force of 80 lbs along a smooth
road. Friction between the wagon and the smooth road is negligible but there is a
wind resistance equivalent to twice the instantaneous velocity of the wagon
expressed in lbs. If the wagon starts from rest, find:
a. Velocity of the wagon after 4 sec
b. The distance traveled by the wagon after 4 sec.
c. The limiting velocity (t = ∞ )
2. A body weighing 1960 N is pulled by a constant force of 492 N along a horizontal

plane where the coefficient of friction between the body and the plane is 0.20. There is a
wind resistance equal to twice the instantaneous velocity. Determine the velocity after 20
seconds. ans. 9.06 m/sec
1. A body falls from rest against a resistance that varies directly as the velocity.
If the limiting speed or terminal velocity is 160 ft/sec, find the speed after 5
seconds. Assume g = 32
.
ans. 101. 14 ft/sec

1. A weight, W lb, slides down an inclined plane that makes an angle with the
horizontal. Assume that no force other than gravity is acting on the body, that is, there is
no friction, no air resistance etc. At time t = 0, let the distance traveled x be x0 and let
the initial velocity be v0. Determine x for t 0.
ans. x =
Lesson 21
Higher–Order, First Degree Differential Equations
(Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients)
Standard Form:
where a0, a1, a2. . . an–1 are constants and R(x) is a function of x.
Preliminary Theory
1. Initial–Value and Boundary Value Problems
For a linear differential equation, an nth–order initial–value problem is

Solve:
Subject to:
Another type of problem in which the dependent variable y or its derivatives are
specified at different points is called a boundary–value problem.
Solve:
Subject to:
The prescribed values and are called boundary conditions.
2. Homogeneous Equations
Standard Form:
––– (1)
where a0, a1, a2, . . ., an – 1 are constants and R(x) = 0
(1) is a homogeneous linear differential equation since the degree of the

derivatives of each term is of first degree.
3. Non–Homogeneous Equations
Standard Form:
where a0, a1, a2. . . an–1 are constants and R(x) is a function of x.
4. Differential Operators, D–Operators
D–Operator
An operator is a symbol indicating an operation to be performed. For D–
operator, it means taking the derivative of a function with respect to x. Thus,
Algebraic Properties of D–Operator
1. Commutative with respect to Addition/Multiplication
2. Associative with respect to Addition/ Multiplication
3. Distributive with respect to Addition
4.
where Q(D) is a polynomial in D
Example: Perform the indicated operations:
1. (D – 2) x3 ans: x2 (3 – 2x)
2. (D + 1)2 xe –x ans: 0
3. (D2 – 36) sin 2x ans: –40sin 2x
4. D8 (D – m) emx ans: 0
Seatwork: Perform the indicated operations:

1. D2(2x3) ans: 12x
2. (D2 – 4D + 3)(3x2 + 2 cosx) ans: 9x2 – 24x + 6 + 8sinx + 4 cos x
Homework: Perform the indicated operations:
1. D(x lnx) ans: 1 + lnx
2. D(x2 + sin 4x – lnx) ans: 2x + 4 cos 4x – 1/x
3. (2D2 – 3D + 5)(x cosx – 3) ans: 3xsinx + 3xcosx –4sinx –3cosx - 15
4. (D3 + 2D – 4) (e-xsinx + e2x) ans: 4e-x(cosx - sinx) + 8e2x
Lesson 22
Homogeneous Linear Equations with Constant Coefficient
To find its general solution, y = yc + yp where the complementary solution, yc,

may be determined from the roots of the auxiliary solution, f(m) = 0 and the particular
solution, yp, is zero since R(x) = 0. Therefore y = yc
Recall:
Using D–operators,
Standard Form:
––––––– (1)
Suppose y = emx is a particular solution of (1). Substitute it in (1),
Recall:
For emx to be a particular solution of (1), it is necessary and sufficient that f (m)
= 0. This relation is called the characteristic or auxiliary equation of (1). The roots of the
auxiliary equation, f(m) = 0. Determine the general solution of (1) as follows:
1. The Auxiliary Equation with Real Roots
1.1 Distinct Roots
Suppose the auxiliary equation, f(m) = 0, has m 1, m2, and m3 as its roots, then
em1x, em2x and em3 x are the particular solution of (1) and the general solution is given by:
1. (D2 – 2D – 3) y = 0
2. (D2 + 5D + 4) y = 0
Seatwork: Find the general solution of the differential equation

