AISC Seminar-Intelligent Design Low-Rise and Mid-Rise Buildings

Intelligent Design!
Low-Rise and Mid-Rise Buildings
Two Story Concentric

X-Bracing X- Bracing Diagonal K- Bracing
Bracing
1 2
4
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L1

The information presented herein is based on recognized engineering principles and is for
general information only. While it is believed to be accurate, this information should not be
applied to any specific application without competent professional examination and
verification by a licensed professional engineer. Anyone making use of this information
assumes all liability arising from such use.
Copyright © 2008
by
The American Institute of Steel Construction
All rights reserved. This document or any part thereof may not be reproduced in any form
without the written permission of the publisher.
Intelligent Design!
Low-Rise and Mid-Rise
Buildings
Authors:
James M. Fisher, Ph.D., P.E.
and
Michael A. West, P.E., AIA
Vice Presidents
Computerized Structural Design, S.C.
Intelligent Design of
by
James M. Fisher, Ph.D., P.E. and Michael A. West, P.E., AIA
Vice Presidents
Computerized Structural Design, S.C.
Milwaukee, WI
There’
There’s always a solution in steel! 1
This seminar focuses on the design of Low- and Mid-Rise Buildings as these
buildings are the most common building sizes and many engineering firms are
involved with these projects.
The handout materials include copies of all the slides and in a departure from past
practice, the speaker notes are being distributed to the participants on a CD. The
essential message of each slide is in the slide itself. The speaker notes are
intended to compliment and supplement the slide’s essential message and it is
anticipated that the participants will find not only the slides, but also the speaker
notes useful for future reference.
Also contained on the CD are reference papers pertaining to various topics in the
lecture.
1
Purpose of this Seminar
How To Achieve Intelligent

Designs!
or
How to Design “Buildings that Sing”
There’
This slide states the goal of this seminar, i.e., “Achieving Intelligent Designs”.
As will be seen in subsequent slides, “ Intelligent
” is rather broadly defined
and is measured on several fronts. The emphasis is on coordination, cooperation
and collaboration. The goal is recognition of success by all the team members to
the fullest extent possible including the successful building of lasting relationships.
“Buildings that Sing” is shorthand for buildings that look good and perform well, i.e.,
buildings that have an inner order and design logic that is revealed as the structure
is bid, awarded, detailed, fabricated, erected and worked in and on by all trades.
Yes, the structural engineer can bring these characteristics to the project.
2
Philosophy of this Seminar
This seminar differs from other AISC seminars that
you have attended in the past.
AISC seminars usually address design procedures,
this seminar addresses the design process.
AISC seminars usually address things to do, this
seminar addresses things to consider.
AISC seminars usually address strength, this
seminar addresses everything else plus strength.
There’
This slide identifies the differences between this lecture and other previous AISC
lectures. The emphasis is on process, not procedure; options, not prescriptions and
efficiency, serviceability, constructability and details, not strength. “Strength is
essential, but otherwise unimportant”.
Decisions about framing layout, member selection, construction details are project
specific. There are few hard and fast rules. This lecture presents options and
factors to consider in light of the specific project at hand. The emphasis is on
thinking “big picture” and focusing on the structure as something that is designed to
be built.
3
Lecture 1: Philosophy and Design Approach
Lecture 2: Codes, Loads and Other Design Criteria
Lecture 3: Serviceability Design Criteria
Lecture 4: Strength Design Criteria and Systems
Lecture 5: Preliminary Design
Lecture 6: Analysis
Lecture 7: Connections and Specifications
Lecture 8: Case Studies and Summary
There’
The seminar consists of eight individual, yet interlinked, modules as shown here.
4
There’
In 1991 AISC published Design Guide 5 on Low-and Medium-Rise Steel Buildings.

Much of the information presented in Design Guide 5 is still applicable to the design
of steel framed buildings today, but there have been important advancements in
several areas of design, including Design for Stability, and Design for Earthquake
Loads. The lecture material in Design Guide 5 and numerous other sources
presents not only current design concepts and methodologies, but also fundamental
attitudes with regard to design and construction of structural steel.
Design Guide 7, Second Edition (2004) serves as an additional reference relative to
Industrial Building Design. Although many engineers refer to Design Guide 7 for
useful information on crane structures, the Guide also addresses design
considerations for warehouse and light manufacturing buildings.
The complete series of Design Guides is listed on the AISC website and in the, 13th
Edition Steel Construction Manual on pages 2-5 and 2-6.
5
Lecture 1: Philosophy and
Design Approach
What is Design and what is Intelligent
Design?
Achieving Intelligent Designs
– Think Big Picture
– Think Constructability
– Reducing Errors
– Team Concepts
– Design Approach
There’
In Lecture 1 we will discuss the topics shown on this slide.
6
What is Design?
Design as defined in the Dictionary of Architecture and
Construction is:
– “To compose a plan for a building.”
building.”
– An art and a science.
Our job is to produce construction documents.
Many engineers wrongly emphasize analysis and
calculations.
Design is not only analysis, calculations, and checking
limit states; rather it is a synthesis of techniques used to
communicate a concept that constructors bring to
reality.
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What Design Is and What Design Is Not.

Design as defined in the Dictionary of Architecture and Construction is: “To
compose a plan for a building.”
Engineering design is not purely science. As we all know, engineering is also an
art. It is the art of design that is difficult to quantify and model.
Our job as design engineers is to produce construction documents, plans and
specifications. Many engineers wrongly emphasize analysis and calculations. They
are but a means to the goal – which is a design.
Design is neither solely calculations, nor construction documents; rather it is a
synthesis of techniques used to communicate a concept that constructors bring to
reality. The AISC Manual is titled the “Steel Construction Manual”, not the Steel
Design Manual. The AISC Specification is titled the “Specification for Structural
Steel Buildings”, not the Specification for the Design of Steel Buildings.
7
What is Intelligent Design?
As a designer of structural steel buildings, you are a
part of a team: The team of Engineers, Fabricators,
Detailers, Erectors, and Material Suppliers.
An intelligent design is a successful design in which

the building performs well, and the team members
and the owner are all satisfied with the result. This
generally occurs when all team members make a
profit on the project, and the building owner
believes he or she paid a fair price for the structure.
There’
What is an intelligent and successful design?

The answer to this question varies depending to whom the question is asked. For
example:
To the owner of a building, a successful design is one in which the building meets
its intended function, i.e., one that does not leak, one with no cracks in the floor
slab, and one in which construction cost came in at or under budget.
To the young designer, a successful design is usually thought of as the building of
least weight that will carry intended loads, i.e., it is one that is well-engineered.
To the senior project engineer, a successful design is a building which satisfies the
owner and one for which the construction documents caused little or no confusion.
To the owner of the firm, a successful design is one with which the client is pleased
(and promptly pays for) and one on which his firm makes a profit.
8
Achieving Intelligent Design
An intelligent and successful design can

only be accomplished with quality
construction documents and cooperation
among the team members.
Remember that design is not a success until
construction is complete and the structure
functions properly.
There’
This slide elaborates on the broad sense of Intelligent Design that is one of the
fundamental messages in this Lecture.
9
Engineers must ask the right questions

regarding stiffness, strength, stability,
and constructability to achieve an
intelligent design.
There is no checklist of rules or questions
that one can apply and answer to declare
that his or her design is perfect, safe and
successful.
There’
Design is an interactive and iterative process and engineers must have good
communication with all parties involved in the design and construction of a project.
Strength and stability begin with requirements of the governing Code and the Code
Official might need to be questioned on the applicability and meaning of Code
provisions. The Owner may require loading requirements in excess of the Code
and will need to be consulted on performance issues, i.e., serviceability.
Fabricators and Erectors should be consulted with regard to local pricing, relative
costs of connections, availability of materials, shop work vs. field work, mill vs.
service center procurement, installed cost of shear connectors, long lead items, etc.
General Contractors should be consulted on scheduling issues, embedments, piers
and foundations, etc. The Construction team members must be consulted for
advice on matters related to cost and schedule.
10
What are you going to do when first given a

design project?
Think Constructability
Reduce Errors
Help the Team Members
There’
To achieve an Intelligent design, think about these items.
11
What are you going to do when
first given a design project?
Think about the Big Picture

Think Through the Design Problem(s)
Think Through the Design Solution(s)
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The big picture means you must listen to and think about your client’s needs.
Don’t be too hasty to start the design until you have thought through the design
problems and their solutions.
12
Think Constructability
Minimize the number of anchor rods per column.
– OSHA minimum is 4.
Provide permanent bracing that can be used as
temporary bracing when possible.
Make sure that all beams can be brought into place
without interference or having to spread columns
apart.
Provide for construction tolerances in your design,
i.e., consider mill and fabrication tolerances by
using shims and oversize or slotted holes where
required.
There’
Think Constructability from the very beginning!

Constructability is defined by the Construction Industry Institute as “the optimum
use of construction knowledge and experience in planning, design, procurement,
and field operations to achieve overall project objectives.” What this really means to
you is, can the structure be built safely with relative ease and speed?
The list of constructability considerations is extensive. A few of the major items to
be considered are listed on this slide.
13
Too Many Anchor Rods
There’
Increasing the number of anchor rods in a base connection increases the odds that
there will be problems with the alignment of the rods and the base plate holes. This
slide is a picture where too many anchor rods were specified. The base plate did
not fit over the anchor rods, so the base plate had to be modified to “fix” the problem
in the field.
14
Constructability
Check the accumulative tolerances to
ensure they do not, cause fit-up problems.
Check to see that the tolerances specified
match your expectations of the final product.
Make sure that there is adequate access for
welding and bolting.
Check that beams do not have to be
severely coped, i.e. deep members framing
into shallow members.
There’
Constructability begins in the design, carries through detailing and fabrication, and
is bourne out in the erection of a steel frame.
Constructability is affected by frame geometry, framing layout, and connection
selection. Manufacturing, fabrication, and erection tolerances and expectations
must be acknowledged and considered in design. Attention to constructability
results in steel frames that are RELATIVELY easier and more cost effective to
detail, fabricate and erect.
Constructability topics are a fruitful area for discussion among the engineer,
fabricator, and erector.
15
Constructability
Eliminate overhead welding.
Have realistic specifications that match your
actual intent and design requirements.
Use materials that are readily available.
Minimize the amount of loose material for
details.
Provide straightforward connections that
can be erected without added temporary
provisions.
There’
This slide provides additional specific suggestions toward achieving a structure that
is constructible.
16
Constructability
Check for camber differences on adjacent
members.
Make sure members have sufficient width
for elements bearing on them.
Run cantilevered roof beams over column
tops whenever possible for safety in
erection.
Have steel deck span all in the same
direction if possible.
There’
This slide provides further specific suggestions toward achieving a structure that is
constructible. In fact, the list is essentially unlimited. Achieving constructible
designs requires that the engineer think beyond strength and stability, to
construction.
17
Constructability
Avoid using moment base columns bearing
on concrete piers.
Avoid moment connections into the weak
axis of columns.
Indicate Architecturally Exposed Structural
Steel (AESS) judiciously. Just because
structural steel can be seen in the final
design doesn’t mean that it must be
fabricated and erected using the stricter
standards associated with AESS.
There’
Moment connections into the weak axis of columns can be very uneconomical and
a multitude of field problems can occur. Sometimes one cannot avoid it, but an
intelligent design often can.
Specifying AESS adds cost to the project; therefore, a cost-benefit analysis should
be made to ensure that there is reasonable benefit to the project before doing so. It
may be that when the structural steel is exposed to view, conventional fabrication
can achieve the desired effect. Fabricators are encouraged to allow the inspection
of AESS only from the actual distance that it will be viewed in the completed
structure.
18
Reducing Errors
Human Error: Understanding past

design errors increases our judgment
and this understanding is beneficial for
reducing human error in today’s
designs.
Think in terms of preventing failure,
i.e., what could go wrong?
Design changes can lead to errors.
There’
Obtaining Intelligent designs by reducing design errors:

All engineers and forensic specialists agree that human error is the major cause of
design failures.
Thinking in terms of preventing failure is a major way that Intelligent designs are
accomplished. By visualizing the limit states for each element, each connection,
and the structure as a whole, one can determine if safety is accomplished in the
design. One of the features of the 2005 AISC Specification is that for each strength
calculation addressed in the Specification, all of the known limit states are cited.
This was done in an attempt to reduce errors from omission of applicable design
checks. In addition, understanding past design errors increases our judgment and
this understanding is beneficial for reducing human error in today’s designs.
Design changes, especially those made late in the design process, can introduce
new failure modes or bring into play hidden failure modes. Any design change, no
matter how small, must be analyzed with the objectives of the original design in
mind. Be very careful about making design changes during the course of a design
team meeting or construction meeting. How often have you agreed to a change
only to realize when you are driving back to the office that the change negatively
affects another part of the design?
19
Reducing Errors
Scale matters.
Check calculations for logic and
mathematical errors.
Checking plans and specifications for
inconsistencies and omissions can save
expensive field correction costs and can
catch failures when they are still on paper.
There’
Be particularly aware of designs that are of larger scale or size than you have
performed in the past. A principle of design that is all too often forgotten is the
effect of size or scale.
Checking calculations for logic and mathematical errors is extremely important.
Checking plans and specifications for inconsistencies and omissions can save
expensive field correction costs and can catch potential failures when they are still
on paper. It is important to remember that the original designer can continue to
overlook the same errors he or she made, whereas a peer or colleague may
discover latent errors and mistaken logic. Peer review on all designs is very
beneficial, but the reviewer should be brought on board at the conceptual design
phase of the project.
20
Steel Construction Team
Members
The Fabricator / Detailer
The Erector
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How can you best help the team?

As the engineer, your actions can make a big difference in the success of your
project. Understanding the needs of the detailer, fabricator, and erector is not
complicated and can be summarized as follows:
Think about the cost and schedule implications of your decisions.
Think about construction and constructability.
Act on submittals and inquiries expeditiously.
Work collaboratively.
21
Listen to the Fabricator, Detailer,
and Erector
The success of any project depends upon
effective communication.
The Fabricator, Detailer, and Erector have
practical knowledge that has been gained in
day-to-day experiences of putting together
many projects.
There’
The success of any project depends upon effective communication.

Why should the EOR listen to the fabricator, detailer, and erector? Because
the fabricator, detailer, and erector all have practical knowledge that has
been gained in the day-to-day experiences of putting together many
projects. You, the engineer, should take advantage of that knowledge.
22
The Fabricator, Detailer, and Erector
have Ideas and Suggestions
Regarding:
Efficient Structural Systems
Material Availability
Lead Times
Efficient Connections
Construction Schedule and Sequencing
There’
Another reason the EOR should listen to the fabricator, detailer, and erector
is that they often have excellent ideas and suggestions which will improve
any given project. The fabricator, detailer, and erector want to provide a
successful project to the owner and at the same time they want to maximum
their profits. By following the recommendations of the fabricator, detailer,
and erector, design costs can often be reduced thus increasing the EOR’s
profitability on the project as well as those of the fabricator, detailer, and
erector.
The EOR’s costs just like the fabricator’s, detailer’s, and erector’s costs are
dependent on the time spent on the project. Developing a structural system
in which the fabricator, detailer, and erector are “in sync” can save significant
coordination time after the release of construction documents. The EOR can
also contribute to cost savings by reviewing shop drawings and answering
questions for the fabricator, detailer, and erector in a timely manner.
Following these ideas and recommendations can help with the successful
completion of the project.
23
Regarding:
Constructability
Fit-up
Mill tolerances
Curving and bending
Galvanizing
Painting
Hole sizes
There’
The fabricator wants you to provide a design that will permit the material to
flow continuously through the shop. This means that your design should not
require welding to a column or a beam if the design also requires the drilling
or punching of holes in the same member. Drill and punch lines are different
lines than the welding lines and it costs money to transfer a column or beam
from one line to another. The material will not flow through the shop if such
a transfer must be made. Fabricators and detailers suggest the following to
achieve an intelligent design:
•Design for multiple identical pieces
•Bolt or weld on a piece, but do not do both
•Acknowledge the tolerances applicable to steel construction
•Determine the shapes and weights that can be curved without local buckling
by consulting with a fabricator
•Give consideration to the pieces that are to be galvanized
•Consider the appearance, durability and surface preparations associated
with paint and the shop coat
•Be mindful when choosing hole types
•Consider relative and absolute costs and schedule
24
Regarding:
Initial mill orders
Start up of shop drawings
Standard details
Repetition of members
Connection economy
Stiffener / doubler plate options
There’
During the Design Phase, the fabricator, detailer, and erector have ideas
and suggestions relative to:
•Initial mill orders
•Start up of shop drawings
•Standard details
•Repetition of members
•Connection economy
•Stiffener/doubler plate options
If the Engineer of Record takes advantage of these ideas and suggestions,
the majority of projects will be successful in the eyes of the fabricator, the
erector, the EOR, and the owner.
25
For the Fabricator / Detailer
Repeat member sizes whenever possible (least
weight is not least cost).
If you are not designing the connections, show
all reactions on the drawings: axial, shear,
moment, and transfer forces.
Answer the detailer’s questions promptly; this
means REALLY FAST.
Approve shop drawings in a timely manner.
Remember that steel fabrication is a business.
There’
For the Fabricator / Detailer:

Repeat member sizes whenever possible (least weight is not least cost): This
saves both detailing and fabrication time. In addition, a larger order of the same
size members may have a reduced cost.
If you are not designing the connections, show all reactions on the drawings:
axial, shear, moment, and transfer forces: This saves substantial RFI’s, detailing
time, and review time.
Answer the detailer’s questions promptly; this means REALLY FAST: This
saves the detailer time, keeps the shop drawings moving forward, and makes his
work more efficient.
Approve shop drawings in a timely manner: This saves the entire team time
and money. This is very important to the fabricator in scheduling the work in the
shop.
Remember that steel fabrication is a business: The fabricator is running a
business. Help him by doing your job correctly.
26
Use standard AISC connections.
Use field bolted moment connections.
Keep the design simple.
Provide understandable plans.
Minimize changes.
Release for mill orders and detailing only
when complete. And if not complete, inform
the architect, contractor and fabricator of the
areas which are not yet complete.
There’

Use standard AISC connections: This aves time and money.
Use field bolted moment connections: This saves time and money.
Keep the design simple: This avoids field errors.
Provide understandable plans: This avoids field errors.
Minimize changes: This saves time and avoids errors.
Release for mill orders and detailing only when complete. If not complete,
inform the architect, contractor and fabricator of the areas which are not yet
complete: This saves time and money. If you fast-track the project plan on
revisions and extra cost of changes.
27
For the Erector
Minimize the amount of loose material for field
installation.
Use maximum practical column lengths (2 or 4- 4-
stories with splices 4 ft above the floor).
Whenever possible, provide permanent bracing in
the design that can also be used as temporary
bracing.
Keep the design simple.
Provide readily understandable plans.
Remember that steel erection is a business.
There’
For the Erector:

Minimize the amount of loose material for field installation: Saves time.
Use maximum practical column lengths (2 or 4-stories with splices 4 ft above the
floor): Column splices are common every two to four floors, with two and four preferred
over three. Why is a three-floor splice interval not preferred? The structural framing is
erected by a raising gang and the decking is installed by a decking crew. One key
influencing factor in this process is that OSHA limits the maximum elevation above a work
platform (the last decked level in this case) to 30 ft In a two-floor tier (a tier is the height
between splices), the raising gang will erect the framing and the decking crew will deck the
top level first. That permits the raising gang to erect the next tier while the decking crew
decks the intermediate floor -- all work in the typical range of interstory heights is then
within the OSHA limit. In a four-floor tier it is somewhat similar, but slightly different. The
raising gang will erect the first two levels of framing, and the decking crew will then deck the
second level. The raising gang then continues with the third and fourth levels as the
decking crew decks the first level. After that the decking crew decks the fourth level. As
the raising gang continues with the next tier, the decking crew finishes by decking the third
level. Again all work is done within the OSHA limit. In a three-floor tier, some efficiency is
lost. That is, the height limit means that you can't nest two floors of raising with two floors of
decking in each cycle; you have a two-floor cycle followed by a one-floor cycle. The
reduced efficiency of a 2, 1, 2, 1 ... Alternating cycle makes the 3-level tier less attractive.
Of course, sometimes you can't avoid it.
Whenever possible, provide permanent bracing in the design that can also be used
as temporary bracing: Saves time.
Keep the design simple: Avoids field errors
Provide readily understandable plans: Saves time and avoids errors.
Remember that steel erection is a business: The erector is running a business. Help
him by doing your job correctly.
28
Design Approach
Take the following steps to achieve an

efficient design and a successful project.
There’
The steps shown on the next few slides will help you achieve a successful project.
29
Design Approach
Select the serviceability criteria for the

horizontal framing members.
Select the lateral drift criteria.
Determine the fire protection criteria.
Determine any loss prevention requirements
such as Factory Mutual (FM) Global
requirements.
There’
This slide and the next few slides lists significant design parameters, over and
above the minimum requirements of the Code, that will influence the design. Some
of the influences may be noticeable, and identifying them early in the design
process is important. Based on the authors’ experience, design time is minimized if
these parameters are considered in the order in which they are presented.
30
Design Approach
Select the direction of roof drainage

(primarily for single story structures).
Select the structural system, i.e. braced
frames, moment frames, shear walls.
Determine the loads on the structure.
Determine the type of connections to use.
There’
The direction of roof drainage and the associated slope(s) will influence story height
and structure depth.
The structural system selected to resist lateral loads will influence the architectural
floor plan and will fundamentally influence the design of the structural frame and the
foundations in profound ways.
Connections are an inherent part of the structural design of the steel frame and will
be discussed in Lecture 7.
31
Design Approach
Select the members to be used for the lateral

load system.
Select member sizes based on the drift
criteria, other serviceability criteria and
material availability.
Select member sizes that make the
connections work.
Perform analysis to check conformance with
drift criteria.
There’
The slide presents further steps in the design approach including loads and other
design criteria, framing layout, basic load resisting systems, member designs, and
connections.
32
Design Approach
Check member sizes for strength.

