Operating System
It is a program (software) that acts as Batch Systems
an intermediary (interface) between a user of
a computer and the computer hardware.
It provides an environment in which a
user may execute programs
Computer System Components
User- people, machines, other computers
System and Application Programs-define the
ways in which the system resources are used
to solve the computing problems of the users
(compilers, database systems, video games,
business programs).
Operating System-Acts as an intermediary
Computer Hardware - provides basic
computing resources (CPU, memory, I/O
devices).
Operating System goals
1. To provide a convenient environment
2. To use the computer hardware in an
efficient manner (ensuring good
performance).
Operating System Views/Perspectives
Resource allocator – manages and allocates
resources.
Control program – controls the execution of
user programs and operations of I/O devices.
Kernel – the one program running at all times
(all else being application programs).
Mainframe Systems
• First rudimentary operating system.
• Reduce setup time by batching
similar jobs (that is jobs with
common needs are batched)
• machine runs only one application
• Automatic job sequencing–
automatically transfers control from
one job to another.
• Resident monitor
initial control in monitor
control transfers to job
when job completes control
transfers back to monitor
Multiprogrammed Batch Systems
To ensure that the CPU is not kept idle:
 Several jobs are kept in main memory
at the same time; and
 The CPU is multiplexed (partitioned)
among them.
Multiprogramming - some commands are
executed from one program, then that
program is suspended, and then some
commands are executed from the next
program, and so on.
• Allows the CPU to process multiple
programs
• While one program (job) is waiting for
an I/O operation to complete, the
CPU is switched to execute another
program rather than remaining idle
during I/O time.
 • A program is resumed at the point and do not need advanced CPU
where it was suspended when it gets utilization of protection features.
its turn to use the CPU again.
• May run several different types of
operating systems

Time-Sharing Systems–Interactive Multiprocessor systems

Computing
Parallel Systems
• Allow many users to share one
• Multiprocessor systems with more
machine simultaneously
than one CPU in close
• The CPU is multiplexed among communication.
several jobs that are kept in memory
• Tightly coupled system – processors
and on disk (the CPU is allocated to a
share memory and a clock;
job only if the job is in memory).
communication usually takes place
• A job is swapped in and out of through the shared memory.
memory to the disk.
• Advantages of parallel system:
• On-line communication between the
–Increased throughput
user and the system is provided;
–Economical
when the operating system finishes
–Increased reliability
the execution of one command, it
• graceful degradation
seeks the next “control statement”
•
from the user’s keyboard.
• Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
• On-line system must be available for
–Each processor runs an
users to access data and code
identical copy of the
(instructions).
operating system.
– Many processes can run at
once without performance
Desktop Systems
deterioration.
• Personal computers – computer – Most modern operating
system dedicated to a single user. systems support SMP
• Asymmetric multiprocessing
• I/O devices – keyboards, mice, display
screens, small printers. – Each processor is assigned a
specific task; master
• User convenience and
processor schedules and
responsiveness.
allocated work to slave
• Can adopt technology developed for processors.
larger operating system’ often – More common in extremely
individuals have sole use of computer large systems
 Distributed Systems control systems, and some display
systems.
• Distribute the computation among
several physical processors. • Well-defined fixed-time constraints.

• Loosely coupled system – each • Real-Time systems may be either

processor has its own local memory; hard or soft real-time.
processors communicate with one
• Hard real-time:
another through various
communications lines, such as high-  Secondary storage limited or
speed buses or telephone lines. absent, data stored in short
term memory, or read-only
• Advantages of distributed systems.
memory (ROM)
– Resources Sharing
 Conflicts with time-sharing
– Computation speed up – load
systems, not supported by
sharing
general-purpose operating
– Reliability
systems.
– Communications
• Soft real-time
• Requires networking infrastructure.
 Limited utility in industrial
• Local area networks (LAN) or Wide
control or robotics
area networks (WAN)
• May be either client-server or peer-  Useful in applications
to-peer systems. (multimedia, virtual reality)
requiring advanced
Clustered Systems operating-system features.
• Clustering allows two or more
Handheld Systems
systems to share storage.
• Provides high availability. • Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
• Asymmetric clustering: one server
• Cellular telephones
runs the application while another
server is on standby mode.
• Symmetric clustering: all N hosts are
Computing Environments
running the application and
monitoring each other. • Traditional computing