1. (D3 – 7D + 6) y = 0 ans: y = C1ex + C2e2x + C3e-3x
2. (D5 – 9D4 + 13D3 + 57D2 – 86D – 120) y = 0

ans: y = C1e-x + C2e-
2x + C3e3x + C4e4x + C5e5x
1.2 Repeated Roots
Suppose the roots of the auxiliary equation, f(m) = 0, are m1 (taken twice as a
root) and m2 (taken 4 times as a root) so that each term could be linearly independent,
then the general solution is given by:
1. (D2 + 4D + 4) y = 0
2. (D3 + 3D2 + 3D + 1) y = 0
1. (D3 – 4D2 + 4D) y = 0 ans: y = C1 + (C2 + C3x) e2x
2. (D4 – 6D3 – 24D2 + 224D – 384) y = 0

ans: y = C1e-6x + (C2 + C3x + C4x2) e4x
2. The Auxiliary Equation with Complex/Imaginary Roots
2.1 Distinct Roots
Suppose the roots of the auxiliary equation, f(m) = 0, are m 1 = a + bi and m2 = a

– bi, then the general solution is given by:
1. (D2 + 6D + 13) y = 0
2. (D2 + 4D + 5) y = 0
1. (D4 + 10D2 + 16) y = 0

ans: y=(C1cos 22 x + C2sin 22 x)+(C3cos2 x +C4sin 2 x)
2.2 Repeated Roots
Suppose the roots of the auxiliary equation, f(m) = 0, are m1 = a + bi (taken

twice as a root) and m2 = a – bi (taken twice as a root), then the general solution is
given by:
1. (D2 – 2D + 5)2 y = 0
2. (D4 + 18D2 + 81) y = 0
1. (D4 – 4D3 + 8D2 – 8D + 4) y = 0

ans: y = [(C1 + C2x) cos x + (C3 + C4x) sinx] ex
2. (D6 + 3D4 + 3D2 + 1) y = 0

ans: y = [(C1 + C2x + C3x2) cos x + (C4 + C5x + C6x2) sin x]
Lesson 23
The Method of Undetermined Coefficients
Non–Homogeneous Equations
Methods to be used in solving non-homogeneous equations:

1. The Method of Undetermined Coefficients
2. Variation of Parameters
3. Inverse Operators
4. By Inspection
Standard Form:
To find its general solution, y = yc + yp. The complementary solution, yc, may be
determined from the roots of the auxiliary equation, f(m) = 0, and the particular solution,
yp, may be determined by:
1. The Method of Undetermined Coefficients
Step 1. Consider the right hand side of the equation, R(x) and determine
its roots.
Case 1. If there is no repetition of roots between the

auxiliary equation and R(x) such that
when R(x) is a then yP is
a. constant like 2, 3, etc. A
b. linear function like 3x, 2x + 5, etc. Ax + B
c. quadratic function like x2, x2 – 3x, etc. Ax2 + Bx + C
d. xn Axn + Bxn – 1 +...+ Dx + F
e. eax Aeax
f. sin ax, cos ax, sin ax + cos ax A sin ax + B cos ax
Case 2. If there is a repetition of roots between the auxiliary

equation and R(x), follow the principles discussed in
the homogeneous linear differential equation
under repetition of roots.
Step 2. Differentiate yP according to the order of the given equation.
Step 3. Substitute these equations in the given equation. Solve for

the literal constants by comparing/collecting their coefficients.
1. (D2 – D – 2) y = 5
2. (D2 + 4) y = 4x + 3
3. (D2 + 2D + 2) y = 2x2 + 3x + 8
4. (D2 + 4D + 4) y = 2e2x
5. (D2 + 9) y = 10 sin 2x + 5 cos 2x
1. (D2 – 3D + 2) y = 2x3 – 4x2 + 6x +

3 ans.
2. (D2 – 9) y = x + e2x – sin

2x ans.
1. (D2 – 2D – 3) y = x3 + sin x
ans.
2. (D2 – 2D) y = ex sin x
ans:
3. (D2 – 4D + 4) y = x3e2x +
2xe2x ans.
4. (D2 – 9) y = 2x + 3e2x – sin x
5. (D2 + 1) y = –2 sin x + 4x cos x