Design connections or establish design criteria.
Draw plans and details to an appropriate scale.
Check to make sure that the design has been
correctly transferred onto the construction
documents.
Finalize Project Specifications
There’
This slide provides the final steps in the design approach including member design
checks, connection design or criteria, preparation of design drawings to convey the
design, and preparation of the project specifications.
33
Intelligent Designs
Create
“Buildings that Sing”
There’
To achieve intelligent designs, remember to:

•Think about the big picture.
•Think about constructability.
•Be a team player.
34
How to Make Buildings Sing!
“Strength is essential but otherwise

unimportant”- Hardy Cross
A building that sings is not necessarily
one where the required strength
equals the available strength, but is
often one where the required strength
is less than the available strength.
There’
The information on this slide is the main theme of this seminar.
35
Considerations other than strength

– Serviceability, plus ……….
……….
– Engineering efficiency – use time wisely, don’
don’t
overanalyze, start with good preliminary design.
– Think big picture.
– Design efficiency – group sizes, select common
shapes.
– Connection efficiency – match connection
strength to actual reactions.
There’
To make buildings sing you must consider many items other than strength.
36
Considerations other than strength

– Detailing efficiency – provide clear and complete
contract documents.
– Fabrication efficiency – Answer RFI’
RFI’s and
approve shop drawings in a timely manner
– Erection efficiency - consider location of column
splices, avoid loose material, use turn of nut
method.
There’
This slide lists additional efficiencies that will promote intelligent design.
37
Quips
“The profession of structural

engineering can be characterized as
the art of molding materials we do not
really understand into shapes we
cannot really analyze so as to
withstand forces we cannot really
assess in such a way that the public
does not really suspect.” - Dick Parmalee
“Strive for structural simplicity.” - Fazlur Khan
There’
Throughout this lecture several “Quips” are presented. The “quips” have been
collected by the authors of the lecture, and are the authors’ favorites. The “quips”
are related to the topic at hand, and may sharpen the focus of the presentation.
38
End –Lecture 1
There’
39
Lecture 2: Codes, Loads and
Other Design Criteria
There’
Lecture 2 covers loads and other design criteria.
1
Loads and Combinations
Loads from IBC and ASCE 7

– Dead Loads
– Live Loads
– Snow Loads
– Wind Loads
– Seismic Loads
– Other Loads
Load Combinations
There’
This slide illustrates topics in this general section on loads. The loads from the
International Building Code and ASCE 7 “Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and
Other Structures”, including dead loads, live loads, snow loads, wind loads, seismic
loads, and other loads will be discussed as well as load combinations per the codes.
IBC uses ASCE 7, but some changes exist.
2
Codes and Standards
There’
The primary building code in the United States of America will soon be the 2006
International Building Code. Load information is contained in the IBC.
The IBC makes numerous references to the load standard published by ASCE 7.
The current edition of ASCE 7 is 2005 and as the slide illustrates, the title is
“Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures”.
This slide also illustrates another ASCE document ASCE-37, “Design Loads on
Structures During Construction”. The current edition is 2002. ASCE-37 is not
something that engineers of record are particularly concerned with in their work on
the design of buildings; however, it is an authoritative standard that some engineers
among us use for the design of temporary bracing and other assessments of
structures during construction, which is an important consideration for contractors in
steel frames and other structures.
3
AISC Design Guides
There’
Load criteria can also be found in recommendations in AISC Design Guide 7,

“Industrial Buildings - Roofs to Anchor Rods”. Although there are illustrations of
crane structures on the cover, this Design Guide is also useful for the design of
industrial buildings such as warehouses and light manufacturing buildings, that do
not have cranes in them.
Design Guide 3, Second Edition, “Serviceability Design Considerations for Steel
Buildings” is not a load standard; however it does provide guidance and
recommendations for appropriate load types and load magnitudes for serviceability
design.
4
Required Design Loads
Code specified loads are specified in the

locally adopted governing code, i.e., The
International Building Code, in most
jurisdictions.
There’
Loads are specified in the governing code and as stated earlier, most jurisdictions
adopt the International Building Code. In most cases, the local adoption includes
jurisdiction-specific amendments. It is essential that the requirements in the local
amendments be identified early in the design process.
5
Dead Load – IBC 1602
“The weight of materials of construction
incorporated into the building, including but not
limited to walls, floors, roofs, ceilings, stairways,
built-in partitions, finishes, cladding and other
similarly incorporated architectural and structural
items, and the weight of fixed service equipment,
such as cranes, plumbing stacks and risers,
electrical feeders, heating, ventilating and air-
conditioning systems and fire sprinkler systems.”
There’
Let’s begin with a discussion of dead load. The definition of dead load from IBC
Section 1602 is stated on this slide. It is very important to understand the
definitions and characters of the various loads because they are used in load
combinations with various multipliers. Dead load is the weight of the materials of
construction incorporated into the building. This is clear, although it’s not always
obvious, and does require judgment from time to time. Make sure that a load is
properly characterized. In general, element weights that are characterized as dead
loads are permanent and fixed in position.
6
Live Load – IBC 1602
“Those loads produced by the use and

occupancy of the building or other structure
and do not include construction or
environmental loads such as wind load,
snow load, rain load, earthquake load, flood
load or dead load.”
There’
This slide states the definition of Live Load from the IBC. Live loads are loads
produced by the use and occupancy of the building and do not include construction
loads or environmental loads, such as wind, snow, rain, earthquake, or flood. In
some manufacturing situations, there are instances where the loads produced by
the use and occupancy of the building are in fact fixed loads and may be more
appropriately characterized as dead load instead of live load. The key phrase here
is “the use and occupancy of the building” versus the weight of materials or fixed
equipment. Judgment is essential many situations.
7
Roof Live Load– IBC 1602
“Those loads produced (1) during

maintenance by workers, equipment and
materials; and (2) during the life of the
structure by movable objects such as
planters and by people.”
There’
This slide states the definition of Roof Live Load from IBC. It is the live load that is
applied to the roof produced by worker’s equipment, materials, and other moveable
objects that may be placed on the roof, or by people that would have occasion to be
on the roof.
8
Dead Loads - IBC 1606
“Dead loads shall be considered permanent

loads.”
“For the purposes of design, the actual
weights of materials of construction and
fixed service equipment shall be used. In
the absence of definite information, values
used shall subject to the approval of the
building official.”
There’
Dead loads are covered in Section 1606 of the IBC. This is a reminder that dead
loads are permanent loads and the weight of equipment. Dead loads are
determined by the engineer using resource publications, volumes and specific
gravities. Dead loads are specific to the structure that is being designed.
9
Dead Loads – Actual
Weights
Material Densities x Volumes
– ASCE 7, Commentary
Loads (psf) for materials and systems
– ASCE 7, Commentary
– AISC Steel Construction Manual (Part 17)
– Manufacturer’
Manufacturer’s Data
There’
Dead loads are determined by using the fundamental relationship of material

density times the volume. Densities can be found in various documents, including
the ASCE 7 Commentary.
In many cases load intensities, which are tabulated in pounds per square foot, are
published for components of structures such as roofing, wall construction, etc.
These unit loads for components can be found in the ASCE 7 Commentary, the
Miscellaneous Data Section (Part 17) in the AISC Steel Construction Manual, and
manufacturer’s data.
10
Dead Load – Roofs &
Floors
Steel Systems
– Roof deck, joists and Joist Girders
– Slabs, wide flange beams and girders
– Columns
There’
With regard to the dead load from steel systems, consider the weight of the roof
deck, the weight of the joists, the weight of the primary framing (steel girders or joist
girders); from the floor system, consider the weight of the slab, the weight of the
wide flange filler beams, and the weight of the girders. These become the dead load
of the structural system. In multistory frames, the weight of columns must also be
included. In addition, there is the weight of the construction, including M-E-P
(mechanical, electrical and plumbing), and architectural systems to consider.
11
Dead Load - Roof
Roofing – Ballast and Membrane 10 - 18 psf

Insulation 2 - 4 psf
Deck 2 - 4 psf
Framing – Joists, and infill beams 3 - 5 psf
Framing – Girders 1 - 2 psf
Ceiling 1- 4 psf
M-E-P 3 - 10 psf
There’
Let’s start at the top of a building. This slide shows some typical ranges of weights
for the components listed. The roofing load shown consists of ballast and
membrane. Adhered or attached membrane may be used, so be sure to select a
unit weight that is appropriate. Likewise, use an insulation weight appropriate to the
insulation that will be specified.
When considering the weight of the deck, reference manufacturer’s catalogs as
these are the best source of data for deck weights. Calculate the weight of the
framing, including the joists or filler beams and girders, add the weight of the ceiling
(if there is one) and M-E-P (mechanical, electrical and plumbing). The sum of all of
these loads will give you the total roof dead load to be used in the design.
12
Dead Load - Floor
Permanent Partitions 10 - 20 psf

Slab & Deck 30 - 65 psf
Framing – Purlins 3 - 5 psf
Framing – Girders 2 - 4 psf
Ceiling 1 - 4 psf
Fireproofing, if applicable 2 - 5 psf
M-E-P 3 - 10 psf
There’
With regard to dead loads on the floor, start with permanent partitions (a
superimposed load), then add the weight of the slab, and the deck, using
manufacturer's catalogues. In addition, add the weight of the framing, ceiling,
fireproofing, and MEP.
13
Dead Loads - Walls
Exterior walls
– Glass and aluminum curtain walls 8 - 16 psf
– Brick and block 70 - 100 psf
– Brick and steel studs 45 - 55 psf
– Brick and wood studs 45 - 55 psf
– Exterior insulation systems 10 - 15 psf
Interior walls
– Studs and drywall or plaster 5 - 20 psf
– Concrete block 30 - 60 psf
There’
The exterior wall of the building, if supported by the structure, must be included.
There are numerous systems of wall construction. Some of these weights are listed
in the Appendix to ASCE 7. Shown here is a list of various material combinations
used in exterior walls and their weights. Various systems exist for interior walls;
however, most walls are constructed from studs and drywall, or plaster, with
concrete block surrounding some of the core functions, like toilet rooms. The
weights listed in the slide are in pounds per square foot of the wall surface.
14
Live Loads – IBC 1607
1607.3 Uniform live loads

“The live loads used in the design of
buildings and other structures shall be the
maximum loads expected in the intended
use or occupancy but in no case shall be
less than the minimum uniformly distributed
unit loads required by Table 1607.1.”
There’
This slide shows the definition of Live Loads from IBC Section 1607 with the
reminder that they are a function of the occupancy and use, but not less than the
loads that come to us from Table 1607.1.
15
IBC Table
1607.1
There’
This slide shows a table from IBC Table 1607.1. The table indicates the uniform
and concentrated loads for various occupancies.
16
There’
Here is a blowup of the table. You can see that the uniform load for assembly areas
and theatres with fixed seats fastened to the floor is 60 psf in Category 4. Notice
that in office buildings, Category 26, there is not only a uniform load but also a
concentrated load for certain areas of the building.
17
1607.4 Concentrated loads

“Floors and other similar surfaces shall be
designed for uniformly distributed live loads
prescribed in Section 1607.3 or the
concentrated load, in pounds, given in Table
1607.1, whichever produces the greater
load effects.”
Distribute over area 2.5- feet by 2.5- feet.
Locate to produce maximum effects.
There’
This slide illustrates the code provisions in IBC 1607.4 with regard to the
applicability of concentrated loads, and the area over which they are to be applied.
18
1607.5 Partition loads (not permanent)
“In office buildings and in other buildings
where partition locations are subject to
change, provisions for partition weight shall
be made, whether or not partitions are
shown in the construction documents,
unless the specified live load exceeds 80-
psf. The partition load shall not be less than
a uniformly distributed live load of 15-psf.”
There’
This slide highlights a provision for addressing the partition loads in office
occupancies. This provision can lead to confusion as partition loads are normally
thought of as dead loads. If one designs for a live load in excess of 80 psf for an
office building, it is not required to tabulate a separate item for partitions. Also,
partition loads shall not be less than a uniformly distributed live load of 15 psf. If the
live load for the occupancy is 50 psf, which is obtained from the live load table, then
one can use 80 psf. That’s a 30 pound allowance which represents a certain
degree of conservatism. Notice that it says exceeds 80 psf, not equal to 80 psf, so
the live load would have to be 81 psf, or greater, to meet the provisions of this
requirement. This live load may be reduced as provided in the Code.
19
1607.8 Impact loads

“The live loads specified in Section 1607.3
include allowance for impact conditions.
Provisions shall be made in the structural
design for uses and loads that involve
unusual vibration and impact forces.”
There’
The building code includes impact loads to take into account loads involving
unusual vibrations and/or impact forces.
20
1607.8.1 Elevators
Elevator loads shall be increased 100% for
impact.
Structural supports shall be designed within
the limits of deflection prescribed by ASME
A17.1.
There’
For example, elevator loads must be increased by 100% for impact. Structural
support deflections must be limited as described in the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Document A17.1. This is also cited in AISC Design
Guide 3, Second Edition, “Serviceability”.
21
1607.8.2 Machinery
Weight of machinery and moving loads to
be increased by
– 100% - elevator machinery
– 20% - light, shaft-
shaft- or motor driven
– 50% - reciprocation or power driven
– 33% - hangers for floors and balconies
Percentages shall be increased where
specified by the manufacturer.
There’
This slide illustrates load increases for various types of machinery. The previous
slide identified the 100% increase requirement for elevator machinery. You should
always look to the manufacturer for other specific design criteria and if criteria is
provided, they must be followed.
22
Live Load Reduction (Floors)
From IBC 1607.9
L = L0 [ 0.25 + 15 / (KLL x AT)1/2]
L = Reduced Live Load / ft2

L0 = Unreduced Live Load
KLL = Live Load Element Factor
AT = Tributary Area, ft2
KLLx AT 400 ft2
L 0.5 L0 for memb. supporting one floor

L 0.4 L0 for memb. supporting 2+ floors
There’
Most live loads can be reduced. Reductions account for the fact that there is a
certain redundancy and diversity in the way the loads are actually accumulated on
the structure. Live load reduction is a function of the tributary area and a multiplier
of KLL. There are maximum load reductions as indicated in the last two lines on the
slide.
23
Live Load Element Factor,
KLL
IBC Table Interior columns 4
1607.9.1
Ext. columns w/o cantilever slabs 4
Edge columns w/ cantilever slabs 3
Corner cols. w/ cantilever slabs 2
Edge beams w/o cantilever slabs 2
Interior beams 2
Edge beams w/ cantilever slabs 1
Cantilever beams 1
Two-
Two-way slabs 1
Memb. w/o cont. shr. normal to span 1
There’
The table on this slide is from the IBC for the term KLL. Notice that for interior
columns, KLL is four. Since interior columns support a relatively large area, the
amount of diversity of load the member can experience is high. Notice that at the
other end of the spectrum, i.e., edge beams with cantilevered slabs, KLL is one
because the diversity of loading is less.
24
Alternative Procedure
R = 0.08 ( A – 150) (IBC Equation 16-

16-25)
R 40% for horizontal members,

members, 60% for vertical
members; or R = 23.1 (1 + D / L0)
A = Floor area supported
D = Dead load
L0 = Unreduced live load
R = Reduction in percent
There’
Using an alternative procedure, the reduction is a function of the loaded area over
150 square feet. The upper bounds on the reduction factors are shown in this slide.
25
Live Load Reduction
Limitations:
– Not for roofs – see roof live loads
– Not for Group A occupancies
– Not when Lo exceeds 100 psf, except 20% for
columns supporting 2 or more floors
– Not for parking garages, except 20% for columns
supporting 2 or more floors
– ‘A’ must exceed 150 ft2
There’
Live load reductions may not be applied to roofs, although there are other provisions
in the code for adjusting live load based on tributary area. These are covered in the
section on roof live loads.
26
1607.10 Distribution of floor loads

“Where uniform floor live loads are involved
in the design of structural members so as to
create continuity, the minimum applied
loads shall be the full dead load on all spans
in combination with the floor live load on
spans selected to produce the greatest
effect at each location under consideration.”
There’
Floor loads in Group A occupancies, i.e., assembly occupancies, cannot be reduced

when the load is over 100 psf except for columns. Live loads on parking garages
may not be reduced, except for columns, where the supported area is over 150 ft2.
.
27
1607.11 Roof loads (Table 1607.1), Lo
There’
IBC Section 1607.10 refers to the distribution of floor loads with regard to continuity
and the distribution of pattern loading. The greatest effect at each location is
identified.
28
1607.11.2 Reduction in roof live loads

Lr = Lo R 1 R 2
R1 = 1 for At 200 ft2.
R1 = 1.2 - 0.001At for 200 < At < 600 ft2.
R1 = 0.6 for At > 600 ft2.
R2 varies as a function of roof slope
There’
The IBC, Section 1607.11.2, contains information on the reduction of roof live loads.
The information includes a factor, R2, which varies as a function of roof slope.
29
1607.11.2.2 Special-purpose roofs

1607.11.2.3 Landscaped roofs
1607.11.2.4 Awnings and canopies
There’
The provisions in these three subsections apply to special roofs and are contained
in the IBC.
30
Snow Loads – IBC 1608
Ground Snow Load, pg

Flat Roof Snow Load, pf
– Exposure Factor
– Thermal Factor
– Importance Factor
Sloped Roof Snow Load, ps
– Surface
– Temperature
There’
Snow loads are a function of ground snow load. Ground snow loads are mapped
historical values that can be found in the IBC. Flat roof snow load, pf, is a function
of not only the ground snow load, but is also a function of an exposure factor (which
depends on the conditions of the environment), thermal factor (which is a function of
the insulation value, i.e., how the roof is constructed and how the building is
heated), and an importance factor (which has to do with building occupancy).
Essential facilities i.e., facilities which must maintain operation in the event of a
disaster, have higher importance factors. The baseline importance factor is 1.0 for
conventional or normal occupancies, i.e. non-essential occupancies.
31
Drifts on Lower Roofs, Behind Parapets and

at Projections
– Roof length (source of snow)
– Height of roof offset, etc.
Sliding snow
– Extent of upper roof
– Surface of upper roof
– Slope
– Snow Guards
There’
Snow drift loads occur as a result of the aerodynamic effects of the snow in a wind
stream and stagnation at obstructions like lower roofs, parapets, etc. Drift is a
function of the roof length, which is the source of the snow, and height difference.
Snow can slide from an upper roof to a lower roof and this load is taken into account
with the sloped roof snow factor. Roofs that shed snow by sliding can be designed
for smaller snow load. However, if the snow lands on a lower roof, then the added
load must be included in the design of the lower roof. Snow guards help prevent
snow sliding but do not eliminate the requirement to design for the sliding snow on
the lower roof.
32
Rain-on-Snow
– Where pg 20 psf, add 5 psf surcharge to
balanced case only.
There’
Rain on snow is a requirement of the code and applies in the limited situations
indicated in the code provision found in IBC1608.
33
Rain Loads – IBC 1611
1611.1 Design Rain Loads

“Each portion of a roof shall be designed to
sustain the load of rainwater that will
accumulate on it if the primary drainage
system for that portion is blocked, plus the
uniform load caused by water that rises
above the inlet of the secondary drainage at
its design flow.”
There’
With regard to rain loads, the roof must be designed for the weight of rain which
may accumulate on it, including the effects of having the primary roof drainage
system blocked. One must account for the hydraulic head as expressed by the
phrase “…caused by the water that rises above the inlet of the secondary drainage
at its design flow.”.
34
Rain Loads – IBC 1611
R = 5.2 (ds + dh) (Eq. 16-36)

– Where
ds = height to secondary inlet
dh = hydraulic head above secondary inlet
There’
Equation 16-36 is an expression for the rain load, R, that is a function of the height
of the secondary inlet, ds, and the hydraulic head, dh.
35
Rain Loads- Ponding
AISC Specification and Appendix 2
AISC Design Guide 3, “Serviceability Design
Considerations for Steel Buildings (Second Edition)
SJI Technical Digest 3, “Structural Design of Steel
Joist Roofs to Resist Ponding Loads”
Loads”
TECHNICAL DIGEST 3
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF
STEEL JOIST ROOFS TO
RESIST PONDING LOADS
There’
Ponding must also be considered and is addressed in the references shown on the
slide. In some situations, the design must minimize the expense of the roof drainage
system. In these cases, rainwater is retained (impounded) on the roof by design
and drains slowly away. This added weight must be considered. With regard to
roof drainage, ponding, and other matters related to rain load, it is essential that the
architect, the structural engineer, and the plumbing engineer produce a coordinated
design.
36
Wind Loads – IBC 1609
Basic Wind Speed

Topography
Importance Factor
Exposure Category
Enclosure Classification
Gust
Building Geometry
There’
The material on wind loads in the IBC is relatively brief, its purpose being to
introduce the fundamental topics. When determining the design wind load, you
must consider the basic wind speed (which is mapped), topographic conditions,
escarpments, and changes in terrain. There’s an importance factor with regard to
snow. The exposure category is based on the land around the building and its
development.
Exposure B applies in most urban and suburban areas of development for low rise
buildings as large or larger than single-family dwellings. Exposure C is designated
for open prairie, i.e., areas of very little development and very few trees. Finally,
Exposure D is used in coastal regions for designing buildings that front large bodies
of water. The Exposures and the associated Surface Roughness Categories are
further explained in the IBC.
There are three enclosure classifications, i.e., enclosed, partially enclosed, and
open, that affect the wind force on the structure. With regard to enclosure
classification, it is very important to make sure that the doors, windows, and main
structure are all designed for the same wind pressure.
Information on wind gust (rigid vs. flexible) and building geometry (height) are also
included in the IBC.
37
Wind Loads – IBC 1609
Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems

Components and Cladding
– Effective Area
Reference ASCE 7 – 05, “Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures”
There’
The provisions for wind loads are divided into two main areas, i.e., the wind loads
on the main wind force resisting system, and the wind loads on components and
cladding. When components and cladding are considered, you must account for an
effective area. Effective area is not equal to the tributary area; it is an area defined
by the code. The primary reference with regard to wind loads is ASCE 7 – 05.
38
Wind Loads – ASCE 7-05
Method 1 – Simplified Procedure

– Limited by 6.4.1.1 and 6.4.1.2
Method 2 – Analytical Procedure
Method 3 – Wind Tunnel Procedure
– If required by 6.5.2 or in lieu of Methods 1 & 2
There’
There are three methods for determining and distributing winds on structures.
•Method 1, the simplified procedure, provides wind load values taken directly from
tables. There are limits of applicability to the simplified method.
•Method 2, the analytical procedure, is just as its name implies. Using tables and
equations, you can determine the wind loads on the main wind force resisting
systems, components, and cladding.
•Method 3, the wind tunnel procedure, may be required for very sophisticated
structures. If so, the wind forces and distribution of those wind forces are to be
determined by wind tunnel tests. There is a procedure in ASCE 7 for that process.
39
Earthquake Loads-
ASCE 7-05
Seismic Design Category A
– Fx = 0.01wx
where
Fx = the design lateral force applied at story x
wx = the proportion of the total dead load of the
structure, D, located or assigned to level x
R values are not used
There’
With respect to designing for earthquake loads, the Seismic Design Category (SDC)
is of paramount importance. The Code indicates how to determine the SDC, which
is a function of the occupancy of the structure and the design earthquake ground
motion at the site.
SDC A is the least critical category. Shown here is the expression for the design
lateral force applied at story x. Notice that the R value (Response Modification
Coefficient) is not used in SDC A.
40
Earthquake Loads-
ASCE 7-05
Seismic Design Categories B and C
R = 3 permitted and should be used
ANSI/AISC 360-05 Specification is
applicable (Seismic Provisions not required)
There’
For Seismic Design Categories B and C, an R (Response Modification Coefficient)

value of 3 is permitted for design. When R=3 is used, the ANSI/AISC 341-05
Seismic Provisions need not be used for SDC B and C. This will generally result in
the most economical steel frame.
41
Earthquake Loads-
ASCE 7-05
Design Categories D, E, and F
Use R values per ASCE 7-05 Table 12.2-1
ANSI/AISC 341-05, “Seismic Provisions for
Structural Steel Buildings”, is required
There’
For SDC D, E, and F, the Seismic Provisions are required.
42
Earthquake Loads-
ASCE 7-05
Seismic Ground Motion Values
– Mapped acceleration parameters, SS and S1, 0.2
and 1.0-
1.0-second spectral response accelerations
– Site class definitions, site classes A through F
– Site coefficients and adjusted maximum
considered earthquake spectral response
acceleration parameters, SMS and SM1
– Design spectral response acceleration
parameters, SDS = 2/3SMS (short period), and
SD1 =2/3SM1 (1-
(1-second period)
There’
Earthquake loads are specified in IBC 1613 in conjunction with ASCE 7.