• Web-Based Computing
Real-Time Systems
• Embedded Computing
• Often used as control devices in a
dedicated application such as
controlling scientific experiments,
medical imaging systems, industrial
 Module 2 Operating System Structures • Trap - software generated interrupt
caused either by an error or a user
request.
Execution sequence:
Interrupt Handling
 Fetch Instruction at PC
• Types of interrupt
 Decode
 Execute (possibly using registers) – Polling
 Write results to registers/mem – Vectored interrupt system
 PC = Next Instruction(PC) • Incoming interrupts are disabled
 Repeat while another interrupt is being
processed to prevent a lost interrupt.
Computer System Organization
I/O Structure
• I/O devices and the CPU execute
concurrently. • Synchronous I/O
• Each device controller is in charge of
 wait instruction idles CPU
a particular device type
until next interrupt
– Each device controller has a
 no simultaneous I/O
local buffer. I/O is from the
processing, at most one
device to local buffer of
outstanding I/O request
controller
at a time.
• CPU moves data from/to main
memory to/from the local buffers • Asynchronous I/O - After I/O is
• Device controller interrupts CPU on initiated, control returns to user
completion of I/O program without waiting for I/O
completion.

Interrupts  System call

 Device Status table - holds
• Interrupt transfers control to the
type, address and state for
interrupt service routine
each device
–Interrupt Service Routine:  OS indexes into I/O device
Segments of code that table to determine device
determine action to be taken status and modify table entry
for each type of interrupt. to include interrupt.
– Interrupt vector contains the
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
address of service routines.
• OS preserves the state of the CPU • Used for high speed I/O devices able
to transmit information at close to
– stores registers and the
memory speeds.
program counter (address of
interrupted instruction).
 • Device controller transfers blocks of
data from buffer storage directly to
main memory without CPU
intervention.
• Only one interrupt is generated per
block, rather than one per byte (or
word).
Storage Structure
• Main memory - only large storage
media that the CPU can access
directly.
• Secondary storage - extension of
main memory that has large
nonvolatile storage capacity.
Storage Hierarchy
• Storage systems are organized in a
hierarchy based on
– Speed
– Cost
– Volatility
• Caching - process of copying
information into faster storage
system; main memory can be viewed
as fast cache for secondary storage.
Hardware Protection
Dual-mode operation
• Sharing system resources requires
operating system to ensure that an
incorrect program cannot cause
other programs to execute
incorrectly.
• Provide hardware support to
differentiate between at least two
modes of operation:
1. User mode - execution done on behalf
of a user.
2. Monitor mode (supervisor/kernel/system
mode) - execution done on behalf of
operating system.
I/O Protection
• All I/O instructions are privileged
instructions.
• Must ensure that a user program
could never gain control of the
computer in monitor mode, for e.g. a
user program that as part of its
execution, stores a new address in
the interrupt vector.
Memory Protection
• Must provide memory protection at
least for the interrupt vector and the
interrupt service routines.
• To provide memory protection, add
two registers that determine the
range of legal addresses a program
may address.
– Base Register - holds smallest
legal physical memory
address.
– Limit register - contains the
size of the range.
• Memory outside the defined range is
protected.
• When executing in monitor mode,
the OS has unrestricted access to
both monitor and users’ memory.
CPU Protection  Communications-interprocess
and intersystem
• Timer - interrupts computer after
 Error Detection-in hardware, I/O
specified period to ensure that OS
devices, user programs
maintains control.
• Services for providing efficient
Timer is decremented every
system operation
clock tick.
When timer reaches a value  Resource Allocation - for
of 0, an interrupt occurs. simultaneously executing jobs
• Timer is commonly used to  Accounting-for account
implement time sharing. billing and usage statistics
 Protection-ensure access to
• Timer is also used to compute the
system resources is controlled
current time.
System Programs
• Load timer is a privileged instruction.
• Convenient environment for program
System Calls
development and execution. User
• Interface between running program view of OS is defined by system
and the OS. programs, not system calls.

– Assembly language
instructions (macros and
subroutines)
– Some higher level languages
allow system calls to be made
directly (e.g. C)
• Passing parameters between a
running program and OS via
registers, memory tables or stack.