Lesson 24
Variation of Parameters
Non-Homogeneous Equations
Step 1. Change the constants in the yC to a function of the

independent variable (parameters), say A, B, etc. where A, B are
functions of x.
Step 2. Differentiate yP according to the order of the given equation

setting the sum of all functions of the derivatives of the
independent variable to zero and the last nth derivative of
the independent variable to R(x).
Step 3. By solving simultaneously these equations, find the parameters.
1. (D2 – D – 2) y = 5
2. (D2 – 1) y = ex + 1
3. (D3 + D) y = csc x
ans: y = C1 + C2cos x + C3sinx + ln (csc x - cot
x) - cosx ln (sin x) - x sinx
1. (D2 – 6D + 9) y =
ans: y = C1 + C2 cos x + C3 sin x + ln (csc x – cot x)
– cos x ln (sin x) – x sin x
1. (D2 -4)y = 4x – 3ex ans: y = ex – x + c1e2x + c2e-2x
2. (D3 – 2D2 + d)y = x ans: x2/2 + 2x + 3 + c1xex + c2ex + c3
Lesson 25
R(x) is an Exponential Function
Inverse Operator
Consider the equation,

F(D) yP = R(x) ––––––– (1)
Applying the inverse operator in (1),

yP = R(x)
Note: yP depends on the type of function represented by R(x).
R(x) may be:

1. Exponential Function
2. Trigonometric Function
3. Polynomial Function
4. Composite Function
4.1 Exponential Shift
4.2 X Shift
Properties of Inverse Operators:
Let and be inverse operators.
1. =
2. =
3.
1. R(x) is an Exponential Function
1. Given: F(D) yP = eax
Such that F(a)  0
2. Given: (D – a)m y = eax

Such that F(a) = 0
Example: Find the particular solution of the differential equation.
1. (D2 – D – 2) yp = 5 ans: yp = -5/2
2. (D2 + 4D + 4) yp = 2e2x ans: yp = 1/8 (e2x)
Seatwork: Find the particular solution of the differential equation.
1. (D3 – 2D2 – 5D + 6) yp = (e2x + 3)2

ans: yp = 1/18 (e4x) – 3/2 (e2x) + 3/2
2. (D3 – 5D2 + 8D – 4) yp = e2x + 2ex + 3e–x

ans: yp = x2/2 (e2x) + 2xex – 1/6 (e-x)
Homework: Find the particular solution of the differential equation.
1. (D2 – 2D – 3) yp = e-2x + ex + 6
2. (D2 + 2D + 1) yp = 2 sinh 2x
3. (D2 – D – 2) yp = e2x + e-x
Lesson 26
R(x) is a Trigonometric Function
Inverse Operator
2. R(x) is a Trigonometric Function
2.1 Given: F(D2) yP = sin ax or F(D2) yP = cos ax

a.
b.
Such that F(–a2)  0
2.2 Given: (D2 + a2) y = sin ax or (D2 + a2) y = cos ax
a.
b. Such that F(–a2) = 0
1. (D2 + 9) yp = 10 sin2x + 5 cos 2x ans: yp = 2sin2x + 5 cos2x
2. (D2 + 3D – 4) yp = sin 2x ans: yp = -1/50(3cos2x + 4sin2x)
3. (D2 + 4) yp = cos 2x + cos 4x ans: yp =¼(x sin2x) – 1/12(cos4x)
1. (D2 + 4) yp = sin 3x ans: yP =
2. (D4 + 10D2 + 9) yp = cos (2x + 3) ans: yP =
1. (D2 + 16) yp = sin 2x + cos 2x ans: yp = 1/12(sin2x) + 1/7(cos3x)
2. (D2 + 9) yp = 2 sin2x ans: yp = 1/9 – 1/5(cos2x)
3. (D – 6) yp = sin 2x ans: yp = -1/20(cos2x) -3/20(sin2x)