Mapped acceleration parameters Ss and S1 are 0.2-second and 1.0-second spectral
response accelerations, respectively. These are mapped throughout the nation.
The site class is a function of the soil type and its engineering properties over 100 ft
of depth and site classes A thru F are defined by the building code. The site
coefficients and adjusted maximum spectral response are used to form the factors
SMS and SM1. These values are tabulated and prescribed by the code and are used
to determine the design spectral response acceleration parameters SDS and SD1,
which are short period and one second responses, respectively.
43
Earthquake Loads-
ASCE 7-05
Seismic Design Category, A through D
– Value of SDS or SD11
– Occupancy Category, I through IV
Seismic Design Category E
– Value of S1 t 0.75
– Occupancy Category, I through III
Seismic Design Category F
– Value of S1 t 0.75
– Occupancy Category IV
Reference ASCE 7 – 05, “Minimum Design Loads
for Buildings and Other Structures”
Structures”, Chapter 11
There’
In Seismic Design, you must first establish a Seismic Design Category for the
building, which is a function of the value of SDS and SD1 for the site, and the
Occupancy Category I through IV. Again, the reference for this is ASCE 7-05.
44
Seismic Road Map
From a website, determine the latitude and longitude coordinates
of the building site. (http://world.maporama.com
(http://world.maporama.com).
).
Determine Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE)
– Using the latitude and longitude, the ground motion parameters
(Ss and S1) can be determined from the USGS website.
(http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/hazmaps/design).
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/hazmaps/design).
Determine Site Class using soil properties.
– Default to site Class D (ASCE 7, Section 11.4.2)
Determine adjusted spectral accelerations for site class
– SMS = FaSs (ASCE 7, Section 11.4.3)
– SM1 = FvS1 (ASCE 7, Section 11.4.3)
There’
Shown in this slide and the next is a step by step road map for the determination of
the seismic forces to be applied to a given structure.
45
Seismic Road Map
Determine Design Spectral Response Acceleration Parameters
at short period, SDS, and at 1 s period, (ASCE 7, Section 11.4.4)
11.4.4)
2 2

SDS SMS SD1 SM1
3 3
Determine Importance Factor (ASCE 7, Section 11.5.1)
Determine Seismic Design Category (SDC) (ASCE 7, Section
11.6)
Determine Base Shear, V = CsW (ASCE Section 12.8)
Perform Analysis
There’
Shown in this slide is the remainder of the seismic force determination road map.
The 2/3 factor is an assumed lower bound margin against collapse.
46
Seismic Maps
Figure 1: AISC Seismic Provision Requirements Summary for Seismic Use Group I and II
www.modernsteel.com/steelwise.php
There’
AISC created the maps shown in Figures 1 and 2 to give designers a feel for where
in the country a steel building will be in SDC D, E or F based upon two of the three
factors that affect classification: site acceleration and soil conditions.
The darkest blue areas indicate that the building will be SDC D, E or F for any soil
condition.
As the shade of blue gets lighter the soil classes that will produce SDC D, E or F
are reduced. The gray area indicates that no soil class, except for F, will produce
SDC D, E or F. Site specific spectra analysis is required if the Soil Site Class is
Type F and therefore cannot be mapped.
Figure 1, on this slide, is applicable for Occupancy Category I and II. The darkest
blue areas indicate that the building will be in SDC D, E or F for any soil condition.
As the shade of blue gets lighter, the site classes that will produce SDC D, E or F
are reduced. The gray area indicates that no site class, except for F, will produce
SDC D, E or F. Site specific spectral analysis is required if the Site Class is Type F
and therefore cannot be mapped.
47
Seismic Maps
Figure 2: AISC Seismic Provision Requirements Summary for Seismic Use Group III
There’
There’s always a solution in steel!
www.modernsteel.com/steelwise.php 48
Figure 2, on this slide, shows the effects of the provisions for Occupancy Category
III.
The darkest blue areas indicate
that the building will be SDC D, E
or F for any soil condition.
As the shade of blue gets lighter
the soil classes that will produce
SDC D, E or F are reduced. The
gray area indicates that no soil class, except for F, will produce SDC D, E or F. Site
specific spectra analysis is required if the Soil Site Class is Type F and therefore
cannot be mapped.
48
Seismic Design Criteria –
ASCE 7 – Chapter 12
Structural System Selection – basic lateral
and vertical seismic force-resisting system
per Table 12.2-1 or Combinations per
Sections 12.2.2, .3 or .4
– Seismic design category (SDC)
– Height limitations
There’
Earthquake design forces on a structure are a function of the structural system that
resists those loads. These basic lateral and vertical seismic force-resisting systems
are listed in Table 12.2-1 and combinations of the systems are listed in 12.2.2, .3
and .4. Some systems cannot be used because of limits due to SDC and height of
the structure.
49
ASCE 7-05- Table 12.2-1
Detailing Limitations by SDC
System R
Requirements B C D E F
OMF See ASCE 7 3.5 NL NL NPh NPh NPi
IMF And 4.5 NL NL 35h,i NPh NPi
SMF AISC 341 8 NL NL NL NL NL
Concentric SP 6 NL NL 160 160 100
Bracing OR 3.25 NL NL 35j 35j NPj
EBF 8/7 (1) NL NL 160 160 100
BRBF 8/7 (1) NL NL 160 160 100
SP Truss 7 NL NL 160 100 NP
h, i, j - Other limitations exist. (1) R =8 if moment connections are used away from links.
NL = Not Limited, NP = Not Permitted.
There’
This slide reflects a sample of the R values and restrictions for various steel
systems in Table 12.2-1.
•OMF is Ordinary Moment Frame.
•IMF is Intermediate Moment Frame.
•SMF is Special Moment Frame.
•SP is Special.
•OR is Ordinary.
•EBF is Eccentric Braced Frame.
•BRBF is Buckling-Restrained Braced Frame.
•SP Truss is Special Steel Truss Moment Frames.
•SDC is Seismic Design Category.
•NL is No Limit.
•NP is Not Permitted.
50
Table 12.2-1
– Detailing Provisions
– Response modification coefficient, R
– System overstrength factor, 0
– Deflection amplification factor, Cd
Used to determine
– Base shear
– Element design forces
– Design story drift
There’
Table 12.2-1 provides three parameters for the design of a seismic force-resisting
system, seismic response modification factor R, a system overstrength factor :o,
and the deflection amplification factor Cd. These parameters are used to determine
the seismic base shear, the element design forces, and the design story drift.
51
ASCE 7 – Table 12.2-1
Bearing Wall Systems
Building Frame Systems
Moment-Resisting Frame Systems
Dual Systems w/ SMF resisting 25% of
Seismic Force
Dual Systems w/ IMF resisting 25% of
Seismic Force
There’
Included on this slide is a list of some very fundamental structural systems including
bearing wall systems, braced framed systems, moment resisting frame systems,
and two dual systems, one where a special moment frame is resisting more than
25% of the seismic force and another where intermediate moment frames are
resisting greater than 25% of the seismic forces.
Each of these systems has unique design coefficients and factors per Table 12.2-1.
52
ASCE 7 – Table 12.2-1, cont.
Shear Wall – Frame Interactive
Cantilevered Columns
Steel Systems Not Specifically Detailed for
Seismic Resistance, Excluding Cantilever
Column Systems (R=3)
Shear Wall Cantilevered

There’
Column 53
Listed on this slide are shear wall and frame interactive systems, cantilevered
systems, and most significantly, steel systems not specifically detailed for seismic
resistance, excluding cantilevered column systems. These steel systems have an
R of 3 and are permitted to be used in Seismic Design Categories B and C. When
these systems are designed for the seismic force using an R = 3, they need not be
detailed per the AISC Seismic Provisions.
53
Eccentrically Braced Frames, Basic Equation:
non-
non-moment-
moment-resisting conn. at V Cs W
columns away from frames
– R = 7, 0 = 2, Cd = 4
SDS
Cs
§R·
Special Concentric Frames ¨ ¸
– R = 6, 0 = 2, Cd = 5 © I¹
Ordinary Concentric Frames
– R = 3.25, 0 = 2, Cd = 3.25
Eccentrically Concentrically
There’
Braced Frame Braced frame 54
This slide contains examples of three seismic-force resisting systems from Table
12.2-1. An eccentrically braced frame with non-moment resisting connections at the
columns away from the frames has an R = 3, an :o of 2, and a Cd of 4. For special
concentric frames, R = 6, :o is 2 and Cd is 5. In ordinary concentric frames where
R = 3.25, :o is 2 and Cd is 3.25. As greater ductility is detailed into the system, the
pseudo seismic force from the code, V (which is a function of R), reduces in value.
The seismic force demand varies inversely with the demand for ductility in the
system. The demand for ductility is reflected in the complexity and cost of
connections, whereas a higher seismic force is reflected in member sizes and
stronger, but necessarily more ductile connections. The selection of a seismic
force-resisting system requires the balancing of costs for the members and
connections so that the least cost system can be designed. In general, if R can be
3, then the overall structural system cost will be less than if R >3. When R must be
greater than 3, various alternatives must be compared to discover the least overall
cost system.
54
Special Moment Frames
– R = 8, 0 = 3, Cd = 5.5
Intermediate Moment Frames
– R = 4.5, 0 = 3, Cd = 4
Ordinary Moment Frames Moment Frame
– R = 3.5, 0 = 3, Cd = 3 (SMF), (IMF), (OMF)
There’
This slide contains R, :o, and Cd values for moment frames. Notice again how R
declines as ductility declines. When R declines, the seismic force increases.
55
Flexible vs. Rigid Diaphragms
Horizontal Irregularity and Vertical
Irregularity
Redundancy,
– Applies in SDC D, E, and F
Seismic Load Effects
– E = Eh ± Ev
– Eh = QE
– Ev = 0.2SDS D
There’
In Seismic Design, the designer must be concerned about a number of other factors
including diaphragms, i.e., whether they are flexible or rigid, and irregularity in either
the horizontal geometry or in the vertical geometry, which relates to the distribution
of forces. If there is sufficient irregularity, the code requires additional
considerations. The code also addresses redundancy in the higher design
categories of D, E, and F. If a system has a great deal of redundancy, then the
redundancy factor goes down and the design force is smaller. Conversely, if there’s
a lack of redundancy, then the design force goes up. The seismic load effect is
expressed as E , which is a function of two factors, Eh and Ev. Eh is the redundancy
factor times QE. The next slide defines QE. Ev is expressed as the equation,
0.2SDSD, where D is the dead load of the structure.
56
QE = Effects of horizontal seismic forces from V
or Fp
Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
– Seismic base shear, V
V = Cs W (12.8-
(12.8-1)
Seismic Demand on Nonstructural
Components, Fp
Fp = [ 0.4 ap SDS WP (1 + 2(z/h) ]÷
]÷(Rp/Ip) (13.3-
(13.3-1)
There’
This slide contains the definition of QE, i.e., the effects of the horizontal seismic
forces from either the term V, or Fp. The fundamental equation for the base shear
is V = CsW. Cs is a function of SDS.
Fp is the seismic force caused by the loads induced by the inertia of components.
57
Seismic Design + Detailing
Reference Documents for Steel
– ANSI/AISC 360 - Specification
– ANSI/AISC 341 – Seismic Provisions
NA when R = 3
– ASCE 19 – Steel Cables
– SJI Tables - Joists
There’
This slide contains a list of reference documents for steel and can be found in
Chapter 14 of ASCE 7:
•The Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, AISC 360
•The AISC Seismic Provisions, AISC 341 (Remember that these are not required in
seismic design categories B and C when R is taken equal to 3)
•Refer to ASCE-19 for steel cables
•Refer to the SJI load tables for steel joists
58
Seismic Loads
The 2006 IBC references ASCE 7-05 for

seismic design requirements. Spectral
accelerations (Ss and S1) are provided in
maps contained in this standard. However,
these values can also be obtained from the
US Geological Survey (USGS) website:
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/hazma
ps/design.
There’
Shown on this slide is a reference to a website where Ss and S1 can be obtained if

they are not taken from the IBC map. Ss and S1 can also be determined from other
web sites if the coordinates of the building are known. Several websites use zip
codes, however, be careful when using zip codes covering large areas and areas
with multiple zones as you can get varying values within these zip codes.
59
Load Combinations – IBC
1605
1605.2 Load combinations using strength
design or load and resistance factor design
1605.3 Load combinations using allowable
stress design
– 1605.3.1 Basic load combinations
– 1605.3.2 Alternate basic load combinations
There’
IBC 1605 provides both LRFD and ASD load combinations. These are also listed in
ASCE 7.
60
Load Combinations - ASD
BASIC COMBINATIONS – IBC 1605.3

D
D+L
(Lr or S or R)
D + (L
D + (W
(W or 0.7 E)
D + 0.75L
0.75L + 0.75(W 0.75(Lr or S or R)
0.75(W or 0.7 E) + 0.75(
0.6D
0.6D + W
0.6D
0.6D + 0.7E
0.7E
There’
This slide illustrates several basic ASD load combinations from IBC 1605.3. The
former 1/3 stress increase is reflected in the 0.75 factor shown above and restricted
as shown.
61
Load Combinations - LRFD
BASIC COMBINATIONS – IBC 1605.2.1
1.4D
1.4D
1.2D
1.2D + 1.6L
1.6L + 0.5(L
0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D
1.2D + 1.6W
1.6W + 0.5L*
0.5L*
1.2D
1.2D + 1.0E
1.0E + L + 0.2S
0.2S
0.9D
0.9D + 1.6W
1.6W
0.9D
0.9D + 1.0E
1.0E
* See ASCE 7-
7- 05 Exceptions, Chapter 2, page 5.
There’
This slide illustrates several basic LRFD load combinations from IBC 1605.2.1.
62
AISC Specification
B2 Loads and Load Combinations
“The loads and load combinations shall be as
stipulated by the applicable building code. In the
absence of a building code, the loads and load
combinations shall be those stipulated in SEI /
ASCE 7. For design purposes, the nominal
loads shall be taken as the loads stipulated by
the applicable building code.”
There’
Loads and load combination requirements can be found in Section B2 of the AISC
Specification. Loads and load combinations are those stipulated by the building
code and in its absence, loads and load combinations are those stipulated in ASCE
7. For design purposes, the nominal loads are to be taken as the loads stipulated
by the applicable building code.
63
Other Design Criteria
Drift Criteria
Loss Prevention (FM Global or other
insurance requirements)
Fire Resistance
Roof Drainage
OSHA rules
There’
This slide lists some common design criteria beyond the requirements for strength
in the governing code.
64
Drift Criteria
Code Requirements
– See ASCE 7-
7- 05, Section 12.12 and Table 12.12-
12.12-1
Cladding and Architectural Systems
– Addressed in detail in the lecture on serviceability
There’
The primary reference regarding limitations on drift due to earthquake loads for
various occupancies and systems is ASCE 7, Section 12.12 and Table 12.12-1.
The performance of cladding on architectural systems is covered extensively in the
lecture on serviceability.
65
Loss Prevention (FM Global)
Wind Forces on Buildings

Roof Deck Securement
Metal Roof Systems
Perimeter Roof Flashing
Roof Loads for New Construction
For additional information

Go to :http://www.fmglobal.com
There’
Shown on this slide are a few topics from the FM Global loss prevention guides.
Additional guides for other topics are also available from FM Global.
66
Fire Resistance
IBC Requirements
UL Rated Assemblies
(http://www.ul.com/onlinetools.html)
http://www.ul.com/onlinetools.html)
FM Global
(http://www.fmglobal.com)
http://www.fmglobal.com)
AISC Specification - Appendix 4
– Prescriptive option
– Performance based option
ASTM E119
There’
Fire rating issues are introduced because they drive the selection of many of the
parameters in the structural system. The engineer must understand fire rating
issues to support the architect’s selection of floor ratings. In addition to the IBC
requirements and the UL rated assemblies you should be familiar with FM Global,
and also the AISC Specification Appendix 4.
67
Fire Resistance
The architect establishes the fire rating
requirements and selects the design
numbers unless a performance based
design is used with a fire consultant. The
structural engineer addresses the
requirements of the UL design numbers.
Most steel structures are restrained
construction. See AISC Design Guide 19 for
detailed discussion.
Underwriters Laboratories Directory used to
select fire rated assemblies.
There’
The architect has the responsibility of establishing the fire rating of the structure and
usually selects the rated assembly design numbers. The structural engineer has the
responsibility of ensuring that the UL design parameters are incorporated into the
structural design documents. A useful industry reference relative to this topic is
AISC Design Guide 19. See Appendix 4 for engineered fire protection.
68
Fire Resistance
Nearly all Low- Rise commercial

construction is Type II-B per IBC; non-
combustible , zero rating
Many Mid- Rise and all High-Rise are Type
I-A (Fire-Rated) per IBC
2-hour fire rating required for floor beams
3-hour fire rating required for “Structural
Frame”
– Columns
– Lateral load system (bracing)
– Horizontal framing with direct connection to columns
There’
In general, the types of buildings covered in this lecture are characterized as

Type II-B, i.e., non-combustible, zero rating. Many Mid-Rise and all High-
Rise buildings are Type I-A (Fire-Rated) per IBC. These rated constructions
(Type I-A) generally require 2 hour fire rating for floor construction, and 3
hour ratings for the columns, lateral load systems, and framing connections
to the columns. This slide contains a very brief summary on fire ratings and
should be considered in much more detail with the architect of the building
using a code analysis. Refer to the Underwriter’s Laboratory directory to
select fire rated assemblies and identify the critical parameters of those
assemblies.
69
Fire Resistance
D902, D916, and D925 are typical UL designs

for steel construction
Per ASTM E119, steel beams welded or bolted
to framing members are “restrained”
restrained”
See paper by Richard G. Gewain and Emile W.
J. Troup, “Restrained Fire Resistance Ratings in
Structural Steel Buildings”, AISC Engineering
Journal, Second Quarter, 2001.
Visit http://www.ul.com/onlinetools.html for more
information
There’
The UL directory is the standard source of design assemblies to meet given

fire ratings. You should be familiar with the detailed footnotes that
accompany each UL assembly.
According to ASTM E119 and several recent research papers, most steel
construction may be considered restrained. Appendix X.3 of ASTM E119
lists the few cases where steel framing does not qualify for the restrained
condition.
70
Fire Resistance
There’
This slide contains an illustration of a rated design assembly D916 composite floor
system with ratings for both the restrained and the unrestrained condition. The
numbers in the circles illustrate geometric and structural parameters of those
specific elements.
71
Fire Resistance
There’
D902 and D925 are alternate composite floor assemblies.

Differences from D916 mostly have to do with spray applied fire resistant
materials.
Note that there are no major structural differences and that deck suppliers
approved for each assembly vary.
72
Fire Resistance- UL D916
Important aspects of D916

– Universally used for composite floor construction
– Minimum beam size is W8x28
– Normal-
Normal-weight concrete slab on metal deck
Minimum concrete strength = 3500 psi
Concrete thickness (over deck flutes) = 4 1/2"

1/2" for 2-
2-Hour
Rating
– Light-
Light-weight concrete
Minimum concrete strength = 3000 psi
Concrete thickness (over deck flutes) = 3 1/4"

1/4" for 2-
2-Hour
Rating
Requires 4 to 7% air entrainment
There’
This slide and the next slide cover the details of D916. Notice that a thinner
slab requires the deck to be fire protected, which can be expensive.
Also note that for NWC (normal weight concrete), it makes no difference if
aggregate is carbonate or siliceous.
73
Important aspects of D916
– Deck does not need to be fire proofed
– See UL D916
– Weld spacing at supports: 12”
12” o.c. for 12, 24,
and 36”
36” wide units
– Weld spacing for adjacent units: 36”
36” o.c. along
side joints
– Beam fireproofing thickness = 1 1/16”
1/16” for 2-
2-Hour
rating
– Shear connector studs: optional
There’
This slide lists further specific parameters of UL assembly D916.
74
The UL Fire Resistance Directory states

“Various size steel beams may be substituted
… provided the beams are of the same
shape, and the thickness of spray applied fire
resistive material is adjusted in accordance
with the following equation: [next slide]”
There’
This slide indicates the requirement for substituting a beam which differs from the
one identified in the UL assembly.
75
§ W2 · W Note: This equation is the same

¨ 0.6 ¸ t 0.37 as Eq. 7-17 in IBC 2006.
D
© 2 ¹ ×h D
h1 Note: This is for information only.
§ W1 ·
2
¨ 0.6 ¸ EOR is not responsible for

h1 t 3 in. specifying thickness of spray on
D
© 1 ¹ 8
material thickness.
Where: h = Thickness (in.) of spray applied material

W = Weight of beam (lb/ft)
D = Perimeter of protection (in.)
Subscript 1 = beam to be used
Subscript 2 = UL listed beam
There’
As the previous slide indicates, the UL directory states that steel beam sizes may
substituted, providing the beams are of the same shape and thickness. Fire
protection thickness can be adjusted according to the equation shown on the slide.
The equations on this slide are a function of the weight of the beams, the thickness
of the fireproofing, and the perimeter of protection. Subscript one indicates the
beam that is desired to be used, and subscript two is the listed beam. This equation
allows you to make an equivalent design with a substitute size beam.
76
Roof Drainage
Slopes
– Addressed in detail in the lecture on
serviceability
Ponding
– Addressed in detail in the lecture on
serviceability
There’
Roof slope and ponding are important considerations with regard to roof drainage,
and they are discussed in detail in the lecture on serviceability.
77
OSHA Rules
Code of Federal Code Regulations 29, Part

1926, Subpart R regulates the work of steel
erection.
These rules apply to steel erectors and their
employees.
These rules prescriptively describe features
of the structure that should be incorporated
in the construction documents and shop
drawings.
There’
Designers of steel framed structures should be familiar with the requirements of

OSHA, Part 1926 Subpart R. Although these rules do not directly govern the work
of design engineers, the prescriptively required features contained in the OSHA
rules should be incorporated into the construction documents and shop drawings.
Discussion and details related to OSHA, Subpart R rules can be found in AISC
Detailing for Steel Construction, and a Modern Steel Construction article by Barry
Barger and Michael West, dated May, 2001.
78
Design Information
Checklist
Structural design starts with confirmation
and documentation of design criteria. It is
prudent to establish a consistent format to
record the structural design information. A
typical format is shown in the next few
slides.
The design information should be the first
entry in the structural calculations.
It is important to confirm the governing code
with the appropriate regulatory agency.
There’
This slide and the following slides list information that should be contained in the
project file. This information is project specific and is fundamental to the project.
The design values indicated are just examples for illustration of a sample project.
The slides are presented for reference and can be used as a template to organize
data for a future project.
79
Example- Design
Information Checklist
Project Name: Medical Office Building
Architect: ABC Architects, Inc.
Project Number: 07-12345
Date: July 2, 2008
Project Engineer: OJB
Location: Bethesda, Maryland
Insurance Carrier: FM Global
There’
This slide contains a list of basic project information for the sample project.
80
Example- Design
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
A six story office building in Bethesda, Maryland. A
floor plate of approximately 24,000 SF and a total
area of approximately 144,000 SF.
Provisions for future expansion: None
Latitude: 38.9850N, Longitude: 77.094W
The Building Use Group: B (Business)
Equipped with an automatic sprinkler system: Yes
Construction Type: IIA per IBC-
IBC-06
Cladding: Aluminum Curtain Wall
There’
This slide shows a continuation of the basic project information for the sample
project.
81
Example- Design
FIRE RESISTANCE RATINGS per ARCHITECT
Structural Frame 1 hr
– Columns
– Framing to columns
– Bracing
Floor Construction 1 hr
Roof Construction 1 hr
Partitions and Shafts 2 hr
There’
This slide illustrates the required fire ratings for the various systems and elements
for the sample project.
82
Example- Design
LOCAL CODE REQUIREMENTS
Building Dept. Contact: John Smith
Date: July 6, 2008
Building code and year: IBC 2006
Local Ordinances: None
Wind Speed: 90 mph
Ground Snow Load: 25 psf
Frost Depth: 24 in.
Rain Intensity: 3.2 in. per hr
Seismic Spectral Acc.: None
There’
This slide lists various site specific code provisions and environmental factors for
the sample project.
83
Example- Design
CODES AND STANDARDS
Building Code: IBC 2006
Minimum Design Loads For Buildings And