Operating System Services

 Services that provide user-interfaces

to OS
 Program execution-load program
into memory and run it
 I/O Operations - since users
cannot execute I/O operations
directly
 File System Manipulation - read,
write, create, delete files
Module 3 PROCESSES
Process
• It is the unit of work in most systems
(e.g. time-sharing system);
• It is a program in execution; process
execution must progress
sequential fashion.
• It has a set of associated resources
Although 2 processes may be associated with
the same program, they are considered 2
separate execution sequences.
What does a process include?
• program counter (specifies the next
instruction to be executed)
• stack (contains temporary data e.g.
method parameters)
• data section (contains global
variables)
• text section (program code)
Process Control Block (PCB)
PCB - Representation of a process in the
operating system.
Information associated with each process.
 Process state
 Program counter
 CPU registers
 CPU scheduling information
 Memory-management information
 Accounting information
 I/O status information
As a process executes, it changes state
 new: The process is being created.
 ready: The process is waiting to be
assigned to a processor.
 running: Instructions are being
executed.
 waiting: The process is waiting for
some event to occur.
 terminated: The process has finished
execution.
in
Program counter contains the memory
address of the next instruction to be
executed for this process.
Note: This information must be saved when
an interrupt occurs to allow the process to be
continued afterward
CPU registers, which include: accumulators,
index registers, stack pointers, general
purpose registers,
Note: This information must be saved when
an interrupt occurs to allow the process to be
continued afterward
Memory-management information includes:
value of the base and limit registers, page
tables, segment tables
I/O status information, which includes: list of
I/O devices allocated to this process, list of
open files, etc.
CPU scheduling information, which includes:
process priority, pointers to scheduling
queues, scheduling parameters
Accounting information, which includes:
amount of CPU and real time used, time
limits, account numbers, job or process
number, etc.
As process is created (enters the system), it
is put on a job queue.
Job queue – set of all processes in the system.
• If there is not enough room in the
main memory for all processes in the
job queue, job scheduling is done.
• Long-term scheduler (or job
scheduler) – selects which processes
should be brought into the ready
queue.
As process is loaded in the memory, it is kept
in the ready queue.
Ready queue - contains set of all processes
residing in main memory, ready and waiting
to execute.
Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) –
selects which process should be executed
(dispatched) next and allocates CPU.
Dispatcher – a module that gives control of
the CPU to the process selected by the short
term scheduler
• Job queue – set of all processes in the
system.
• Ready queue – set of all processes
residing in main memory, ready and
waiting to execute.
• Device queues – set of processes
waiting for an I/O device.
Schedulers
Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler)
 selects which processes should be
brought into the ready queue.
 is invoked very infrequently (seconds,
minutes)  (may be slow).
 controls the degree of
multiprogramming.
Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler)
 selects which process should be
executed next and allocates CPU.
 is invoked very frequently
(milliseconds)  (must be fast).
I/O – CPU bound Processes
• Processes can be described as either:
 I/O-bound process – spends more
time doing I/O than
computations, many short CPU
bursts.
 CPU-bound process – spends
more time doing computations;
few very long CPU bursts.
Long-term scheduler should select a good
process mix of I/O bound and CPU bound
processes.
Medium term
 an intermediate level queue used in
systems with virtual memory or
timesharing;
 removes processes from the memory
and reintroduced later (swapping)
 reduces the degree of multi
programming
Summary
• Swapping – in some other time, the
process can be reintroduced and
continued where it left off
• Context Switch – switching the CPU
from one process to another
• Dispatcher – a module that gives
control of the CPU to the process
selected by the short term scheduler
Suspended Processes
 Processor is faster than I/O so all
processes could be waiting for I/O
 Swap these processes to disk to free
up more memory
 Waiting or blocked state becomes
suspended state when swapped to
disk
 Two new states
 Blocked, suspend
Process Termination
 Ready, suspend
Additional States
• Ready – process in main memory and
available for execution
• Blocked/Waiting – process in main
memory and awaiting an event
• Blocked/Suspend – process in
secondary memory and awaiting an
event
• Ready/Suspend – process in
secondary memory and available for
execution
Process Creation
• Parent process create children
processes, which, in turn create other
processes, forming a tree of
processes.
• Resource sharing
• Parent and children share all
resources.
• Children share subset of
parent’s resources.
• Execution
• Parent and children execute
concurrently.
• Parent waits until children
terminate.
• Address space
• Child is a duplicate of parent.
• Child has a program loaded
into it (treated as a new
process).
• Process executes last statement and
asks the operating system to decide it
(exit).
 Output data from child to
parent (via wait).
 Process’ resources are
deallocated by operating
system.
 • Parent may terminate execution of
children processes (abort).

 Child has exceeded allocated

resources.
 Task assigned to child is no
longer required.
 Parent is exiting.
 Operating system
does not allow child to
continue if its parent
terminates.
 Cascading termination

Definition of terms

Address space – list of memory locations

from some minimum (usually 0) to some
maximum, which the process can read and
write. It contains the executable program,
program’s data and stack.

System call – interface between operating

system and process. It is function called by an
application to invoke a kernel service.

Interrupt – hardware mechanism that

enables a device to notify the CPU

Module 4 (CPU Scheduling)

* As process is loaded in the memory, it is

kept in the ready queue.

Ready queue - contains set of all processes

residing in main memory, ready and waiting
to execute.