4. (D2 + D – 2) yp = sin 2x ans: yp = -1/20(cos2x + 3sin2x)
Lesson 27
R(x) is a Polynomial Function
Inverse Operator
3. R(x) is a Polynomial Function
Given: F(D) yP = xn
Note: is obtained by expanding in ascending powers of D
and suppressing all terms beyond D since D (x ) = 0 when m  n.
m m n
1. (D2 + 4) yp = 4x + 3 ans: yp = x + 3/4
2. (D2 + 2D + 2) yp = 2x2 + 3x + 8 ans: yp = x2 – ½(x) + 3/2
1. (2D2 + 2D + 3) yp = x2 + 2x – 1 ans:
2. (D3 – 4D2 + 3D) yp = x2 ans:
1. (D2 + 1) yp = x6 ans: yp = x6 - 30x4 + 360 x2 - 720
2. (D2 + D – 2) yp = x2 ans: yp = - ½ ( x2 + x + 3/2)
Lesson 28
R(x) is a Composite Function
Inverse Operator
4. R(x) is a Composite Function

4.1 Given:
Using “exponential shift”
4.2 Given:
Using “x–shift”
1. (D2 - 2D) yp = ex sin x ans: yp = -1/2 (exsinx)
2. (D2 + 2D + 4) yp = ex sin 2x ans: yp = -1/73(ex)(8cos2x - 3sin2x)
3. (D2 + 3D + 2) yp = x sin 2x ans: yp1 = -1/20(x) (3cos2x + sin2x)

yp2 = -1/200(24sin2x + 7cos2x)
1. (D2 – 4) yp = x2e3x
ans:
2. (D3 – 3D2 – 6D + 8) y = xe–3x
ans:

1. (D – 2)2 yp = x e2x ans: yp = 1/6 (x3e2x)
2. (D2 – 4D + 13) yp = e2x sinx ans: yp = 1/8 (e2x sinx)
3. (D2 + 9) yp = x sin 2x ans: yp = 1/25(5xsin2x – 4cos2x)
4. (D + 1) yp = x cosx ans: yp = x/2(sinx + cosx) – ½(sinx)
Lesson 29
By Inspection
It is easy to obtain a particular solution of a non–homogeneous linear differential

equation by inspection if R(x) is a constant, R0.
Standard Form:
Case I.
Case II.
Where: R0 = constant found on the right side of the equation

an = constant term
an–k = coefficient of the lowest–ordered derivative
k = lowest–ordered derivative
1. (D2 + 4) yp = 12
2. (D2 – D – 2) yp = 5
3. (D5 – 9D3) yp = 81
1. (D2 – 2D + 8) yp = 16
2. (D3 + D2 – 2D) yp = 20
1. (D2 – 9D - 3) yp = 27
2. (D4 – 2D3 - 5D2 + 6D) yp = 15
Lesson 30
The Laplace Transform
Let f(t) be a function of t defined for each positive values of t. Then the Laplace
transform of f(t), donated by , is defined by

––––––– (1)
provided that the integral exists. s is a parameter, which may be a real or complex
number. being clearly a function of s is briefly written as F(s). That is,
where or – Laplace Transform of f(t).
Transforms of Elementary Functions
The Laplace transforms of some exponential, trigonometric, polynomials and

hyperbolic functions are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Properties of Laplace Transforms
1. Linearity Property
If a, b, c be any constants and f, g, h be any functions of t, then

2. First Shifting Property
If , then
Application of this property leads us to the following useful results:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
where in each case, s  a.
Example: Find the Laplace transform of the following:
1. f(t) = 2e2t – 3 sin 3t + 7 cos 3t + 5t3
2. f(t) = t3 e–3t
3. f(t) = e–2t sin 4t
Seatwork: Find the Laplace transform of the following:
1. f(t) = e–3t(2 cos 5t – 3 sin 5t) ans:

2. f(t) = sin 2t sin 3t ans:
Homework: Find the Laplace transform of the following:
1. f(t) = te–4t sin 3t
2. f(t) = 2t2 + sint + 2e3t
Lesson 31
Inverse Laplace Transforms
If represents the Laplace transform of a function , that is,
then is the inverse Laplace transform of , that is, .
Table of Inverse Laplace Transform
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
When evaluating inverse transforms, it often happens that a function of s under

consideration does not match exactly the form of a Laplace transform given in a
table. It may be necessary to “fix up” the function of s by multiplying and dividing by an
appropriate constant.
Linearity Property: is a Linear Transform, that is, for constants :
Partial fractions play an important role in finding Laplace transforms when the
denominator of f(s) is factorable into distinct linear factors.
Example: Evaluate the following
1. ans:
2. ans:
3. ans:
4. ans:
Seatwork: Evaluate the following:
1.
Homework: Evaluate the following
1.
2.
References:
Asin, Ricardo C. , Differential Equations, A Handy Reference Book for College, Tru-
Copy Publishing House, Inc. 1997
Bautista, Lincoln et.al. Differential Equations. Philippines, 1999.
De La Fuente, Ruben A. et al, Elementary Differential Equations, Reference Text,

Merriam and Webster Bookstore, Inc, Manila, Philippines, 1999
Mateo, Rolando A. et al. Differential Equations, MRTTC
Rainville, Earl D. and Bedient, Phillip E. Elementary Differential Equations. Macmillan

Publishing Company. 8th ed.
Richard Bronson, Ph.D., Schaum’s Solved Problems Series, Differential Equations, Mc

Graw Hill Book Company, USA
Zill, Dennis G; A First Course in Differential Equations with Modeling Applications;

Brooks/Cole. 7th ed., 2000.

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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Prof. Francis Anthony G. Llacuna

1 Classification of Differential Equations,

2 Elimination of Arbitrary Constants by Differentiation 11

6 Equations with Homogeneous Coefficients 17

7 Exact Differential Equations 19

8 Reducing to Linear equation of Order One

10 Integrating Factor Found by Inspection

11 Integrating Factor Found by Formula

13 Coefficients Linear in Two Variables 34

14 Geometric Application – Orthogonal Trajectories 36

15 Law of Growth and Decay 38

16 Newton’s Law of Cooling 40

17 Continuous Compound Interest 42

19 Simple Electric Circuits 45

20 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 47

21 Higher-Order, First Degree Differential Equations 49

22 Homogeneous Linear Equations with

23 The Method of Undetermined Coefficients

25 R(x) is an Exponential Function

26 R(x) is a Trigonometric Function

27 R(x) is a Polynomial Function

28 R(x) is a Composite Function

30 The Laplace Transform 67

31 The Inverse Laplace Transform 70

Classification of Differential Equations,

Example 1.1 Which of the following describes a differential equation?

1. cos xdx + sin ydy = 0

3. dy/dx = y/x + tan y/x

5. (x2 – y2) + 2xy y’ = 0

Exercise 1.1 Which of the following describes a differential equation?

2. x2y’ + (y-1) = 2(x-3y)

5. sec x tan y – tan y = sec2 x – tan2 y

The Dependent and the Independent Variable

Example 1.2 Identify the dependent and the independent variable.

1. + k2 x = 0 t – independent variable; x – dependent variable

2. = a2 t, x – independent variable; w – dependent variable

5. (cosx cosy) dx – (sinx siny) dy = 0

Parameter is a constant not to be eliminated while an Arbitrary Constant is a constant to

Example 1.3 Identify the parameters.

1. 5 +6 + = 100 cos :  is a parameter/fixed constant

Exercise 1.3 Identify the parameters.

1. ( d2i / dt2) + di/dt + i/c =  cost

Classification of Differential Equations

1. According to Properties: Order and Degree

Order of the Differential Equation

Example 1.4 Find the order of the following differential equations.

1. + k2x = 0 2nd order DE

Exercise 1.4 Find the order of the following differential equations.

1. y”’ – 2(y”)2 = (y’–2y)3

Degree of the Differential Equation:

Example 1.5 Find the degree of the following differential equations

1. + k2x = 0 1st degree DE

Exercise 1.5 Find the degree of the following differential equations.

1. y”’ - 2(y”)3 = (y’)2 + 3y

2. According to Types: Ordinary and Partial DE

Ordinary Differential Equation

Example 1.6 Which of the following describes an ordinary differential equations.

1. + k2x = 0: t – independent variable; x – dependent variable

Exercise 1.6 Which of the following describes an ordinary differential equation?

Partial Differential Equation

Example 1.7 Which of the following describes a partial differential equation?

1. 2w/t2 = a2 (2w/x2 ) t, x - independent variable ; w - dependent variable

Exercise 1.7 Which of the following describes a partial differential equation?