Other Structures (ASCE 7-05)
Local Amendments As Applicable
There’
The required codes for the sample project are shown on this slide.
84
Example- Design
DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
AISC Specification For Structural Steel Buildings,
March 9, 2005
Building Code Requirements For Reinforced
Concrete, ACI 318-
318-05
Building Code Requirements For Masonry
Structures, ACI 530-
530-05
Design Manual For Composite Decks, Form Decks
And Roof Decks, SDI
Diaphragm Design Manual Third Edition, SDI
Structural Welding Code, ANSI/AWS D1.1-
D1.1-06
Seismic Supplement, ANSI/AWS D1.8-D1.8-05
There’
This slide lists the essential design specifications for the sample project.
85
Serviceability Criteria
Deflection Limit for Roof Members
– Span/240 for Live Load
Deflection Limit for Floors
– Span/360 1 in. for dead load
– Span/360 1 in. for live load
Deflection Limit for Spandrels
– 3/8 in. prior to cladding
– Span/480 5/8 in. for dead load
– Span/360 1/2 in. for 50% of live load
Drift: H/500 for 10 year wind
There’
This slide lists the serviceability criteria for the sample project.
86
Example- Design
ROOF DEAD LOAD - DISTRIBUTED
– Roofing (Adhered Membrane) 2.5 psf
– Insulation 3.0 psf
– Metal Deck 2.0 psf
– Suspended Ceiling 3.0 psf
– Steel Allowance 6.0 psf
– MEP Allowance 5.0 psf
– Miscellaneous/Fireproofing 4.0 psf
– Total 25.5 PSF
There’
The dead loads for the elements in the roof system are listed on this slide.
87
Example- Design
FLOOR DEAD LOADS - DISTRIBUTED
– 3 1/4s
1/4s LW Conc. over 3s
3s X 20 Ga Comp. Deck 48.0 psf
– Concrete Ponding Allowance 4.8 psf
– Total 71.8 PSF
There’
This slide lists the dead loads for the elements in the floor system.
88
Example- Design
MECHANICAL ROOM DEAD LOAD - DISTRIBUTED
– 3 1/4s
1/4s LW Conc. over 3s
3s X 20 Ga Comp. Deck 48.0 psf
– Concrete Ponding Allowance 4.8 psf
– Housekeeping Pads 20.0 psf
– Total 91.8 PSF
There’
This slide lists the dead loads for the elements of the mechanical room floor system
for the sample project.
89
Example- Design
ROOF LIVE and SNOW LOADS
– Ground Snow Load (Pg): 25.0 psf
– Importance Factor, I: 1.0
– Terrain Factor: C
– Thermal Factor, Ct: 1.0
– Exposure Factor, Ce, part exposed: 1.0
– Flat Roof Snow Load: Pf = 0.7(Pg)(I)(Ce) = 17.5 psf
< 20 psf
– Use 20 psf
There’
This slide lists the parameters for the determination of snow load and the roof live
load for the sample project.
90
Example- Design
FLOOR LIVE LOADS - DISTRIBUTED
– OFFICES: 50 psf
– CORRIDORS ABOVE 1st FLOOR: 80 psf
REDUCED FLOOR LIVE LOAD

– L = LO [ 0.25 + 15 / (KLL x AT)1/2]
– KLL = 2.0 - interior beam
– AT = 387 sq. ft. (10.67 ft spacing & 36 ft. span)
– 0.21 x 80 = 16.8 psf
– 0.21 x 50 = 10.5 psf
There’
This slide shows the calculation of floor live load reduction for a typical beam in the
sample project.
91
Example- Design
LIVE LOADS: An office building may have undefined corridor locations
during the early design phase. Floor loadings that accommodate
changes in corridor location are prudent, in order to anticipate these
changes, as the design progresses. Further, flexibility in the completed
building may be desired to allow future corridor relocation.
Office area Corridors

LL: 50 PSF LL: 80 PSF
LL Red: -10.5 PSF LL Red: -16.8 PSF
Partitions: 20 PSF DL: 90 PSF
DL: 90 PSF TOTAL = 153 PSF
TOTAL = 150 PSF
Therefore the corridor load with a reduced LL (79% or more)

could be used throughout and accommodate the building code
Live Loads.
There’
You can see from this slide that reducing the required corridor live load throughout
the typical office floors is a reasonable approach for the sample project. There is
only a 4.7 psf difference in total dead and live load after live load reductions are
taken into account.
92
Example- Design
FLOOR LIVE LOADS – CONCENTRATED
– Offices: 2,000 lbs
– Corridors above 1st Floor: 2,000 lbs
EQUIPMENT LOADS - CONCENTRATED
– Elevator Rail Braking Load: 6.0 kips
– Elevator Overhead Load: TBD
– Elevator Hoist Beam (mid span load): 6.0 kips
– Stair Hanger Load: TBD
There’
In this slide, concentrated loads for the sample project are listed.
93
Example- Design
SEISMIC LOADS
– Spectral Acceleration, Ss: 0.155
– Spectral Acceleration, S1: 0.05
– Occupancy Category: II
– Site Class: D
N = 15 blows per foot
Q UNCONFINED COMPRESSION ~ 0.2N = 3 ksf
Su UNDRAINED SHEAR STR. ~ 0.5 3000 = 1,500 psf
IBC TABLE 1613.5.5 (VS = 600 TO 1200 ft/s)
– Importance Factor, I: 1.0

– Site Coefficients: Fa = 1.6
Fv = 2.4
– Adjusted Spectral Acceleration: FaSs = 0.25
– Adjusted Spectral Acceleration: FvS1 = 1.2
– Seismic Design Category: C
There’
This slide lists the essential factors to be used in the determination of earthquake
design forces for the sample project.
94
Example- Design
IBC 1603 required data for Construction
Documents
– Floor live load
– Roof live load
– Roof snow load
– Wind design data
– Earthquake design data
– Flood design data
– Special loads
There’
Finally, this slide lists the design data that the IBC (Section 1603) requires be
tabulated in the construction documents.
95
End – Lecture 2
There’
96
Lecture 3: Serviceability
Design Criteria
There’
This module covers Serviceability Design Criteria.
1
AISC Specification
Camber
Expansion and Contraction
Deflections, Vibrations and Drifts
Connection Slip
Corrosion
There’
Serviceability criteria are referenced in Chapter L of the AISC Specification.

Chapter L lists five major topics:
•camber
•expansion and contraction
•deflections, vibrations and drifts
•connection slip
•corrosion
2
IBC – 2006
Table 1604.3
Construction Live Snow/Wind Dead + Live*
Roof / Plaster L / 360 L / 360 L / 240
Roof / Non-
Non-Plaster L / 240 L / 240 L / 180
Roof / No ceiling L / 180 L / 180 L / 120
Roof / Metal Roofing L /150 - L / 60
Floor Members L / 360 - L / 240
* For steel structural members, the dead load shall be taken as zero.
There’
IBC has limited prescriptive requirements for deflections and these are summarized
in Table 1604.3. Listed in this Table are deflection limits for various types of
construction, including structures with plaster and non-plaster ceilings, no ceiling at
all, metal roofing, and floor members. Three load criteria and three deflection limits
are provided for each type of construction, as applicable.
3
IBC – 2006
Table 1604.3 cont.
Construction Live Snow/Wind Dead + Live
Ext. Walls / Brittle Finish - L / 240 -
Ext. Walls / Flexible Finish - L / 120 -
Girts / Metal Siding - L / 90 -
There’
This slide illustrates deflection limit states for wall framing from IBC Table 1604.3.
The loading is for the effects of snow and wind - actually just wind, since the limits
are for walls.
4
ASCE 7-05
Section 1.3.2
“Structural systems, and members thereof,
shall be designed to have adequate stiffness
to limit deflections, lateral drift, vibration, or
any other deformations that adversely affect
the intended use and performance of buildings
and other structures.”
There’
ASCE 7 - 05 is another authoritative standard relative to serviceability. The

quotation on the slide indicates the requirements of ASCE 7. These are very
general. There are no specific prescriptive limits in ASCE 7 with regard to
serviceability. Other than the basic provision cited above, the remainder of the
material in ASCE 7 on serviceability is found in a non-mandatory appendix.
5
ASCE 7-05, Appendix B
Deflection, Vibration and Drift

Design for Long-Term Deflection
Camber
Expansion and Contraction
Durability
There’
In Appendix B of ASCE 7, there is coverage of the topics shown on this slide. They
are similar to AISC Chapter L, but notice that there is also a topic called durability.
The ASCE 7 audience is more general than the AISC Specification audience.
“Corrosion” of steel is generalized as “durability” (a more general term for corrosion)
and long term deflection is added because of issues related to creep in material
other than structural steel.
6
ASCE 7-02, Appendix B,
Commentary
Vertical Deflection
D + L -or-
or- D + 0.5S
Long Term Effects
D + 0.5L
Lateral Drift
D + 0.5L + 0.7W
L / 600 to L / 400
There’
The information on this slide is taken from the Commentary to Appendix B of ASCE
7 - 02. This commentary was dropped from ASCE 7 - 05. The ASCE 7 - 02
Commentary contained recommendations regarding load combinations for various
serviceability limit states to consider. Notice that the vertical deflection limit state
includes half of the snow load. The long term effects of deflection include half of the
live load, and for lateral drift, as the load combination has half live load in
combination with 0.7W. Since these are service load combinations, they reflect
load reductions for non-strength related limit states, recognizing the probability of
the real loads, as opposed to the life safety and long term strength load magnitudes.
Also note that the drift limit for structures is expressed as L/600 to L/400.
While these recommendations are not found in the 2005 edition, they are still useful.
7
AISC Design Guide 3, 2nd
Edition
There’
The primary reference with regard to serviceability is AISC Design Guide 3, now in
its second edition. It was revised in 2003 and re-issued with topics added and
updated references.
8
Deflections
x x x x
x3 x2
EIX ³0 dx ³0 dx ³0 dx ³0 qdx C1 3! C2 2! C3 x C4
There’
Shown here is the generalized equation for deflection. The majority of serviceability
concerns relate to deflection. The authors thought this slide would draw attention to
this point and it is included in this lecture so that there is a slide in the lecture that
contains an integral.
9
DG3 Topics
Roofs and Roofing

– Ponding
– Membrane Roofs
– Metal Roofs
Skylights
Cladding
– Ground and Frame Supported
– Tall Buildings
There’
Topics covered in Design Guide 3 include

•Roofs and Roofing
•Skylights
•Cladding
and those listed on the next two slides.
10
DG3 Topics
Interior Partitions and Ceilings

– Camber and Concrete Slab Construction
Vibration / Acceleration
– Human Response to Vibration
– Machines and Vibration
– Tall Building Acceleration – Motion Perception
There’
•Interior Partitions (especially with respect to camber and concrete slab

construction) and Ceilings
•Vibration
11
DG3 Topics
Equipment
– Elevators
– Conveyors
– Cranes
Pendant Operated
Cab Operated
Jib Cranes
Crane Runways
– HVAC Equipment
There’
And finally,
•Equipment, both from the point of view of the equipment’s effect on the structure,
and the structure’s effect on the performance of the equipment.
12
DG3 Topics
References
Summary Tables
– Roofing
– Skylight Supports
– Cladding
– Ceiling & Partitions
– Equipment
There’
All the references and recommendations are summarized in tables which are
located at the end of the Guide.
13
Roofs and Roofing
Ponding Stability
Membrane Roofing
Metal Roofs
There’
Ponding stability with regard to roofs and roofing is a principal concern. Ponding is
actually a strength concern. It is included in this lecture on serviceability, owing to
the fact that the ponding stability is a function of the response of the structure to
load, and the fact that, load can increase as the structure deflects. As the slide
indicates, serviceability will be discussed with respect to two different kinds of roofs,
membrane and metal.
14
Roofing – Ponding Stability
2005 AISC Specification

– Appendix 2 and Commentary
ASCE 7-05
– 1/4-
1/4-in. slope to drain
SJI Technical Digest No. 3 (2007)
There’
For ponding stability criteria, refer to the 2005 AISC Specification. There are
methodologies in the Specification for dealing with ponding stability in Appendix 2,
with supplementary material in the Commentary. The two methods are “Simplified
Design for Ponding” and “Improved Design for Ponding”.
Requirements with regard to ponding can also be found in ASCE 7- 05. ASCE 7
indicates that if a ¼” slope exists, ponding does not have to be checked; however,
one does need to be concerned about ponding in an area where water is
impounded around the drain at a low point.
The Steel Joist Institute Technical Digest #3 also addresses issues related to
ponding.
15
AISC Specification: Appendix 2
Cp + 0.9Cs 0.25 (Eq. A-2-1)
Id 25(S4)10-6 (Eq. A-2-2)
There’
The equations from the AISC Specification in the Simplified Method are shown
here. These equations have been in the Specification for years. They go back to
fundamental mathematical calculations regarding the deflected geometry of the
structure and the fact that the water can accumulate in the deflected shape. The
Specification provisions control stiffness and limit deflection so that ponding
instability does not occur.
16
AISC Specification: Appendix 2
§ 0.8Fy - f o · Up, the stress index for the

Up ¨ ¸ (Eq. A-2-3) primary member
© fo ¹p
Us, the stress index for the
secondary member
§ 0.8Fy - f o · Cp, the stiffness index for
Us ¨ ¸ (Eq. A-2-4)
the primary member
© fo ¹s
Cs, the stiffness index for
the secondary member
fo, the stress at initiation of
ponding
There’
The second methodology is contained in Appendix 2 of the Specification, i.e., the

Improved Method. It also has been in the Specification or in the Commentary for
quite some time and is based on a comparison of the strength and stiffness to resist
additional loads. The critical parameter is fo, the stress in the members at the
initiation of ponding. This method is treated in more detail in the Specification and is
also discussed in detail in Design Guide 3. The slide is included as a reference to
this method.
17
Membrane Roofs
Minimum Slopes – Maximum Deflections per:

– FM Global
– Steel Deck Institute
– Nat’
Nat’l Roofing Contractors Assn. “Manual”
Manual”
– Steel Joist Institute
– International Building Code
There’
There are various requirements and recommendations for minimum slopes and
maximum deflections in the standards shown here. Basically, roofs must be sloped
to get water off the roof and down the drain.
18
Membrane Roofs - Slope
IBC: ¼ in. per foot, minimum.

NRCA: Cautions this may not be adequate
There’
A common roof slope is a ¼” per foot, as reflected in the IBC. The National Roofing
Contractor’s Association (NRCA) offers additional guidance and cautions that slope
alone may not ensure adequate drainage. Roof deflection and obstructions that
inhibit free flow also must be considered.
19
Membrane Roofs - Size
Area Dividers for roofing at 150 to 200 feet
There’
The National Roofing Contractor’s Association recommends that the roof membrane
be divided into squares with area dividers to limit forces and stresses on the
membrane due to environmental effects such as temperature changes.
20
Membrane Roofs - Deflection
Steel Deck Institute

– L / 240, Total Load - or - 200-
200-lbs on 1-
1-foot
– Construction Load Table
Steel Joist Institute
– L / 240, Live Load
IBC Table 1604.3
NFPA Table 35.1.2.8.1.1
There’
The Steel Deck Institute, the Steel Joist Institute, the IBC, and the National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) all have criteria with respect to structural deflections.
Typically, deflection is limited to span over 240 for live load, but the Steel Deck
Institute also reminds us to limit deflection due to a concentrated load on a foot
width of deck.
21
Metal Roofs - TFR
Through Fastener Roofs (TFR)

– Length: 100 to 200 ft
– Slope: 1/2 - in. per foot, min.
– Support : L / 240, max., Snow Load
– Check purlin up-
up-slope from eave for drainage
due to D + 0.5S or D + 5 psf
There’
Metal roof can be characterized as architectural or structural. Architectural metal

roofs rely on an underlying deck for support. Structural metal roofs support loads
and span between supports, usually purlins or joists.
Metal structural roofs come in two forms, thru-fastener roofs and standing seam
roofs, where the roof is secured by clips that are integrated into the seam of the
steel membrane. Thru-fastener roofs (TFR) have length limitations that have to do
with the control of linear expansion and contraction due to thermal effects and its
effect on the fasteners. The minimum slope is recommended at ½” per foot. The
recommended support deflection is indicated as span over 240 for snow load. It is
desirable, and appropriate, to check the first purlin from the eave to make sure that
there is positive drainage off the roof and over the eave, which generally does not
deflect.
22
Metal Roofs - SSR
Standing Seam Roofs (SSR)

– Length: 150 to 200 ft
– Slope: 1/4-
1/4-in. per foot, min.
– Support : L / 150, max., Snow
– Check purlin up-
up-slope from eave for drainage
due to D + 0.5S or D + 5 psf
There’
In standing seam roofs (SSR), the lengths are increased because of the slip that’s
provided in the connections. Here the minimum slope is reduced to ¼” per foot.
Permissible support deflections are a little different from those associated with TFR.
Owing to the character of the roof, the deflection of the supports should be limited to
span/150. One should provide a design that does not allow trapped water behind
the eave/eave member.
23
Skylights
1 2
4
3
L1
There’
There is coverage of skylights in Design Guide 3. This is a graphic that shows

horizontal deflections of the supports, 1 and 2 as well as 3 and 4, which are
vertical deflections of the supports. Design Guide 3 provides recommendations for
absolute and relative deflections of the supports for skylights. These
recommendations are shown in the next slide.
24
Skylights
DEFORMATION RECOMMENDATION LOADING
SKYLIGHT FRAME 1/4 IN. GASKETED

DL + LL
RACKING MULLIONS
SKYLIGHT FRAME
1/8 IN. FLUSH GLAZING DL + LL
RACKING
DEFLECTION NORMAL TO
L / 300 1 IN. MAXIMUM DL + LL
GLAZING
1 + 2 ± 1/8 IN. 25 DEG. DL + LL
1 + 2 ± 5/16 IN. 25 < < 45 DEG. DL + LL
1 + 2 ± 1/2 IN. 45 DEG. DL + LL
3 + 4 L1 / 240 1/2 IN.MAX. DL + LL
There’
This table is taken from Design Guide 3 and illustrates skylight deflections for
various loading conditions, including combinations of 1, 2, 3 and 4. Alpha is the
slope from horizontal of the gabled skylight.
25
Cladding
Foundation Supported Cladding
– Tilt-
Tilt-up Concrete – Full-
Full-Height Precast
– Metal Panels
– Masonry Walls
Frame Supported Cladding
– Column Supported
– Spandrel Supported
See DG 22 for additional information
There’
Design Guide 3 recognizes two different types of cladding: Cladding where the
weight of the cladding is borne by the foundation, and cladding supported by the
frame. The connection details of the cladding system to the structural system are
critical. Design Guide 22 is an excellent reference document. At the time of printing
this lecture (April, 2008), Design Guide 22 was at the printer and is not included with
the handout materials. It can be downloaded at www.aisc.org/epubs.
26
Foundation Supported
Cladding
Connections / Details
– Determinate vs. Indeterminate
– Base Details
Frame Drift
– Bare Frame
– 10-
10-year Recurrence Interval
There’
Always try to make cladding connections determinate, rather than indeterminate. If

they’re indeterminate, that means that the behavior of the wall panel and the
behavior of structural frame are interdependent and this should be avoided. Base
details should be pinned rather than fixed. If a crack is anticipated due to base
continuity and frame drift, then a detail that controls the crack location is preferred.
The control of frame drift is essential to the proper performance of the cladding. For
simplicity, the model should only include the bare frame, using wind load
magnitudes associated with 10-year recurrence intervals. This is explained in more
detail in Design Guide 3.
27
Cladding
Tilt-up Concrete – Full-Height Precast
– H / 100 (Max.) - Drift Perpendicular to Wall
Metal Panels
– H / 60 to H / 100 (Max.) - Drift Perp.
Perp. to Wall
– H / 120 (Max.) – Girts and Wind Columns
Masonry Walls
– 1/16-
1/16-in. base crack – Unreinforced
– H / 200 (Max.) - Reinforced
There’
Different wall systems have different susceptibility to cracks. Thus, the deflection
limits for frame drifts vary from H/60 up to H/200. This has to do with the affect that
the frame behavior has on the panel material. There is also concern with respect to
the base details so that predictable and acceptable behaviors, i.e., cracks, occur
where the panel meets the ground.
28
Base Detail – Control Joint
BOND BREAKER
(FLASHING TYPE
MATERIAL)
BOND BREAKER
(FLASHING TYPE FLOOR SLAB
MATERIAL)
GRADE
1/2" ASPHALT
IMPREGNATED
FIBER BOARD
FOOTING
There’
This slide illustrates a detail for the base of the masonry wall. The bond breakers
create relief points that control the location of the crack at the base of the wall. Note
that without these relief points, the crack may occur at a relatively weak joint above
the base of wall.
29
Base Detail – Control Joint
GROUT ONLY
AT REBAR
WEEP HOLE
BEYOND AND
HOLLOW UNITS MASTIC AROUND
REBAR
CONTINUOUS
FLASHING FLOOR SLAB
GRADE
1/2" ASPHALT
IMPREGNATED
FIBER BOARD
VERTICAL REINFORCING
FOOTING
There’
Likewise, this slide shows the base of a reinforced wall. This detail is an attempt to
drive the crack to a predictable location at the base of the wall near grade, where it
is less noticeable.
30
Cladding
Masonry Walls, cont.
– L / 240 1.5 in. (Max.) – Girts and Wind
Columns
Lintels
– L / 600 0.3 in. max., DL + LL
o
– 1 rotation
There’
For masonry walls supported by girts, the deflection limits shown here are relatively
generous, i.e., span over 240, but not greater than 1½ in. The motivation for
permitting these relatively large deflections is that the masonry walls are
characterized by having relatively high stiffness and relatively low strength.
Therefore, the attempt to match the stiffness of the girts to the stiffness of the
masonry is not an approach that will result in success and one has to accept some
cracking. These recommended limits minimize cracking and control crack width.
The deflection limits for lintels are common standards taken from ACI 530 and the
Brick Industry Association, formerly the Brick Institute of America, publications.
31
Frame Supported Cladding
At Columns
– 1/4-
1/4-in. relative shortening of columns
– H / 500 - Racking
On Spandrels
– 3/8-
3/8-in. (Max.) – Loads prior to Cladding
– L / 480 5/8-
5/8-in. (Max.) – Clad. 25% of DL
– L / 600 3/8-
3/8-in. (Max.) – Clad. > 25% of DL
– L / 360 1/4 to 1/2-
1/2-in. (Max.) – 0.5 x LL
There’
For cladding supported on columns, the limits in low rise buildings for column axial
shortening are relatively simple. There is typically about ¼ in. relative shortening of
the columns, which should not be a concern in a low rise building. For frame drift,
H/500 for 10 year winds for racking is consistent with what was recommended in
ASCE 7 - 02.
For cladding supported on spandrels, be concerned about the deflection prior to the
installation of cladding and the deflection during cladding. There are two limits
depending on whether or not the cladding constitutes less than, or equal to, one-
quarter of the dead load, or greater than one-quarter of the dead load. Lastly,
deflections that occur due to live loads applied after the cladding is erected are also
addressed as indicated in the slide.
Design Guide 22 is a useful resource for design criteria and details for spandrel
supported cladding.
32
Partitions and Ceilings
Floor and Roof Deflections

Floor Construction Issues
– Flat and Level Floors
– Specifying Camber
– Camber Tolerances
– Maintaining Floor Elevation
Drift, Deflection, and Racking
There’
With regard to partitions and ceilings, be concerned about floor and roof deflections.
There is a section in Design Guide 3 on flat and level floors, including specifying of
camber and camber tolerances. The behavior of partitions and ceilings is also
related to drift deflection and racking.
This slide introduces these topics. They are covered in more detail in the slides
which follow.
33
Partitions and Ceilings
Floor and Roof Deflections

– L / 360 – Floor Live Load, SJI
– L / 360 – Roof Live Load (Plaster), SJI
– L / 240 – Roof Live Load (All other), SJI
– 1/4 to 1/2 - in. movement with common details
– Wall control joints at 30 ft
There’
These are the limits from the Steel Joist Institute relative to the deflections of the
floor and roof. Span over 360 for floor live load, span over 360 for roof live loads
supporting plaster, and span over 240 for roof live loads for all ceilings. These are
consistent with the requirements of the table from IBC presented earlier in this
lecture module.
One way to minimize the problems associated with floor and roof deflections is to
isolate partitions that run full height to the underside of the structure above. This is
done with slip details. Common details accommodate one-quarter to one-half in.
vertical movement. In order to control cracking in walls, it is also commonly
recommended that control joints be supplied at 30 ft intervals. This is particularly
useful in long corridors.
34
Flat and Level Floors
– Cast-
Cast-in-
in-place concrete on metal deck
– Composite construction
Camber for dead load
Shear connectors
– ACI 117 Tolerances
Thickness: +3/8 in., -1/4 in.
– AISC Specification
2 in. minimum above top of the deck
½ in. minimum above the studs
There’
For the most part in steel structures, floors are cast-in-place on metal deck.
Composite construction is common in the types of buildings in low and mid-rise
steel construction and camber is frequently used to compensate for dead load
deflection.
There are concerns related to shear connectors. Be aware of ACI 117 tolerances
for the thickness of slabs cast on metal deck of 3/8 in. over and 1/4 in. under
specified thickness.
Also be aware of the AISC Specification requirement for 2 in. of stud projection
above the deck. A minimum of 1/2 in. concrete cover above the shear connectors is
suggested to account for variations in top of steel and top of concrete.
35
Flat and Level Floors, cont.

– Overspecified deflection / camber
Overestimating Loads
– Use only slab and framing weight
Overestimating Resistance
– End restraint (use 80% of simple span )
There’
Over specified camber occurs not only from overestimating loads, but also from
underestimating resistance. A common way to address the potential of
underestimating the resistance is to use 80% of the simple span deflection in the
camber determination.
The usual goal of specifying camber is that the steel beams deflect to near level
after the placing of concrete on the deck.
36
Maintaining Floor Elevation

– AISC: Code of Standard Practice (COSP):
Splice Lines +3/16 in., -5/16 in.
– AISC: COSP:
Column Length +/-
+/- 1/32 in.
– ACI 117
– Steel Deck Institute (SDI):
L / 180, ¾ in., Evaluate using the maximum Dead Load
– SDI: L / 360, ¾ in., Evaluate using the maximum Live Load
There’
References to floor elevation tolerances are shown in this slide.
37
Controlling Floor Beam
Deflections
Increase beam size
Camber
Shore composite beams during construction
There’
Common ways to control floor deflections are shown on this slide. Cambering of
steel beams is discussed elsewhere in this lecture. At this point, it is important to
note that cambering steel beams has a cost and the most economical solution may
be to increase the beam size. The marginal cost of this solution is only the
additional weight of material.
Shoring of composite beams is generally not economical and is rarely done.
Shoring introduces another activity, i.e., the labor to put it in and remove it, and it
impedes the access to the floor for other trades.
38
Camber
Specifying Camber
– Don’
Don’t over-
over-specify camber
– Camber increment
Provide camber in ¼ in. increments
Always round down
When using computer programs verify method
Camber Tolerances
– AISC Code of Standard Practice
– Measured in Fabricator’
Fabricator’s Shop
Shop QC Program
– Beam L 50 ft - zero, +1/2 in.
– Beam L > 50 ft - zero, +1/2 in. plus 1/8 in. per 10 ft
There’
Specifying camber and camber tolerances is essential. Over specifying camber is

usually revealed when beams do not deflect to the expected position as loads are
applied during construction. The consequence of this is usually a slab that is too
thin in places or a slab whose top elevation rises and falls when slab thickness is
maintained.
39
Beam Camber Tolerances
AISC Code of Standard Practice Section 6.4:

– The camber tolerance is minus zero / plus ½-in
with an additional 1/8-
1/8-in. per each additional 10 ft
of length (or fraction thereof) for lengths in excess
of 50 ft.
– The AISC Code of Standard Practice indicates that
camber is measured in the un- un-stressed position in
the shop.
There’
The AISC COSP provides information on tolerances for cambering. Camber is to

be measured in the shop.
40
Camber Cautions
Don’
Don’t over camber beams with shear studs. Over-
Over-
cambering may result in the heads of the studs
protruding above the top of the concrete slab.
Be careful of camber differences between beams
and joists, and cambered beams or joists adjacent
to non-
non-cambered supports such as moment frames
and end walls.
Camber is usually performed by the fabricator after
the beam has been cut to length and after it is
punched or drilled. Beams which require square
and parallel ends, such as for end plate or welded
moment connections, must be cut after cambering.
There’
These camber cautions are significant and should be followed. The use of
camber is a topic that is covered in depth in Design Guide 3. It has also
been addressed in numerous AISC lectures and publications.
41
Members That Can Be
Cambered
Non-compositeBeams
Composite Beams
Trusses
– Continuous WT chords
– Segmented W shape chords
Crane Girders > 75 ft (AIST)
There’
This slide lists members that can be cambered or are at least likely
candidates for camber. The members listed are fairly obvious, i.e., non-
composite beams, composite floor beams and trusses can be cambered.
Notice that WT chords and segmented W shaped chords lend themselves to
successful cambering.
The criterion on crane girders comes from the Association for Iron and Steel
Technology (AIST). AIST Technical Report #13 also suggests that crane
runway girders of 75 feet or greater be cambered for dead-load deflection
plus ½ of the live load deflection.
42
Cambering Difficulties
Beams with moment connections

Beams with bracing connections
Spandrel beams supporting façade
Continuous beams with cantilevers
There’
Cambering beams used for the situations shown here can be problematic.
Beams with moment connections are not likely candidates because of the
extra effect to fabricate and fit up the heavier and more complex end
connections. This is also true with respect to beams with bracing
connections.
Cambering of spandrel beams is not usually recommended so that the
interface at the façade is more predictable. Camber, its tolerances and the
behavior (anticipated vs. actual) of the cambered member are additional
factors that have to be taken into consideration. The simplicity of heavier,
non-cambered members is usually a better approach.
If continuous beams with cantilevers are to be cambered, the concerns
presented above are all applicable, plus the concern that the camber profile
must be properly specified. In such cases, it may be that reverse curvature
is required. In the era when camber was induced at the mill, the
specification of camber when reverse curvature was required.
43
Cambering Difficulties
Beams with significant non-

symmetrical loading
Beams less than 25' in length
Beams with webs 1/4 " or less
Beams which require less than

3/4" of camber
There’
Additional members are shown here where cambering can cause difficulties.
Beams with significant non-symmetrical loading will have a deflection
gradient that may differ from the common symmetrical cambered curve that
is produced by the usual cambering process. Thus, the actual profile may
differ from the anticipated profile.
Mechanical cambering in a press generally is the most economical way to
camber beams in a fabrication shop.. The equipment dictates the minimum
member length that can be cambered using the machine. Mechanical
cambering of beams with thin webs may cause the webs to buckle. Large
cambers should be avoided in beams with webs ¼ in. or less. Members with
heavier webs will need to be substituted. Heat cambering can be done, but
it is expensive.
44
Camber
There’
Shown in this slide is a typical camber machine.

Vibration / Acceleration
Human Response to
Vibration (DG 11)
Machines and
Vibration
Tall Building
Acceleration – Motion
Perception
There’
Design Guide 3 briefly treats the topics shown here. Design Guide 11 is a good
reference publication for the design treatment of human response to vibration.
46
Equipment - Elevators
ASME A17.1
– L / 1666, Maximum deflection for support beams
Low Rise
– H / 500, Maximum lateral deflection,10-
deflection,10-year wind
Tall Buildings
– Provide predominant building frequencies and
amplitude of dynamic motion in contract
documents
There’
Elevators are of two types: hydraulic and traction. Hydraulic elevators are moved
by a piston, which is generally embedded in a housing in the earth below the
elevator pit. Traction elevators are moved by a system of motors, sheaves, cables
and counterweights. In both types, the cars are kept in alignment by tee-shaped
tracks, which run the height of the elevator shafts. Such tracks are also used to
guide the counterweight in traction elevators. Elevators impose few limits on
deflection and drift other than those listed above.
The design requirement for proper performance of elevators in tall buildings is a
complex topic that is beyond the scope of this lecture.
47
HVAC Equipment
Special Attention to Tilting and Racking

Review Requirements with Suppliers
Usual Standards Suffice
L / 150-
150-240 for Roofs
L / 360 for Floors
There’
The key feature of HVAC equipment is that equipment represents real loads as
opposed to code specified uniform loads, which may or may not ever exist at their
full intensity. Because of this, a degree of extra attention should be given to the
control of deflections as they relate to mechanical equipment.
This is especially true where the mechanical equipment loads are the predominant
part of the total loads on a given structure or component. Special attention should
be given to (1) the tilting and racking of equipment, which, if excessive, could impair
the function of the equipment, and to (2) differential deflection, which could deform
or break interconnecting piping or conduits. While the actual deflection limits on
each project should be carefully reviewed with the mechanical engineers and
equipment suppliers, it can be stated that buildings designed to the standard span
divided by 150 to 240 for roofs and span divided by 360 for live loads have generally
performed well.
48
Quip
“Strength is essential but otherwise

unimportant” – Hardy Cross
There’
The key quip to this entire presentation is shown here. Conversely, design for
serviceability is usually essential, but always important.
49
End – Lecture 3
There’
Lecture 4: Strength Design
Criteria and Systems
There’
In this lecture, strength design criteria and systems are discussed. The design
process that the designer should go through to arrive at a system that will fulfill the
building function is also discussed. This design process must integrate the
architectural non-structural elements and the other systems, such as M-E-P, with
the structural system.
1
Lecture 4: Strength Design
Criteria and Systems
Roofs
Floors
Columns
Spandrels
Architecturally Exposed Structural Steel
(AESS)
Lateral Systems
There’
The ways in which roofs, floors, columns, spandrels, AESS, and lateral systems
specifically influence the structural framing system for a building will be discussed
as well as the design considerations for each of the components in the structural
framing system.
2
Roofs
Initial Design Considerations for Deck, Open
Web Steel Joists, and or Beams
– Roof slope (IBC)
– Drainage
Slope the steel
Use tapered insulation
Location of primary drains
Location of secondary drains
– Roofing type
Weight and uplift
– Elevator Overrun
There’
The structural components that make up the roof system are the deck, open web
steel joists, and/or beams.
Roof slope:
The 2006 IBC requires a minimum roof slope of ¼ in. per foot (except for coal tar
roofs). The primary goal of this requirement is adequate drainage.
Drainage:
Slope for drainage can be obtained either by sloping the roof steel or by using
tapered insulation. Direction of slope is dictated by the location of the primary and
secondary drains. If there is an irregular layout of columns, then the use of tapered
insulation should be considered because pitching the steel framing rarely works.
Roofing type:
The roofing type selected by the architect affects the gravity and wind uplift loads.
Elevator Overrun:
Overrun is the distance between the elevator cab and the top of elevator shaft. Be
very careful to design for the elevator overrun. In projects with piston elevators,
there is no penthouse. Fit the overrun under the deck and avoid a projection above
the roof to minimize costs. Framing over the shaft usually needs to be arranged to
accommodate the overrun.
In some instances a beam over the shaft is needed to erect the elevator. The beam
may need to be removed in the completed condition to achieve the proper overrun.
In this case, it should be designed for easy removal.
3
Roofs
Deck
– Wide rib, Intermediate rib, or Narrow rib
– Deck height, 1.5 in. or 3 in.
– Steel deck vs. concrete slab on deck
– Fire rating, if any
There’
Deck:
Most designers choose wide rib decks due to their load carrying capability.
Sometimes 3 in. deck makes sense for roofs.
In hospitals and other high demand construction, roof construction is often the same
as the floor construction. Concrete slabs under mechanical units in an otherwise
steel decked roof may be a consideration. In this case, the roof deck also serves as
form deck and must be able to support the concrete as it is being placed. This will
influence both the deck and framing.
Deck type also depends on how many roof top units are anticipated. If there will be
a lot of maintenance and other traffic on the roof, then construction similar to floor
construction should be seriously considered.
Achieving the required fire rating, when applicable, will heavily influence the deck
selection and may necessitate the use of a concrete slab on deck.
4
Roofs
Selection of deck thickness is a
function of:
– Snow loads, drifts
– Uplift
– Span length
– Diaphragm strength and stiffness
– Corrosion
– Fire
There’
Once the previously cited items are considered, the design and specifying of the profile(s)
and deck thickness is required.
Deck thickness:
Deck thickness is a function of several of the items listed below. The most common
thickness specified is 22-gage.
Snow loads:
Basic roof snow loads and drift loads must be considered. Usually one thickness is used,
and if additional capacity is required, then the supporting framing is placed closer together.
Uplift:
Check minimum deck thickness to make sure that the mechanical fasteners can work for
the roofing material. Check FM Global or other insurance requirements and manufacturer’s
literature for other requirements.
Span length:
Appropriate deck span is determined from the bay size which will dictate the beam spacing.
1.5 in. decks will generally vary from a 4.5 ft to a 6.0 ft spacing on roofs. 3.0 in. decks will
generally vary from a 9 ft to a 12.0 ft spacing.
Diaphragm strength and stiffness:
Roof deck thickness may be controlled by diaphragm requirements. On occasion, due to
high lateral loads or unusual geometry of the roof, deck thickness may have to be
increased to obtain sufficient diaphragm strength. Usually one deck thickness is used and
the attachments and sidelaps vary with the diaphragm demand.
Corrosion:
The National Roofing Contractors Association (NCRA) recommends that roof deck be
galvanized.
Fire:
Most office buildings are Type II-B. It is very difficult, but not impossible, to make a rated
assembly using bare deck. Concrete may be required for more severe ratings. For
additional information see AISC Design Guide 19
5
Roofs
– Parapets
– Window washing supports
– Flag poles
– Roof top units, screens, and other obstructions
There’
Parapets:
Parapets cause snow drifts that must be considered. See snow loads above.
Window washing supports:
Davits for window washing are generally required for buildings greater than three
stories. A davit resembles the support for life boats on the side of a ship. If davits
are to be used, there are two concerns. The number one concern is that the davit
must be attached to the roof which affects deck details and column tops. Provide
column tops that can be used to attach the davit to the outside columns. The
second concern is that if intermediate davits exist, a beam with sufficient torsional
strength or a brace must be provided. Davits are generally removable and covers
are required. In addition, secondary tie-offs are required. These may also
penetrate the deck.
Flag poles:
Flagpole supports must be provided; you must know where they are to be located.
There are AAMA documents on flagpole loadings.
Roof top units:
Given how common roof top units are, the design requirements imposed by them
will be discussed in detail in the following slides. Screens must be considered in
that they create concentrated loads on the roof and often require extra support
steel. In addition, snow drift loads accumulate around screens.
6
Roofs - Concrete vs. Deck
Concrete roofs are simpler to fireproof.

Better attachments for hanging loads.
Similar construction as the floors below.
Loads and roof traffic.
Adaptability for future openings, equipment
and screens.
Sound deadening.
There’
In low-rise and to a lesser extent, mid-rise buildings, the preference for roof construction is metal
deck supported by steel joists or wide flange purlins.
In some cases, the use of concrete slab on metal deck is justified. Concrete slabs on metal deck are
more expensive, but the increased cost may be justified by the applicability of one or more factors.
Factors to consider:
Fire rating: A concrete slab on deck may be simpler to fireproof. There are rated assemblies for
metal deck roofs and joists, but the amount of fireproofing is usually greater. The members in the
assembly are lighter and thinner and the roof insulation acts as a barrier rather than a heat sink.
Systems in the ceiling space: If there is a high demand for attachments to support M-E-P and
ancillary equipment in the ceiling space, a concrete slab on deck is preferable. Attachments can be
made to the underside of the concrete slab on deck. Attachments are not recommended to be made
to roof deck.
Similar construction: If there are several stories of repetitious framing in the floors below, using the
same framing arrangement and details will simplify detailing, fabrication and erection. The same
deck and slab design can be used. The same slab perimeter details can be used.
Loads and roof traffic: A high performance demand building such as a hospital may have
numerous pieces of mechanical equipment that need to be maintained and replaced, and the need to
access penthouses. This frequent traffic and loads may warrant the use of a concrete slab on deck.
Adaptability for future openings, equipment and screens: It may be easier to adapt a concrete
slab on deck framed roof. It is likely that the framing will be more widely spaced and headers for new
openings can be more readily be installed. Local concentrated loads can be more readily
accommodated.
Sound deadening: The increased mass of the concrete slab on deck deadens sound from sources
such as overhead aircraft and heavy rains.
7
Roofs
Supporting Structure for Roofs

– Bay size
– Structural depth
– Framing direction
– Changing deck direction
– Cost
There’
Supporting structure:
Bay size:
Bay sizes are usually dictated by architectural criteria and will probably dictate member spacing
along with the deck. In steel structures, larger bays can be used, as compared to concrete
structures, with minimal cost increases. Economical bay sizes generally run from 30 ft by 30 ft to 40
ft by 40 ft.
Another consideration is whether or not the design must accommodate open floors requiring large
spans. For instance, if long span trusses over a large open space exist, then the roof trusses should
be spaced far apart, say 10 ft on-center, and 3 in. deck will then be necessary. A note of caution
here: When 3 in. deck is used, the diaphragm values are relatively low unless many side lap
fasteners are used.
Structural depth:
Once the bay size is (or sizes) are selected, think about the structural depth, and the specifics for the
roof members. Most floor to floor heights range from 12.5 ft to 14 ft. One cannot start to design the
members until the story height and ceiling space is fixed. Structural depths are not as critical in low-
rise and mid-rise buildings as compared to high rise buildings, in that the façade system does not
have as significant an impact on the structural cost. In addition, even by minimizing depth, it is
unlikely that an additional floor can be added to the structure. For example, it takes 13 or more
stories at one foot less depth to gain a story.
Framing Direction:
After selecting the structural depth, select the direction of framing, and then start selecting pieces,
and providing the sizes to the architect, or the design-build contractor. Framing direction costs can
be studied for any given bay size using the steel tools provided on the AISC website at
www.aisc.org/steel tools. In most cases it is less expensive to span the filler beams or filler joists in
the long direction, and to span the girders in the short direction.
Changing deck direction:
Avoid changing directions, this requires special details.
Cost:
From a cost viewpoint it is almost always best to use as few beams or joists as possible in a bay.
This minimizes handling cost in fabrication, shipping and erection. In this case, less is less.
8
Roof Top Units (RTU’s)
Rarely Have Uniform Density

Weight of Curb and Support
Frame
May require snow drift loading
around them
There’
Be aware that RTU’s seldom have a uniform density, thus the corner
reactions are not equal. The designer must make a conservative estimate of
the non-uniformity or obtain the information from the unit supplier. The
weights of curbs and support frames must be included in member selection
and the specified design loads. The designer is usually forced to use
estimates of weights and sizes provided by others, which must be confirmed
once the units are purchased. The weights of the units that are used in the
design should be shown in the construction documents.
Depending on the size of the unit(s), snow drift loading around the unit may
be an issue. In some cases, the snow drift loading may equal or exceed the
weight of the unit itself. A greater number of smaller units may yield a lesser
cost in the long run. This is a decision in which multiple members of the
design team and the owner will be involved.
9
Support Steel for RTU’s
Use steel beams for greatest flexibility, or

Use zoning with KCS joists
There’
Steel beams provide more flexibility than do open web steel joists with regard to the
location and magnitude of loads from RTU’s, but steel beams will generally be more
expensive than joists. Steel beams can be incorporated into a joist roof by using
shallow, coped ends on the beams. A good approach when steel joists are used is
to provide a zone on the roof where the RTU’s can be located. An RTU zone is
discussed in the next few slides.
10
KCS- Series Joists
Constant Moment Capacity

Constant Shear Capacity
Diagonals designed for stress reversal,
except end diagonal which is 100% tension
only
Reinforcement at concentrated loads is required.
There’
A versatile alternative to specifying special joists is KCS series joists. These

joists are ideally suited when the locations of concentrated loads are not
known. As long as the required shear and moment diagrams fit within the
resistance envelopes, the joist size is adequate.
11
Roof Top Zone
40'
40'
24KCS3
24KCS3
24KCS3
24KCS3
There’
If the exact location of the RTU has not been determined, and the steel
design must be finalized, an RTU zone can be specified. By using steel
beams, special joists, or KCS series joists, and by specifying worst case
scenarios of loading on the Joist Girders or main members, a zone in which
the RTU can be safely placed can be established.
12
Joist Reinforcement
CHANNEL
C6x8.2
There’
Typical joist reinforcement is shown here for the case where a concentrated
load is located between joist panel points. This detail is also required for
KCS joists when the concentrated load is located between joist panel points.
Whenever possible, this reinforcement should be installed on the ground.
13
Double Frame
JOIST JOIST
T.C. T.C.
ANGLE
FRAME
There’
An economical frame system for RTU’s is shown here. The angles, which
rest on the joist top chord, are designed to span between panel points so
that the frame can be located anywhere along the joist. Using rolled shapes
or KCS series joists gives complete flexibility to this system.
14
Floors
Partition System
Floor to Floor Height
There’
Before framing members can be designed, two items must be known:

1. What the partition system will be. For instance, if masonry partitions exist around
the toilets, this will obviously affect the floor loading.
2. The floor to floor height and ceiling plenum depth. These will affect filler beam
and girder depths, and may require web penetrations.
15
Floors
Composite vs. non-composite beams and

girders
– Shear connector cost
– Weather conditions, wet surfaces
– Inspection requirements
– Trade off in costs of beam weight, camber, and
shear connectors must be considered
There’
Important items to consider relative to using composite or non-composite beams

and girders are shown here. All of these items affect the structural cost. Weather
conditions affect installation. A wet surface between the metal deck and the
structural member below usually means that the studs cannot be welded properly.
The trade off in costs among member weight, camber, and shear connectors will
have to be assessed in light of costs in the current market. Consulting local
fabricators will be of great help in getting up to date absolute and relative costs.
16
Floors
Other Important Design
Parameters
– Floor load requirements
(corridors)
– Fire rating
– Decking system
– Elevator locations
There’
Floor load requirements:

Floor loading is very important. Corridor loads versus floor loads, file loads, and the
degree to which flexibility is needed are all considerations. On occasion, localized
areas with heavier loads are required to accommodate high density storage.
Fire rating:
The required fire rating must be known and the structure must conform to the
selected rating. This also affects whether normal weight or light weight concrete is
used. This in turn again affects loading. The weight of the fire proofing must be
included in the design loads. See Design Guide 19 for additional information.
Decking system:
The decking type and thickness will depend on the filler beam spacing and concrete
requirements. It is common to use composite deck even if the framing is non-
composite.
Elevator locations:
In order to frame the floor system, the location of the elevators must be known. In
addition, due to their size, they can affect the floor diaphragm strength. In tall
stories, the design may require additional divider beams at mid-story for the support
of the elevator guide rails. These mid-story beams can be supported on floor to
floor posts.
17
Floors
Other Important Design
Parameters
– Stair locations
– Faç
Façade system
– Vibration criteria
– Depressions and
plumbing stacks
There’
Stair locations:
Stair locations must be known in order to provide proper framing, i.e., is the landing
going to be part of the stair construction or part of the floor construction? Like
elevator locations, stair openings can affect the diaphragm strength and may
require special framing, especially if they are located on the building perimeter since
there is no slab to laterally support the compression flange.
Façade system:
The façade system and how it relates to the floor system must be known. You also
need to know what, if anything, is supported on the edge of slab and how far it
projects beyond the columns. The architect will develop the detail between the
column, the column cover and the façade. The structural engineer may have to
assist because if the architect wants a large projection distance, a different set of
details may be required. In the extreme case, cantilevered beam construction may
needed. See design Guide 22.
Vibration criteria:
Floor vibration criteria must be known and the design checked for conformance.
See Design Guide 11.
Depressions and plumbing stacks:
Floor depressions and plumbing stacks affect framing and various details. Shear
stud placement and consequently composite behavior may be affected in these
areas.
18
Columns
W Shapes
HSS & Pipe
Stacked Framing
Column Splices
Column Bases
– Piers
– Footings
– Anchor rods
There’
W Shapes: Are the most common column type.

HSS & Pipe Columns: Are efficient for axial load, but inefficient for moments. HSS columns are
generally economical for single story structures when the column height exceeds 25 to 30 ft. Round
HSS are commonly produced and available to match the profiles of pipe (but not commonly available
in other round cross sections). Round HSS (ASTM A53 grade B; Fy = 35 ksi) are stronger than pipe
for the same profile and can be substituted for pipe. Availability and relative cost of round HSS vs.
pipe should be discussed with a local fabricator. Not all tabulated sizes of HSS are readily available
and some are only produced to order. Again, availability must be checked.
Stacked framing (beams that interrupt the columns): Is generally used only for low-rise
construction, but is usually best avoided. Transfer forces through the beam must be carefully
considered. Frame stability is harder to achieve. ASTM A6 flange squareness, and over- and under-
depth tolerances must be considered. Stacked framing is best used at cantilevers when the
cantilever connections require unusually heavy connections and the columns are relatively light.
Column Splices: See the AISC Manual for standard splices. The EOR should specify splice design
forces if he/she does not design the splice. OSHA requires that splices be located 48-inches above
the finished floor at perimeter columns for the attachment of safety cables. Column splices should be
located where they are readily accessible during erection operations. Splices should not be located
near or above mid-story.
Column Bases: See AISC Design Guide 1, Second Edition, for further discussion. OSHA has
minimum prescriptive requirements for column bases, such as 4 anchor rods minimum, and a
minimum offset vertical load for stability of the freestanding column during erection. Piers and
footings should be designed to accommodate and develop the required anchor rods. Small piers do
not save money as there may be interferences between anchor rods and rebar. Loads near edges
may cause spalling and there may be insufficient room to drill in corrective anchors should they be
required.
19
Use AISC- Recommended
Column Splices
See the 13th
Edition of ERECTION
ERECTION ERECTION
ERECTION FLANGE
FLANGE
CLEARANCE
CLEARANCE CLEARANCE
CLEARANCE PLATE
PLATE
the AISC
Manual
Table 14-3
3"
3"
3"
3"
FIN.
FIN.
FIN.
FIN. 1-3/4"
1-3/4"
3"
3"
3"
3"
48 in.
T.O.C.
There’
Shown here is one AISC recommended bolted column splice; many other
alternative details are shown in Part 14 of the Manual Column splices are
located 48 in. above the finished floor to accommodate safety cables.
The AISC Specification permits a gap of 1/16 in. with no requirements for
repair or shimming. (Specification Section M4.4). If the gap exceeds 1/16
in., but is less than ¼ in., non-tapered steel shims are required if sufficient
contact area does not exist. Mild steel shims are acceptable for all grades of
steel. The shims must be contained (usually by tack welding), so that they
will not work out of the joint. For gaps greater than ¼ in., an engineering
analysis must be made. Tapered shims may be required or the required
strength may be developed through flange and web splice plates.
Alternatively, the gap may be ground or gouged to a suitable profile and
filled with weld metal.
Never specify CJP groove welding unless it is absolutely necessary because
the root gap must be preserved while the column is being erected, which is
very difficult. The required temporary lugs add to fabrication costs. Details
illustrating the lugs can be found in AISC Detailing for Steel Construction.
20
Use AISC- Recommended
Column Splices
See the 13th
Edition of
the AISC
Manual
Table 14-3
There’
This slide shows another common column splice. In this case, the attachment to
the lower shaft is welded rather than bolted as was shown in the previous slide.
Both slides illustrate splices in which both the upper and lower shafts have the
same nominal depth, which is the preferred condition.
Part 14 of the Steel Construction Manual shows numerous column splices for
various conditions. There is also a detailed discussion of column splices in AISC
Detailing for Steel Construction. Remember that column splices are connections.
They must be fully designed in the construction documents or design loads must be
provided. This is more fully covered in Part 7 of this lecture.
21
Spandrels
Types of Faç
Façade
Serviceability
Edge Details
Tolerances
See DG 22
There’
The type of façade system selected affects strength and serviceability design
criteria as well as edge details and tolerances.
One concern with spandrels is how the façade system is built around, in front of, or
behind the spandrels. Another concern involves fireproofing (when it is needed)
and how the fireproofing can be installed on all surfaces of the spandrels.
At stair locations where the floor does not exist, you must determine how to keep
that spandrel from twisting. In addition, the spandrel may be subjected to lateral
loads. The spandrel may have to be braced with kickers or cover plated.
Most spandrel problems are the result of steel beam deflections and twisting.
Cladding, that is designed to be foundation or column supported seldom causes
spandrel deflection problems.
22
Spandrels and Façades
Areas of Concern
1. Projection and Construction
2. Loads and Deflections (including
rotations)
3. Tolerances and Adjustment
There’
These are the principal areas of design concern relative to spandrels and the
perimeter of the structural steel frame.
23
Projection and Construction

– Light gage pour stop (no façade load)
– Angle vs. Bent Plate
Horizontal and vertical dimensions
– Cantilever length
Plate bending vs. brackets
Slab cantilever for final loads vs. steel
framing
– “Kickers”
There’
This slide illustrates items to consider relative to projection and construction. As the
load and projection dimension increase, the construction becomes more substantial.
If the façade and other loads in the completed work are supported from a
cantilevering slab, then the perimeter condition serves as a form for the concrete
and must be sufficient to support its loads.
24
Loads and Deflections

– Consider deflection before, during,
and after façade installation
– See Design Guides 3 and 22
There’
With respect to loads and deflections, consider the deflection that occurs before,
during, and after façade installation. AISC Design guides 3 and 22 contain
information on this topic.
25
Tolerances and Adjustment

– Design Guide 22
ACI 530 - Code
PCI – Tolerance Manual
AAMA – Installation Manuals
GFRC - Recommended Practice, PCI
EIFS – Design Handbook, Thomas
There’
Additional information on tolerances are contained in the documents shown here.

For those not familiar with the acronyms ACI, PCI, AAMA, GFRC and EIFS, they
are:
•ACI: American Concrete Institute

•PCI: Prestressed Concrete Institute
•AAMA: American Architectural Manufacturers Association
•GFRC: Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete
•EIFS: Exterior Insulation and Finish System
The tolerances for the steel frame and the tolerances for the façade system must be
harmonized in the design. Providing adjustable details is one way of accomplishing
this, but the adjustability depends upon the difference in magnitude for the
tolerances of the mating systems.
26
Tolerances and Adjustment

– Provide for field adjustment
– Do not shop install slab edge material
– See COSP, paragraph 7.13.1.3
“Adjustable Items” – position and
alignment
There’
Guidelines for perimeter material are shown here. The key is adjustment. The
design engineer should be familiar with the COSP tolerances for adjustable material
and supplement them in the project specification as appropriate.
27
Spandrel Detail – Not
Recommended
COLD FORMED STUD
SLAB
SLAB
EDGE
PLATE
SPANDREL BEAM
There’
The detail on this slide will generally not work because tolerances will
conflict. There is no adjustment provided.
28
Spandrel Detail -
Recommended
CLEARANCE FOR
ADJUSTMENT
GA. CLIP
ANGLE
SLAB
SLAB
EDGE
PLATE
SPANDREL BEAM
There’
This slide illustrates a better detail that includes capability to adjust for
tolerances.
29
Recommended
SLAB
SLAB
EDGE
PLATE
SPANDREL BEAM
ANGLE
FRAME
There’
This is not a good detail since there is no adjustment. Note that the vertical angle is
directly welded to the edge plate.
30
Spandrel Detail -
Recommended
CLEARANCE FOR
ADJUSTMENT
SLAB EDGE
PLATE
AFTER SLAB
ADJ.,
TYP.
SPANDREL BEAM
ANGLE
ERECTION BOLTS
HORIZ. SLOTS IN OUTLOOKER
VERT. SLOTS IN FRAME.
FRAME
There’
This illustrates a better detail.

Note that slots are provided in both directions.
Consider torsion in the beam. To focus attention on the perimeter detail,
kickers are not shown, but they may be required.
31
Recommended
Use stitch
weld topside
only
There’
Do not specify the overhead fillet weld unless it is absolutely required. The
weld is costly and requires the welder to work on the exterior of the building.
This is a safety hazard to the welder and to those below. If an additional
weld is required on the bent plate, use a plug weld on the top side.
32
Interior Slab Edge
There’
Shown in this slide is an interior slab edge detail with a fireproofed steel beam and a
rated shaft wall. This detail could be applicable at an elevator shaft, stair or
mechanical shaft. The shaft wall illustrated is only one example. For clarity,
fasteners and drywall blocking has been omitted. Needless to say, because the
shaft wall is a rated assembly, the construction details must adhere to the tested
assembly requirements.
Close collaboration between the architect and structural engineer is essential for the
successful design of this detail.
33
Interior Slab Edge
Accommodate
differential floor
deflection.
Beam set back

for fireproofing.
There’
Note the shaft wall has been detailed to accommodate differential floor deflection.
As stated elsewhere in this lecture, the amount of movement that can be
accommodated is limited. Thus, the beam deflection must be limited to the range of
movement that the detail can accommodate. The range of movement that can be
accommodated is indicated in the detail in the slide.
The floor beam is fireproofed. The beam must be set back from the slab edge a
sufficient distance so that the fireproofing can be installed and, subsequently, the
shaft wall construction. In order to set this set back, the beam size, the fireproofing
requirements and the shaft wall construction details must be known.
Note that the shaft wall finish covers the face of the bent plate. Setting the face of
the bent plate in plan requires dimensioning the inside face of the shaft wall and
deducting the space for the wall finish.
34
Interior Slab Edge
Establish the location of

the bent plate between
the inside face of the
shaft and the beam
centerline.
There’
Only after the shaft has been positioned in plan, the architecture shaft wall details
have been established, the fireproofing requirements set and the beam sized, can
the beam be dimensioned in plan. Because of the relative complexity of this effort,
for the sake of efficiency, the architect and structural engineer need to work
together to set a common workable dimension between inside face of the shaft and
beam centerline that will suit all conditions.
When the position of the beam is set relative to the shaft is set, the slab edge detail
can be designed. The options are gage edge form, angle and bent plate. The
structural design issues are essentially the same as for slab edges at facades.
35
Mechanical Openings
Mechanical openings, other than primary dedicated
mechanical shafts, will vary until the ductwork and
other mechanical equipment is finalized.
All openings for ductwork should be shown on the
structural framing plans.
Primary framing should not be aligned to
accommodate ductwork openings, rather secondary
framing should be used to frame the openings.
Light secondary framing can be more readily
adapted for last minute changes than primary
framing.
There’
The fundamental message of this slide is that changes to dimensions and locations
of primary members must be avoided if at all possible. This minimizes the potential
for disruption for the detailing and fabrication process. Light secondary framing is
easier to modify and can be modified in the field if necessary.
36
Architecturally Exposed
Structural Steel (AESS)
AESS is defined in Chapter 10 of the COSP and
involves special requirements for handling, certain
requirements for finish, stricter tolerances for
fabrication, and stricter tolerances for erection.
AESS members must be designated in the Contract
Documents.
COSP requirements are minimum standards for
AESS and can be made stricter in the Contract
Documents; however, cost may increase
exponentially.
There’
The AESS Specification of Architecturally Exposed Structural Steel imposes

significant costs on the fabrication, shipping, and erection of the structural steel.
AESS should be specified only after a cost/benefit analysis has been made.
Fabricators can provide useful cost and schedule information for this analysis.
37
Where AESS and Non-
Non-AESS members meet,
details must accommodate adjustment.
Just because you can see the steel does not mean
that you should specify AESS. Conventional steel
fabrication may suffice to meet the architectural
intent.
See the COSP for further information.
Mock-
Mock-ups may facilitate the AESS Specification and
acceptance process. If mock-
mock-ups are required, they
must be specified in the contract documents.
See AISC, Architecturally Exposed Structural Steel,
a supplement to Modern Steel May 2003.
There’
This slide provides further comments related to AESS. The adjustment where
AESS meets non-AESS material is essential because the two systems are
fabricated and erected to different tolerances.
38
Picture taken from,
“Architecturally Exposed Structural
Steel, a supplement to Modern
Steel”
Steel”, May 2003.
The left half of the sample shows a typical grove weld.

The right half shows the same weld ground smooth.
There’
Pictures and other information related to AESS can be found in the referenced
document. The samples of work will guide the specifier to achieve a better
understanding of what AESS is and what it is not. AESS requires a higher level of
fit and finish. It must be remembered that the material is still structural steel.
39
Lateral Load Resisting
Systems
Horizontal Bracing Systems
Vertical Lateral Load resisting Systems
There’
In the next few slides we will discuss horizontal bracing systems and vertical lateral
load resisting systems.
40
Systems
Location of the Vertical Lateral Load
Resisting System
– The building plan will dictate the location of
shear walls, vertical bracing, and moment
frames.
There’
When designing the lateral load resisting system, determine where the bracing
systems is to be located and determine whether or not there can be dedicated walls
at that location.
Architects will always want to put the walls on the outside of the building behind the
stairs where there is no gravity load and where it is very difficult.
To get the load in and out of the bracing without strutting. Locate places to put the
bracing where there is gravity dead load, otherwise the foundation system will
become monumental.
The immediate response to your suggestions from the architect will be “no”! As
always, there are trade offs between efficiency in the vertical bracing and the use of
the floor and future flexibility. Only by working together in a collegial manner can
these trade offs be resolved.
Be aware of the stair door locations and how that may change at different floor as
the doors often interfere with the bracing. If a suitable place for the bracing cannot
be found, then the next logical choice is to design moment frames or a mixed lateral
system for the structure.
41
Systems
Vertical Lateral Load Resisting Systems vs.
Moment Frames
There’
A general rule when designing for lateral loads in low-rise and mid-rise buildings is
that if you can use vertical bracing or shear walls, it is likely to be a more
economical solution than using rigid frames. The problem with vertical bracing
systems and shear walls is that architects want to locate them in places where:
1. Shear loads cannot be transferred to the vertical bracing unless a complicated
strut system is provided, and
2. Many times there is little to no dead load on the vertical bracing system which
means that large footings will be required to keep the structure from overturning.
Carefully consider tolerances, timing, and coordination when using concrete and
masonry shear walls.
Concrete and masonry shear walls are usually built in advance of the erection of the
steel frame which influences the time of construction. Building the walls after
steel erection significantly increases the complexity of the details and work in the
field by all of the affected parties.
Consider torsional effects that result from the location of bracing in the plan. The
center of mass for the lateral system should be as close as possible to the
center of resistance.
42
– Horizontal Strap Bracing

– Horizontal Trusses
– Roof Diaphragms
– Floor Diaphragms
There’
Listed on this slide are the various types of horizontal bracing systems. The
horizontal strap bracing can be placed on the top of roof beams or joists. The use
of roof and floor diaphragms is generally preferred, although horizontal trusses in
lieu of diaphragms will greatly facilitate the erection of large roofs and floors.
43
The Role of Diaphragms
Purpose: To distribute lateral forces to the elements of the

Vertical Lateral Load Resisting system
Diaphragms behave as horizontal continuous beams
spanning between, and supported by, the vertical lateral
load resisting system
Members at floor edges act as the flanges of the
continuous beam
Floor acts as web of continuous beam
Critical for stability of structure as “leaning”
leaning” columns of
structure get stability from the vertical lateral load
resisting system through the diaphragm
There’
This slide describes the very important role of diaphragms in the structural
lateral load system.
Design of the diaphragm and connection to the vertical bracing system is an
essential part of the structural framing system and should be given
appropriate design attention.
44
Diaphragm Terminology
Collector
Beam Tension Chord
Collector
Drag Strut
Beam
Vertical
Lateral Diaphragm Interruption
Vertical
Load Lateral
Element Load
Floor or Roof Diaphragm
Element
Compression Chord
There’
This slide provides the terminology used in the design of diaphragms.
45
Types of Diaphragms - Materials
Concrete slab
Concrete on metal deck
Precast elements with or without
concrete topping slab
– Staggered truss system
– Low floor height buildings
Un-topped metal deck (roof deck)
Plywood sheathing
There’
This slide lists common diaphragm types used in buildings.
46
Diaphragm Classification
From ASCE 7- 7-05:
“12.3.1 Diaphragm Flexibility. The structural
analysis shall consider the relative stiffnesses of
diaphragms and the vertical elements of the
seismic force-
force-resisting system. Unless a
diaphragm can be idealized as either flexible or
rigid in accordance with Sections 12.3.1.1, 12.3.1.2,
or 12.3.1.3, the structural analysis shall explicitly
include consideration of the stiffness of the
diaphragm (i.e., semi rigid modeling assumption).”
assumption).”
There’
This slide, and the following slides, list design criteria for diaphragms taken from
ASCE 7-05. Diaphragm flexibility is defined on this slide.
47
From ASCE 7-05:

“12.3.1.1 Flexible Diaphragm Condition.
Diaphragms constructed of untopped steel
decking or wood structural panels are
permitted to be idealized as flexible in
structures in which the vertical elements are
steel or composite steel and concrete
braced frames, or concrete, masonry, steel,
or composite shear walls….”
There’
ASCE 7 provides this prescriptive definition of the flexible diaphragm condition.
48
Flexible
– Distributes horizontal forces to vertical lateral
load resisting system elements independent of
relative rigidities of vertical lateral load resisting
system elements
– Distributes horizontal forces to vertical lateral
load resisting system elements based on
tributary areas
– Diaphragm deflection significantly large
compared to that of vertical lateral load
resisting system elements
There’
Flexible and rigid diaphragms are classified by stiffness and relative

deflections. Flexible diaphragms are described here.
49
From ASCE 7-05:

“12.3.1.2 Rigid Diaphragm Condition.
Diaphragms of concrete slabs or concrete
filled metal deck with span-to-depth ratios of
3 or less in structures that have no
horizontal irregularities are permitted to be
idealized as rigid.”
There’
ASCE 7 provides this prescriptive definition of the rigid diaphragm condition.
50
Rigid
– Distributes horizontal forces to elements in
direct proportion to relative rigidities of vertical
lateral load resisting system elements
– Diaphragm deflection insignificant compared to
that of vertical lateral load resisting system
elements
There’
Again, flexible and rigid diaphragms are classified by stiffness and relative
deflections. Rigid diaphragms are described on this slide.
51
From ASCE 7- 7-05:
“12.3.1.3 Calculated Flexible Diaphragm
Condition. Diaphragms not satisfying the
conditions of Sections 12.3.1.1 or 12.3.1.2 are
permitted to be idealized as flexible where the
computed maximum in- in-plane deflection of the
diaphragm under lateral load is more than two
times the average story drift of adjoining vertical
elements of the seismic force-
force-resisting system of
the associated story under equivalent tributary
lateral load as shown in Fig. 12.3-
12.3-1. The loadings
used for this calculation shall be those prescribed
by Section 12.8.”
12.8.”
There’
ASCE 7 indicates that one can determine if a diaphragm is flexible or rigid by

calculation.
52
ASCE 7-
7- 05: If 'd > 2 times the deflection of the vertical
lateral load system, the diaphragm can be
considered as flexible.
'd 'frame
F/L
Elevation
There’
This slide provides the ASCE 7 stiffness classification and definition for
diaphragms in text and graphic illustration.
53
Diaphragm Considerations
Strength
– The strength of various diaphragm systems
can be found in the SDI “Diaphragm Design
Manual”
Manual”, Third Edition, and from
Manufacturers literature.
Deflection
– The deflection of a roof or floor diaphragm
can most easily be determined by using the
procedures contained in the “Diaphragm
Design Manual”
Manual”. Data is contained in the
Manual for this calculation, for different types
of diaphragms.
Holes in diaphragms
– Also see the SDI “Diaphragm Design Manual”Manual”
for a discussion on diaphragm openings.
There’
Strength and stiffness values for diaphragms, as well as design procedures, can be
found in the Steel Deck Institute (SDI) Diaphragm Manual.
54
Systems
Moment Frames
– Ordinary Moment Frames (OMF)
– Special Truss Moment Frames (STMF)
– Intermediate Moment Frames (IMF)
– Special Moment Frames (SMF)
Vertical Bracing Systems

– Ordinary Concentric Braced Frames (OCBF)
– Special Concentric Braced Frames (SCBF)
– Eccentrically Braced Frames (EBF)
– Buckling Restrained Braced Frames (BRBF)
– Concrete, Masonry and Steel Plate (SPSW) Shear
Walls. See AISC Design Guide 20
Dual Systems
There’
The next series of slides present various lateral load resisting systems that can be
used in low-rise and mid-rise construction. Design Guide 20, Steel Plate Shear
Walls, is a useful reference.
55
Systems- Moment Frames
Moment frames
– Do not interfere with
architecture
– Placed at perimeter for
greater depth of girders
– Use up to 10 to 20 stories
– Drift often controls
Moment Frame
(OMF)
There’
Moment frames are often used since they generally do not interfere with the
functional use of the building. Moment frames are frequently placed on the
perimeter of the building because depth considerations for the beams (spandrels)
are not as stringent as they are for interior frame lines. Thus, deeper beams can be
used on the perimeter of the building. Depending on the magnitude of the lateral
loads, moment frames can be economically used in buildings up to 10 stories, and
in some cases up to 20 stories. One disadvantage of moment frames is that drift
generally controls the design and larger members are required. On the other hand,
braced frames are generally controlled by strength.
56
Moment Frames Seismic
Considerations
– There are no use
restrictions for OMFs in
Seismic Design Categories
A, B, and C.
– There are no restrictions on
SMFs for Seismic Design
Categories B – F
– See ASCE 7 for other
Moment Frame
limitations. (SMF), (IMF), (OMF)
There’
Ordinary moment frames can be used, and often are used, in seismic areas. ASCE
7 indicates that there are no limitations relative to moment frames for Seismic
Design Categories A, B, or C; however, to avoid using the AISC Seismic Provisions,
it is suggested that R be taken as 3.
There are no restrictions on SMFs for Seismic Design Categories B – F. For IMFs
and OMFs, limitations exist. The limitations are indicated in ASCE 7-05 and are
briefly discussed later in this lecture.
•SMF: Special Moment Frame
•IMF: Intermediate Moment Frame
•OMF: Ordinary Moment Frame
57
Special and Intermediate
Moment Frames- Seismic
Considerations
– Prequalified Connections
Reduced Beam Section
Bolted Unstiffened and

Stiffened End-
End-Plates
Moment Frame
(SMF), (IMF), (OMF)
There’
There are currently two prequalified connections for use in Special and Intermediate
Steel Moment Frames for Seismic Applications. They are the Reduced Beam
Section (RBS) and Bolted Unstiffened and Stiffened Extended End-Plates. A
complete description of the requirements for these connections is contained in
ANSI/AISC 358-05, “Prequalified Connections for Special and Intermediate Steel
Moment Frames for Seismic Applications”.
58
Moment Frames
– Special Truss Moment Frames
– IBC Height Limitations
SDC D – 160 ft
SDC E – 100 ft
SDC F – Not permitted
Special Truss
Moment Frame
(STMF)
There’
The Special Truss Moment Frame has been successfully used in many structures;
however, its use is limited by the IBC. Special Truss Moment Frames have a height
limitation of 160 ft in Seismic Design Category D, 100 ft in Seismic Design Category
E, and are not permitted in Seismic Design Category F. For other limitations see
ASCE 7-05.
59
Systems- Braced Frames
Braced frames are often the most economical
method of resisting the lateral loads.
– Extra steel is generally not required for drift control
– Can result in large uplift forces in the foundation
system.
– Consider the use of braced frames as opposed to
moment frames for framing into the weak axis of
columns.
– The use of braced frames rather than concrete or
masonry shear walls eliminates some coordination
problems.
There’
This slide provides guidelines for the selection and use of braced frames.
60
Concentric Bracing Systems
Concentric Concentric
X-Bracing Two Story K- Bracing
Diagonal Diagonal
X- Bracing
Bracing Bracing
There’
Vertical braced frame systems are generally more economical than moment frames.
Shown on this slide are various types of vertical bracing. Each of these types will
be discussed briefly in the following slides.
Members sizes in vertical bracing systems are generally controlled by strength
rather than drift.
61
Concentric Bracing Systems-
X-Bracing
X- Bracing and Two
story X- Bracing Systems
– Interfere with architecture
– Two story X is more
economical than single
story X
– Place bracing angles at
35 to 55 degrees
– HSS diagonals
X-Bracing Two Story
X- Bracing
There’
X-bracing and two story X-bracing systems are very popular means of resisting
lateral loads. However, both of these bracing systems can interfere with
architectural considerations, particularly X-bracing, where doorway access is limited
by the diagonal members. Two story X-bracing is more cost effective than one
story X-bracing and has better geometry for door openings than the one story X-
brace. Note that there are fewer connections to be made in two story X-bracing as
compared to the one story X-bracing. Bracing angles should be between 35 - and
55 - degrees. HSS sections are often used as brace members; however, erection
can be difficult when trying to slip braces over the gusset plates with slots in the
HSS.
62
Concentric Vertical Bracing
Systems
Use up to 10 to 20 stories
– Foundation uplift may be a
problem
– Add moment frames for efficiency
Seismic Considerations
– See ASCE 7 for seismic height
limitations
– Can design as Special
Concentrically Braced Frames
(R = 6)
– Large beams and gusset plates
are required
– See Section 13.b in the AISC Chevron Inverted Chevron
Seismic Provisions or “V” Bracing or Inverted “V”
There’
Similar to X-bracing are the concentric diagonal braced “V” and inverted “V”
systems.
Concentrically Braced Frames can generally be used in buildings of 10 to 20
stories. Special Concentrically Braced Frames are subject to the height limitations
in ASCE 7. These frames are often limited by foundation uplift problems. Above 10
stories, it is often beneficial to add moment frames to get the beneficial interaction
between the two frame types.
Concentric bracing systems provide effective lateral bracing for the structures;
however, ASCE 7 has height limitations on the use of concentric bracing systems
for seismic applications.
The “V” and inverted “V” systems shown can be designed as Special Concentrically
Braced Frames. It is extremely difficult to detail a suitable joint where the members
cross in the X-brace system since the intersection of the X braces is a protected
zone. Particular care must be used for all of these systems in detailing the gusset
connections. See Section13.b, Required Flexural Strength, in the AISC Seismic
Provisions.
The authors have found that when the “V” and inverted “V” systems are used in
Seismic Design Categories D, E, and F, very large vertical forces are required on
the horizontal beams by the AISC Seismic Provisions. These beams become so
large, to accommodate the large forces due to the imbalanced forces (RyFyAg vs.
0.3Pn), that the system is not economical.
Special Concentrically Braced Frames have R values of 6 as compared to Ordinary
Concentrically Braced Frames, where the R value is 3.25. Beam intersections must
be laterally braced at their intersection points.
63
Eccentric Vertical Bracing
Systems
Eccentrically Braced Frames
are efficient in buildings of 15
to 20 stories (Wind frames
and SDC A, B, and C).
Deflections may control in
buildings greater than 10
stories.
It is often beneficial to add
moment frames in buildings
greater than 10 stories. Eccentrically
Braced Frame
(EBF)
There’
In areas of high seismicity, the Eccentrically Braced Frames are popular. They
have extremely good energy absorbing characteristics and consequently have high
R values as provided in ASCE 7.
The Eccentrically Braced Frames (EBFs) have more ductility than concentrically
braced frames and consequently have higher R values. EBFs are limited to heights
of 160 ft in Seismic Design Categories D and E, and to 100 ft in Seismic Design
Category F. Deflections may start to control with EBFs in buildings greater than 10
stories due to the loss of stiffness in flexure.
Eccentrically Braced Frames can often be used in buildings of 15 to 20 stories. As
is the case for other vertical bracing systems, it is often beneficial to add moment
frames in buildings greater than 10 stories.
64
Buckling Restrained
Used for Seismic Designs
(R = 8)
Buckling Restrained Braced
Frames are gaining in
popularity in high seismic
areas.
Buckling
Restrained Brace
(BRBF)
There’
Buckling Restrained Bracing systems have extremely good energy absorbing

characteristics and have high R values as provided in ASCE 7. The Buckling
Restrained Braced Frame is gaining in popularity in high seismic areas.
Buckling Restrained Bracing systems also have more ductility than concentrically
braced frames and consequently have higher R values. The Buckling Restrained
Bracing systems have height limitations of 160 ft in Seismic Design Categories D
and E, and 100 ft in Seismic Design Category F. Buckling Restrained Braced
Frames can be designed using the configuration of V and inverted V concentrically
braced systems.
Buckling Restrained Braced Frames can be used in buildings of 15 to 20 stories,
subject to ASCE 7 limitations. As is the case for other vertical bracing systems, it is
often beneficial to add moment frames in buildings greater than 10 stories.
65
Buckling Restrained
There’
Photo of a buckling restrained brace.
66
Buckling Restrained
Bolted BRB Connection Pin-ended BRB Connection
There’
Photo of end connections on a buckling restrained brace.
67
Vertical Bracing Systems-
K- Bracing
Can be used for wind designs
and in SDC B and C with R =
3.0.
Cannot be designed as
Special Concentrically Braced
Frames.
K- Bracing
There’
This slide provides observations and comments with regard to K- bracing systems.
68
Vertical Lateral Load
Resisting Systems
Detailing Limitations by SDC
System R
Requirements B C D E F
OMF See ASCE 7 3.5 NL NL NPh NPh NPi
IMF And 4.5 NL NL 35h,i NPh NPi
SMF AISC 341 8 NL NL NL NL NL
Concentric SP 6 NL NL 160 160 100
Bracing OR 3.25 NL NL 35j 35j NPj
EBF 8/7 (1) NL NL 160 160 100
BRBF 8/7 (1) NL NL 160 160 100
SP Truss 7 NL NL 160 100 NP
h, i, j - Other limitations exist. (1) R =8 if moment connections are used away from links.
NL = Not Limited, NP = Not Permitted.
There’
Summarized in this slide are the R values and restrictions contained in the IBC relative to
steel bracing systems. The Table shown does not include the requirements for Steel Plate
Shear Walls or for Dual Systems.
The abbreviations are: SP-Special (concentrically braced), OR- Ordinary (concentrically
braced). This slide was also part of Lecture 2 and the remainder of the abbreviations are
shown there.
Footnotes:
h - See Sections 12.2.5.6 and 12.2.5.7 for limitations of steel OMFs and IMFs in structures
assigned to Seismic Design Category D or E.
From 12.2.5.6 Single-Story Steel Ordinary and Intermediate Moment Frames in
Structures Assigned to Seismic Design Category D or E: Single-story steel ordinary
moment frames and intermediate moment frames in structures assigned to Seismic Design
Category D or E are permitted up to a height of 65 ft (20 m) where the dead load supported
by and tributary to the roof does not exceed 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2). In addition, the dead
loads tributary to the moment frame of the exterior wall more than 35 ft above the base
shall not exceed 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2).
i - See Sections 12.2.5.8 and 12.2.5.9 for limitations of steel OMFs and IMFs in structures
assigned to Seismic Design Category F.
From 12.2.5.8 Single-Story Steel Ordinary and Intermediate Moment Frames in
Structures Assigned to Seismic Design Category F: Single-story steel ordinary moment
frames and intermediate moment frames in structures assigned to Seismic Design
Category F are permitted up to a height of 65 ft (20 m) where the dead load supported by
and tributary to the roof does not exceed 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2). In addition, the dead loads of
the exterior walls tributary to the moment frame shall not exceed 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2).
j - Steel ordinary concentrically braced frames are permitted in single-story buildings up to a
height of 60 ft (18.3 m) where the dead load of the roof does not exceed 20 psf (0.96
kN/m2) and in penthouse structures.
The footnotes and code provisions are taken from ASCE 7 -05.
69
Resisting Systems
Vertical Lateral Load Resisting Systems Design
Suggestions for Low-
Low-Rise and Mid-
Mid-Rise Buildings for
Wind, and Seismic Design Categories A, B, and C.
– If architectural requirements permit, use concentrically braced
systems with R = 3 for seismic applications. Two story X braces are
often the most economical.
– If vertical bracing is not acceptable architecturally, use Ordinary
Ordinary
Moment Frames on the perimeter of the building for structures up to
10 stories. For taller buildings, consider core bracing in conjunction
conjunction
with moment frames, if required.
– In Seismic Design Category A; R is not used.
– In Seismic Design Categories B and C, use concentrically braced
systems or moment frames with R = 3.
There’
R = 3 designs do not require any special detailing requirements and their use avoids
the requirements of the high-seismic Quality Assurance Plan (see AISC Seismic
Provisions Appendix Q). The Quality Assurance Plan increases the structural cost
considerably.
Some owners may want seismic protection beyond the minimum code
requirements. The use of higher R systems and the associated system and system
requirements should then be considered.
70
Resisting Systems
Low-Rise and Mid-
Mid-Rise Buildings in
Seismic Design Categories D, E, and F.
– For structures less than 35 ft in height and one story buildings up
to 60 ft.
If architectural requirements permit, use Ordinary Concentrically
Concentrically
Braced Frames. Two story X braces are often the most economical.
If vertical bracing is not acceptable architecturally, use Ordinary
Ordinary
Moment Frames or Intermediate Moment Frames subject to the
limitations in ASCE 7.
For light one story buildings, consider the use of Ordinary Moment
Moment
Frames or Ordinary Concentrically Braced Frames. (See ASCE 7)
There’
This slide lists design suggestions for Low-Rise and Mid-Rise Buildings in Seismic
Design Categories D, E, and F for structures less than 35-feet in height, and one
story buildings up to 60 feet.
As shown and discussed in a previous slide, Note “j” (ASCE 7) - Steel ordinary
concentrically braced frames are permitted in single-story buildings up to a height of
60 ft (18.3 m), where the dead load of the roof does not exceed 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2),
and in penthouse structures. Also see Section 12.2.5.7 of ASCE 7.
For Ordinary Concentrically Braced Frames, consider tension only bracing with omega level loads for
bracing and connections.
71
Resisting Systems
Low-Rise and Mid-
Seismic Design Categories D and E.
– For structures up to 160 ft in height:
If architectural requirements permit, use:
– Special Concentrically Braced Frames
– Buckling-
Buckling-Restrained Bracing Systems
– Eccentrically Braced Frames
– Dual Systems.
If vertical bracing is not acceptable architecturally, use
Special Moment Frames on the perimeter of the
building.
There’
Design Categories D and E with heights up to 160-feet.
72
Resisting Systems
Low-Rise and Mid-
Seismic Design Category F.
– For structures up to 100 ft in height:
If architectural requirements permit, use:
– Special Concentrically Braced Frames
– Buckling-
Buckling-Restrained Bracing Systems
– Eccentrically Braced Frames
– Dual Systems.
If vertical bracing is not acceptable architecturally, use
Special Moment Frames on the perimeter of the
building.
There’
Design Category F with heights up to 100-feet.
73
Resisting Systems
Suggestions for Mid-
Mid-Rise Buildings in Seismic
Design Categories D, E, and F.
– For structures greater than 160 ft in height:
Use Dual Systems (See ASCE 7)
There’
This slide lists design suggestions for Mid-Rise Buildings over 160-feet in height in
Seismic Design Categories D, E, and F. In this case, only Dual Systems are
permitted. Dual Systems often consist of core bracing, i.e., either concrete shear
walls or vertical steel bracing in conjunction with exterior moment frames. Special
Moment Frames must resist 25 percent of the seismic forces.
74
Quips
Create Flintstone Designs

If it works - don’t mess with it.
“Less is more” - Mies van der Rohe
There’
These quips expand on the themes for this lecture, namely: “Strength is essential
but otherwise unimportant”, and that a “Building that Sings” is not necessarily one
where the required strength equals the available strength, but is more often one
where the required strength is less than the available strength.
75
End – Lecture 4
There’
76
Lecture 5: Preliminary
Design
There’
This lecture deals with preliminary design.

With a proper preliminary design, the final design can be completed most efficiently.
It is important to remember that poor decisions during the preliminary design
phase of a project are difficult to change and will haunt you during the rest of the
design.
1
Preliminary Design
Geometrical Considerations
Member Selection Guidelines
Lateral Load Resisting Systems
There’
The following topics on this slide will be discussed in this lecture.

•Geometrical considerations, i.e., how the geometry of the plan affects framing
decisions.
•Guidelines for member selection, i.e., factors other than strength that are important
considerations in member selection.
•The material on lateral load resisting systems expands upon the material from the
previous lecture module.
2
Geometrical Considerations
Bay size
– Bay proportions
– Member types (W, Composite Beams, Trusses)
– Short spans (HSS, Channels)
– Direction of main members vs. secondary
members
Diaphragm Geometry
– Length to width ratios
There’
Bay Size:
In most cases, square bays are more economical than rectangular bays. Bay size
will often be dictated by architectural considerations. Larger bay sizes are more
attractive to potential building tenants and more valuable to building owners.
The member type used for a given bay size is dependent on loading and member
span. For spans less than 30 ft, non-composite it is the authors opinion that W
shapes are generally the most economical, whereas for spans longer than 30 ft,
composite beams are the most economical. When spans get larger than 60 ft,
trusses or composite joists may be the most economical solution. For very short
spans, use HSS as joist substitutes or use channels for the beams (2-in. is the
minimum flange width for deck support). In general, it is most economical to span
the main girders in the short direction if the bays are not square.
Diaphragm Geometry:
Roof and floor diaphragms provide an economical means of transferring in-plane
loads to vertical moment frames or to vertical bracing systems. Diaphragms with a
span to depth ratio exceeding 4 to 1 can be problematic. Ratios of 2 to 1 and 3 to1
are preferred. To achieve these ratios, vertical bracing will usually have to added in
the plan rather than just using perimeter bracing.
3
Member Selection Guidelines
Deck
Beams
Columns
There’
The following slides provide selection guidelines for deck, beams, and columns.
4
Deck Selection Guidelines
SDI Recommended Spans

FM Global and other Insurance
Requirements
There’
In the previous lecture module, snow loads, uplift loads, span length, diaphragm
strength, corrosion, fire, parapets, window washing supports, and roof top units
were discussed with respect to roof deck selection. Both the Steel Deck Institute
and the loss prevention guides of insurers provide maximum spans for deck. These
maximums are set to limit damage to the deck during construction and damage to
the roofing during the life of the building.
5
SDI Maximum Deck Spans
3.5” LWC Above Flutes Deck Gage

Deck Depth 22 21 20 19 18 17 16
2-Hr 2 8’-5” 9’-0” 9’-6” 10’-6” 11’-4” 12’-1” 12’-8”
Fire 3 9’-1” 10’-9” 11’-7” 12’-10” 13’-8” 14’-7” 15’-3”
Rat-
ing 4.5” NWC Above Flutes Deck Gage
Deck Depth 22 21 20 19 18 17 16
2 6’-2” 7’-6” 8’-1” 8’-11” 9’-8” 10’-3” 10’-9”
3 6’-6” 7’-9” 8’-10” 10’-10” 11’-7” 12’-4” 13’-0”
2.75” LWC Above Flutes Deck Gage
Deck Depth 22 21 20 19 18 17 16
1-Hr 2 8’-10” 9’-6” 10’-1” 11’-2” 12’-0” 12’-10” 13’-5”
Fire 3 10’-1” 11’-7” 12’-3” 13’-6” 14’-5” 15’-4” 16’-1”
Rat-
ing 3.5” NWC Above Flutes Deck Gage
Deck Depth 22 21 20 19 18 17 16
2 7’-2” 8’-2” 8’-8” 9’-7” 10’-4” 11’-0” 11’-7”
3 7’-5” 8’-10” 10’-1” 11’-7” 12’-5” 13’-3” 13’-11”
There’
This chart shows the Steel Deck Institute’s recommended maximum spans
for various composite decks.
Designers should attempt to achieve relatively large deck spans to reduce
the piece count of beams in the building. Reduced piece count means fewer
connections to fabricate and fewer pieces to handle and erect, leading to
economy in the steel frame.
Availability of the various deck profiles and thicknesses should be
investigated, as availability varies with market conditions and the size of the
project. The deck producers and fabricators are good sources of information
with regard to availability of deck.
6
FM Global Data for Roof Deck
There’
This slide illustrates a sample of FM Global data for roofs.
7
Base on 2 span condition

– Watch out for single span conditions
Concrete ponding
– Implications of slab placement method
– ½” equivalent added slab thickness for “flat”
flat” slab pour due
to deck deflection
– Consider adding a note on contract documents so that
contractor considers additional concrete in the bid
– See paper by John L. Ruddy, “Ponding of Concrete Deck
Floors”
Floors”, AISC Engineering Journal, Third Quarter, 1986.
There’
It is suggested that you consider a deck profile and thickness for a two span
condition. Three span conditions are often difficult to achieve in practice
except where there are long interrupted runs of deck. Single spans of deck
have less strength because of lack of continuity and should be avoided.
Decking is laid out by the detailer in the deck shop drawings. The deck
layout should be confirmed with respect to the conditions upon which the
specified profile and thickness were based. Field conditions around
openings may result in single spans and may need to be shored during
concreting.
As the deck deflects under the weight of concrete, an additional volume of
concrete may be needed to achieve the specified slab thickness or a level
floor. A study of common deck thicknesses and spans shows that
considering the weight of ½ in. additional uniform concrete thickness in the
floor design covers most cases. This adds to 6-psf for normal weight
concrete and 4.6-psf for light weight concrete. Note that the contractor
should be put on notice in the construction documents that an allowance
must be made for additional concrete to account for deflections.
All structures deflect under load, however, a preconstruction meeting with
the flatwork sub-contractor may be useful so that the anticipated behavior of
the structure can be discussed.
8
Consider lightweight concrete wet weight

– Field-
Field-reported wet weight can be as much as 125
pcf.
– SDI’
SDI’s “Composite Deck Design Handbook”
Handbook” allows
wet weight to be as much as 130 pcf with a
reasonable margin of safety for strength. Ponding of
additional concrete may be an issue.
– Vendor catalogs often show wet unit weight of
lightweight concrete as 110 pcf.
There’
The unit weight of fresh lightweight concrete is greater than its cured weight. Field
measured wet weight of lightweight concrete is commonly reported as high as 125
pcf. Spans given in the referenced SDI publication are based on a unit weight of
130 pcf. However, manufacturer’s catalogs are often based on 110 pcf, and should
be used with caution.
9
Beam Selection Guidelines
Use a 12 in. minimum depth for floor framing (use W14 if
supporting girder requires large cope).
Avoid beams with 4-4-in. flange width at:
• Beams with adjustable edge form.
• Beams requiring bolted flange connections.
• Beams with double joist bearing.
Composite beams:
• Limit deflection to avoid large cambers.
• Use partial composite design to limit the number of studs.
• Avoid studs on infill beams parallel to deck ribs.
• Use unshored construction.
There’
This slide and the next few slides present various non-strength based
guidelines for beam selection.
10
Copes at Heavy Sections
Beam web below the cope and
above kdet must accommodate
required connection depth.
Cope depth is commonly kdet for
the girder, but can be tflange plus
½-inch.
= Depth of supported member
- cope depth - kdet = part of web
available for connection.
There’
This figure illustrates the connection of a light filler beam to a heavy girder using a
bolted/bolted connection. The connection should fit on the web of the beam without
an extension below the bottom flange. Such an extension is very costly, and is
rarely necessary for the actual beam end reaction.
When the connections are not designed the actual end reaction should be provided
in the construction documents and attention should be given in the member
selection so that a connection can be selected that will fit in the space available.
11
Copes at Heavy Sections
Beam web below cope and
above kdet and weld
clearance must
accommodate required
connection depth.
Cope depth is commonly
kdet for the girder, but can
be tflange plus ½-inch.
= Depth of supported
member - cope depth -
(weld size plus 1/16-
1/16-inch) -
(greater of weld access or
kdet) = part of web available
for connection.
There’
This slide shows the same condition using a welded/bolted connection. Note that
the space available for the connection differs for bolted/bolted and welded/bolted.
In this connection, more room is needed below the angle for weld access.
12
Span to depth ratios
– Span-
Span-to-
to-depth ratios should kept around 20 for
economy and to reduce deflection concerns.
Floor to floor heights
– Floor to floor height should be minimized to
reduce the cost of curtain walls.
– Evaluate the cost of beam penetrations
– Consider using moment frames on the building
perimeter where deeper girders can be used
without increasing floor to floor heights.
There’
The recommended span to depth ratio of 20 is a handy guide for first trial depths.
The trade off between structural depth and story height merits serious consideration
at the very initial stages of the project. As was previously pointed out, minimizing
story height is not usually essential in a low-rise building. A deeper structure is a
cheaper structure, but story height must be examined in the overall context of the
project. Not only is the façade affected, but the size of stair shafts, the overall run
of elevators, and the volume of the building to heat and cool are also influenced by
story height. Usually a story height is agreed upon early in the project based on
experience; however, unique project characteristics, such as long spans, must be
considered.
The use of web penetrations should be avoided due to their cost, but they may be
an effective solution in the overall context of the project. Here again, the fabricator
can provide useful information on cost.
13
Spacing
– The cost of filler beam and/or girder beam
consists of the cost of:
Mill material
Fabrication
Erection
Composite vs. non-composite
– Material is still inexpensive as compared to
labor, so evaluate the need for composite beams
vs. non-
non-composite. Non-Non-composite beams may
be more economical than composite beams with
spans less than 30 ft in length.
There’
The cost of fabrication and erection for a beam is essentially the same for a heavy
beam vs. a light beam. The savings for a light member vs. a heavier member is the
difference in cost of the mill material. Thus, beams should be spaced as far apart
as practical (considering the deck cost) to reduce the number of pieces which must
be fabricated and erected.
The breaking point between composite and non-composite is about 30-feet of span.
Consideration should be given to the number of composite beams used since
composite construction adds another operation to the construction process. See
AISC Steel Tools for assistance in framing design.
14
Bay Cost Comparisons
Based on the 30 ft by 30 ft All Composite Bay
30 30 40 40
30 30
Composite
Beams &
Girders
40 40 40 40
30 30
1.00 1.15 1.30 1.45 1.50 1.70

Composite Beams
Non composite
30 30 40 40
30
Girders
30
40 40 40 40
30 30
1.30 1.35 1.50 1.70 1.75 1.85
There’
There’s always a solution in steel! Does not include erection costs 15
This slide shows the relative costs for three bay sizes using different member
arrangements for composite beams and girders, and composite beams with non-
composite girders. In all cases the beam deflection was limited to 1 in. for the dead
load deflection of the slab weight. This slide is a only guide. In preliminary design,
a more refined study is probably in order to capture all relevant factors such as
project specific loads, columns and footings, etc. When erection costs are
considered the larger bays tend to become more efficient. It should be remembered
that the structural frame cost is approximately 15 percent of the building cost, thus
the differences in bay size cost are relatively minor when considering the overall
building cost. When considering costs for the 30 ft by 30 ft bay variations, the costs
of shear connectors and camber can skew the results towards either composite or
non-composite designs.
15
Square Bays Generally Least Cost

If Rectangular Span the Girders in the Short
Direction
Use Composite Design for Larger Bays
Replication
– Replication of beam sizes reduces cost of
detailing, fabrication, and erection.
– Carefully review computer results to obtain
replication.
There’
Additional advice is shown here regarding framing and member selection.

Replication helps control detailing costs, material ordering, and inventory/handling
costs.
16
Paint
– Paint only when required.
See AISC “Steel Tools- Floor Framing”,
http://www.aisc.org
See paper by: Ruddy, John, “Economics of
Low-Rise Steel-Framed Structures”, AISC
Engineering Journal, Third Quarter, 1983
There’
This slide provides additional advice and further sources to consult. AISC has long
offered guidance on framing options and cost comparisons. The Steel Tool cited is
the latest example of this effort.
17
Beams- Rules of Thumb*
Depth of Roof Beams, Roof Joists = 0.5*Length
Depth of Floor Beams, Floor Joists = 0.6*Length
Depth of Composite Beams = 0.55*Length

– Where Length is feet and depth is inches
Composite Beams
– Number of Studs req’
req’d for full composite action = 1.25*Wt
* “Rules of Thumb for Steel Design”

Design”, John L. Ruddy and Socraties A. Ioannides,
AISC NASCC, 2003
There’
This slide lists some “Rules of Thumb” from a paper by John Ruddy and Socrates
Ioannides. This paper and other proceedings are available on the AISC website
and on the CD provided with the handout material.
18
Top Ten Considerations for Beam
Size Selection other than
Strength
Serviceability requirements (deflections and vibration)
Increasing size to eliminate camber
Increasing size for grouping and connection efficiency
Increasing depth for single plate or single angle connections
Flange width for bearing
Web depth for penetrations
Web thickness to eliminate reinforcement
Minimum size for UL designs
Minimum flange thickness for shear connectors
Compatible beam and filler beam depths
There’
Keeping in mind that “Strength is essential but otherwise unimportant”, this slides
lists ten considerations for selecting a beam that are not strength related.
19
Column Selection Guidelines
Consider HSS for one story buildings
Orientation - strong vs. weak axis
Splice locations
– Splice 4 ft above floor elevation
– Splice every 2 or 4 floors (OSHA)
Replication
– Replication of column sizes reduces cost of detailing,
fabrication, and erection.
– Carefully review computer results for replication.
Paint
– Paint only when required.
There’
Listed on this slide are guidelines for column selection. Most of these have been
discussed previously in the lecture.
It is generally desirable to connect girders to column flanges and beams to column
webs due to the relative magnitude of end reactions. If columns at the perimeter of
the building receive lateral loads along their height, they should be oriented with the
strong axis to the lateral loads, otherwise connecting the spandrels to the flanges
should be considered to minimize the column moments. In addition, the orientation
of W-shape columns should be considered with respect to moment frame layout.
The columns should be turned so that their major axes are participating in the frame
action.
Replication should be carefully considered as it does reduce costs when applied
within reason.
The same nominal size columns should be used up to the height of a multi-tier
column. Splices at size transitions usually involve a heavy cap plate on the lower
shaft at the splice. Common splice details including splices at size transitions are
provided in Part 14 of the Steel Construction Manual.
20
Top Ten Considerations for
Column Size Selection other than
Strength
Connections to web
Flange width compatible with Beam Moment Connection
Web thickness to eliminate doublers (clean columns)
Flange and web thickness to eliminate stiffeners (clean columns)
Story Drift
Same nominal depth of Upper Columns for Splices
UL Minimum sizes
Fit into walls
Fit into Round Column Covers
Increasing size for grouping
There’
Again, considering that “Strength is essential but otherwise unimportant”, this slide
lists ten considerations for selecting a column that are not strength related. Clean
columns are those that do not require doublers or stiffeners.
21
Cost of Doublers and
Stiffeners
Rules of thumb:
One pair of fillet welded stiffeners = 300 lbs. of steel
One pair of groove welded stiffeners = 1000 lbs. of steel
One doubler plate = 350 lbs. of steel
One column splice = 500 lbs. of steel
There’
This slide lists four cost tradeoffs to consider that compare the material and labor of
adding doublers, stiffeners, and column splices to the weight of sections in order to
justify a heavier section.
22
Top Ten Considerations for Base
Plate Selection other than
Strength
Punching vs. Drilling
Get Anchor Rods Outside of Column Profile
OSHA 300 lb. Eccentric Load @ 18 in.
Column Stability During Erection (4-
(4- Anchor Rods)
ACI and COSP Tolerance for Anchor Rod Position
Size to accommodate Anchor Rod Holes
Grouping
Material Thickness Availability
Through Thickness Properties
Base Fixity Stiffness must match model
There’
Again, considering that “Strength is essential but otherwise unimportant”, this slide
lists ten considerations for selecting a base plate that are not strength related. For
additional information on the design of anchor rods and base plates, see AISC
Design Guides 1, 7 and 10.
23
Systems Selection Guidelines
Braced frames are often the most economical
method of resisting the lateral loads.
– Extra steel is generally not required for drift control
– Can result in large uplift forces in the foundation
system.
– Consider the use of braced frames as opposed to
moment frames for framing into the weak axis of
columns.
– The use of braced frames rather than concrete or
masonry shear walls eliminates some coordination
problems.
There’
This slide provides guidelines for the selection and use of braced frames.
24
Preliminary Analysis
Moment Frames
For columns in moment frames, it is suggested that
the portal method be used to determine the column
moments. Axial loads are determined using the
tributary area method.
Select beam-
beam-columns based on strength.
Select trial girder sizes based on drift control.
Using the moments of inertia and areas determined in
the above trials, conduct a first order analysis
(traditional first order) to determine if the drift
requirements are satisfied.
There’
This slide illustrates a four step procedure for the preliminary analysis and design of
moment frames. The analysis and design of these frames is an iterative process.
The goal of these recommendations is to minimize the number of iterations that it
takes to reach a reasonable solution.
25
Portal Method
Inflection points are assumed to form at the

center of each column segment and girder.
Each column in the story resists a
percentage of the total horizontal shear on
the story proportional to the bay width.
There’
The portal method is described in this slide and the next. The portal method has a
long heritage as an engineering analysis tool that was devised prior to the
development of sophisticated computational hardware and software. It ignores
relative stiffness and simplifies the calculations by setting the member inflection
points at mid-length and mid-height. Despite these simplifications, the portal
method produces reasonably accurate results.
26
Portal Method
C1 C2 C3 C4
30 k 5.2 k 9.8 k 9.8 k 5.2 k
5k 36 ft 32 ft 36 ft 6 ft
35 k 6 ft
6.1 k 11.4 k 11.4 k 6.1 k
Column Number C1 C2 C3 C4
Tributary Width 18 ft 34 ft 34 ft 18 ft
Percent Shear 17.3 32.7 32.7 17.3
Max. Column Moment 36.6 k-
k-ft 68.4 k-
k-ft 68.4 k-
k-ft 36.6 k-
k-ft
There’
Each joint, and the members extending from the joint to the inflection points, can be
analyzed as a statically determinate body. From the column moments, the beam
shears and moments can be determined using static equilibrium.
27
Design for Beam Columns
Beam Column Design using Manual Tables

– Part 6 of the Manual contains tables to assist in
the design of members for combined forces
– Table entries included for all W-
W-shapes
– Could actually be used to design for pure
bending, pure compression, and pure tension
– Available for W-
W-shapes only
– Includes ALL W-
W-shapes
There’
The recommended procedure for designing columns, i.e., beam-columns,

using tables in the Manual, is provided here and on the next few slides.
28
AISC Manual Table 6-1
There’
This slide illustrates an excerpt from Table 6-1
29
Design for Combined
Forces
Pr
For t 0.2
Interaction Pc
Equations
Pr 8 ª M rx M ry º
H1-1a and H1-1b « » d 1.0
Pc 9 ¬« M cx M cy »¼
P
For r 0.2
Pc
Pr ª M rx M ry º
« » d 1.0
2 Pc ¬« M cx M cy »¼
There’
This slide shows the AISC Specification interaction equations for beam-
columns from Chapter H.
30
Design for Combined
Forces
These may be rewritten as
pPr bx M rx by M ry d 1.0 (H1-1a)
and
9
0.5 pPr
8
bx M rx by M ry d 1.0 (H1-1b)
respectively
There’
By using the parameters p, bx and by, the interaction equations can be

rewritten as shown on this slide.
The three parameters are tabulated in Manual Table 6-1 for various sections
and unbraced lengths.
31
Design for Combined
Forces
Where 1
p
Pc
8
bx
9 M cx
8
by
9 M cy
Units are 1/kips and 1/ft-kips
There’
The variables for the three parameters: p, bx and by, are shown on this slide.
32
Example 1 (ASD)
Check the adequacy of an ASTM A992
W14x90 column subjected to an axial
force of 333 kips and an x-axis bending
moment of 169 ft-ft-kips, from a second-
second-
order Direct Analysis (Appendix 7).
The column is 14 ft long, is bending
about the strong axis, has a length of 14
ft about the x- and y-axis and an 14 ft
unbraced length of the compression
flange of 14 ft.
There’
This slide gives an example using the Manual procedure, and parameters: p,
bx and by. The trial size is given as well as the loads and geometry.
33
Example 1 (ASD)
There’
From Table 6-1 for the 14 ft long W14X90, p and bx can be found. The
parameter by is not required since there is only a strong axis moment.
34
Example 1 (ASD)
Determine which equation to use:
pPa 1.47x103 (333) 0.49 ! 0.2
therefore use H1-1a
pPa bx M ax by M ay d 1.0
1.47x103 (333) 2.33x103 (169) 0.88 1.0
thus, the W14x90 is adequate
There’
Using the values shown on this slide, the W14X90 is found to be adequate.
35
Example (LRFD)
Check the adequacy of an ASTM A992
W14x90 column. An axial force of 500
kips and an x-axis bending moment of
253 ft-kips were determined using the
Direct Analysis Method.
The column is 14 ft long, is bending
about the strong axis, has a length of
14 ft about the x- and y-axes and an 14 ft
unbraced length of the compression
flange of 14 ft.
There’
This slide gives an example using the Manual procedure, and parameters: p,
bx and by. The trial size is given as well as the loads and geometry.
36
Example (LRFD)
There’
From Table 6-1 for the 14 ft long W14X90, p and bx can be found. The
parameter by is not required since there is only a strong axis moment.
37
Example (LRFD)
Determine which equation to use:
pPu 0.976x103 (500) 0.49 ! 0.2

therefore use H1-1a
pPu bx M ux by M uy d 1.0
0.976x103 (500) 1.55x103 (253) 0.88 1.0
thus, the W14x90 is adequate
There’
Using the values shown on this slide, the W14X90 is found to be adequate.
38
Moment Frame Drift Design
Presented in DG 5 are the following equations for the
selection of column and girder stiffness to control drift.
– K = 2S/n (1)
– Kb = SKc/(nKc – S) (2)
– Kc = S(n-
S(n-S/Kb) (3)
Where:
– K = required average I/L values for girders and
columns, in.4
– Kb = required average girder I/L values for known
values of average column I/L values, in.4
– Kc = required average column I/L values for known
values of average girder I/L values, in.4
There’
Design Guide 5 presents a procedure for determining “optimum” stiffnesses for

beams and columns in moment frames. The procedure is shown here and in the
following slides. The procedure can be used to determine the average stiffness
required per story in order to achieve the target drift. This procedure is particularly
useful in finding the reasonable balance between beam stiffness and girder stiffness
to control drift.
The terms in equations 1, 2 and 3 are defined on this slide and the next slide.
39
S 6HL2c /(12EG) stiffness factor
n = number of bays
Lc = story height, in.
Lb = beam length, in.
E = modulus of elasticity, ksi
G = story deflection (target drift), in.
6H = total tributary story wind shear, kips
There’
The equation for the stiffness factor is shown on this slide, as well as the definitions
of terms introduced in the previous slide.
40
Recommend the following:

– Determine the required column sizes based on
strength, using the portal method as a guide to
minimum column sizes.
– Use the Equation (1) Kb = 2S/n to determine the
required column and beam stiffness to achieve
the target drift.
There’
In most cases, drift will control member sizes, not strength. The design procedure
recommends that initial column sizes be determined based on strength, using the
portal method as a guide to minimum column sizes. Then, use the equation Kb =
2S/n to determine the required column and beam stiffness to achieve the target
drift.
41
For interior columns, DG 5 also suggests that if,
dc2 Lc ! 1.0
dg2 Lg
it is more economical to add material to the columns to control
drift. Conversely, if the ratio is less than 1.0, it is more
economical to add material to the girders. For exterior
columns, the equation should be evaluated using 0.5 rather
than 1.0.
Also see the paper by F. Cheong-

Cheong-Sait-
Sait-Moy,
Moy, “Stiffness Design of Unbraced
Steel Frames”
Frames”, AISC Engineering Journal, First Quarter , 1976.
There’
It is suggested in DG 5 that the equation shown on this slide can be used to fine
tune member selections for drift. This equation provides guidance on the balance
between beam stiffness and column stiffness. See the paper by F. Cheong-Sait-
Moy, “Stiffness Design of Unbraced Steel Frames”, AISC Engineering Journal, First
Quarter, 1976, for additional suggestions on designing for stiffness control.
42
Preliminary Analysis
Vertical Bracing
Select bracing configuration considering:
– Building Geometry
– Wind and Seismic Considerations
Determine member sizes based on strength.
Check drift and second order effects.
There’
This slide lists basic guidelines for the preliminary design of vertical bracing. As
was pointed out earlier, moment frames are generally controlled by stiffness and
braced frames are generally controlled by strength. The AISC Specification
requires that second order effects must be considered in the final design.
43
Quips
“You cannot do just one stupid thing in the

design.” - Mike West
It should look right.
“If you can’t rough it out on an envelope,
you shouldn’t design it.” - Bill LeMessurier
There’
This slide contains reminders of the fundamental message of this lecture module.
•Successful design is built on a foundation of a well done preliminary design.
•Once poor judgment is used in a design, it is hard to recover.
•Simplicity, sound proportions, and balance are outward indicators of successful
designs.
44
End – Lecture 5
There’
45
Lecture 6: Analysis
There’
1
Lecture 6: Analysis
AISC prescriptive analysis and design

methods:
– Design by Effective Length Method
– Design by First-
First-Order Method
– Design by Direct Analysis Method
Example using the Direct Analysis Method
There’
Any method of analysis that meets the requirements of Chapter C in the 2005
specification is permitted. Three prescriptive methods of analysis are provided in
the Specification. These will be discussed, and an example problem using the
Direct Analysis Method, found in Appendix 7 of the Specification, will be solved.
Lecture 6 also presents a review of how frame stability was addressed in previous
Specifications.
2
AISC Specification Analysis
and Design Methods
Use any method of analysis and design that considers:
– Member deformations
– Structure deformations (joint deformations)
– P- effects
– P-
effects
– Geometric imperfections
– Residual stresses
Three prescriptive analysis and design approaches are provided
in the Specification :
– Section C2.2a: Design by Second-
Second-Order Analysis (Effective Length
Method)
– Section C2.2b: Design by First-
First-Order Analysis
– Appendix 7: Design by Direct Analysis Method
There’
The AISC Specification requires that the six phenomena shown in this slide be
addressed in analysis and design and provides three prescriptive analysis methods
to achieve this. Each of the three prescriptive methods adequately consider all six
of the phenomena that are required to be considered. It is somewhat confusing that
the method in Section C2.2b is titled “First-Order Analysis” when the Specification
indicates that a second-order analysis must be conducted. In actuality, the First-
Order Analysis Method is an approach that has been derived from the Direct
Analysis method with mathematical manipulation to give conservative results
consistent with those that would be obtained from a rigorous second-order method.
The Specification allows any second-order method to be used so long as the
method accounts for the six phenomenon listed.
3
AISC Specification Analysis
and Design Methods
Why use the prescriptive methods?
– If they are not used, the effects of
forces on the frames may be
significantly underestimated when:
Lateral drift is large
There are a significant number of

“leaning” columns
There’
Why must second-order affects be accounted for in design? In structures where

column axial loads interact with column member and frame lateral displacements,
the secondary moments created can be significant. In many low-rise and mid-rise
buildings where lateral drift is held to values such as H/400 to H/500, the second-
order moments are small and may be less than 10 percent of the first-order values.
However, if the structure has many “leaning” columns (those not part of the lateral
load resisting system), the second-order effects can be substantial. Single story
structures, such as large manufacturing or warehouse facilities with braced frames,
usually have a large proportion of columns that are “leaning” columns.
4
Previous Provisions
Note: Member deflection and structure drift

are, have been, accounted for in recent
AISC Specifications in various ways and
degrees
Comparison of the 2005 Specification to the
1989 ASD Specification
Comparison of the 2005 Specification to the
1999 LRFD Specification
There’
Second-order effects were accounted for (albeit not always sufficiently) in previous
Specifications. The next few slides will illustrate how the 1989 ASD and the 1999
LRFD Specifications addressed second-order effects, geometric imperfections, and
residual stresses.
5
Previous (1989)
ASD Provisions
In the ASD Specification, consideration of
“overall frame stability” (P- effects) was
required, but the Commentary (pp. 136 and
137) text promoted a perception that these
were of a minor magnitude and could
reasonably be neglected as long as the
provisions of the ASD Specification were
otherwise followed. In retrospect, the
phrasing of the Commentary was such that
it may have been unclear as to what extent
P- effects could reasonably be neglected.
There’
This text on this slide explains in detail how geometric imperfections and residual
stresses were addressed in the previous ASD Specification. The studies upon
which the statements were based considered full portal frame buildings, not the
kinds of discrete moment frames we use today (or were used in the 70s, 80s, 90s
etc.)
6
Previous (1989)
ASD Provisions
P-G effects were accounted for in the term
Cm/(1 - fa/Fe’ ) in Equation H1-1. This term
is essentially the same as the factor B1 in
the LRFD Specification and the 2005 AISC
Specification.
There’
This slide is the first of several that explain how second-order, geometric
imperfections, and residual stresses were addressed in the previous ASD
Specification. This slide describes how P-G effects were addressed.
7
Previous (1989)
ASD Provisions
Geometric imperfections and residual
stresses were partially accounted for in the
provisions for member strength through the
K factor in the effective length method.
However, the effects of frame out-of-
plumbness and residual stresses on frame
stiffness were neglected in frame analysis.
The effective length method may have
captured some of these effects on the
frame, but to what extent is uncertain.
There’
The text on this slide explains how geometric imperfections and residual stresses
were addressed in the previous ASD Specification. Again, said another way,
plumbness, straightness, and residual stresses affect both the stiffness of the
structure and the strength of the members in the structure. The effective length
method attempted to cover both by adjusting the strength only and it is debatable
how effectively the stiffness effect is addressed.
8
Previous (1989)
ASD Provisions
For columns, the effects of member
straightness and residual stresses on
member strengths are addressed in
Equation E2-1 for Fa. Although not explicit in
the Specification, the a term is covered in
the AISC Manual accounted for the effects
of inelasticity on column strength.
There’
This text describes how the effects of member straightness and residual stresses on
member strength was addressed in the previous ASD Specification.
9
Previous (1999)
LRFD Provisions
In the LRFD Specification, P- effects and P- effects
Specification, P-
were accounted for by second-
second-order analysis, including the use of B1 and B2.
P-' effects P-G effects

Use B2 Use B1

There’
The B2 amplification factor, multiplied by the first order results, accounts for P-.
Multiplying the first order results by B1 accounts for P-. The use of B1 and B2 is not
a second-order analysis method, but rather an approximate method to determine
the second-order effect in lieu of a rigorous second-order analysis.
10
Previous (1999)
LRFD Provisions
Geometric imperfections and residual
stresses were partially accounted for in the
provisions for member strength through the
K factor in the effective length method.
However, the effects of frame out-of-
plumbness and residual stresses on frame
stiffness were neglected in frame analysis.
The effective length method may have
captured some of these effects on the
frame, but to what extent is uncertain.
There’
This slide explains in detail how geometric imperfections and residual stresses
were addressed in the previous LRFD Specification. Said another way, plumbness,
straightness, and residual stresses affect both the stiffness of the structure and the
strength of the members in the structure. The effective length method attempted to
cover both by adjusting the strength only and it is debatable how effectively the
stiffness effect is addressed.
11
Previous (1999)
LRFD Provisions
For columns, the effects of member
straightness and residual stresses on
member strengths are addressed in
Equation E2-1 for Fcr. Although not explicit
in the Specification, the a term is covered in
the AISC Commentary and Manual Part 4,
Equation C-C2-3, accounted for the effects
of inelasticity on column behavior.
There’
This text on this slide describes how the effects of member straightness and
residual stresses on member strength were addressed in the previous LRFD
Specification.
12
2005 Analysis for Stability
Three prescriptive analysis and design

approaches are provided in the Specification:
– Section C2.2a: Design by Second-
Second-Order Analysis
(Effective Length Method)
– Section C2.2b: Design by First-
– Appendix 7: Design by Direct Analysis
There’
Stability of the structure is achieved in design by using any of the three prescriptive
analysis and design procedures provided in the Specification.
13
Effective Length Method
Design by the Effective Length Method
The Effective Length Method can only be used if:
– The ratio of second-
second-order drift to first-
first-order drift is equal to or
less than 1.5 (evaluate by using B2).
' 2 nd order
1.5
'1st order
There’
The Effective Length Method cannot be used if second-order effects are greater
than 1.5 times the first order effects. The Effective Length Method uses K factors to
establish effective lengths for the members rather than using the actual member
lengths. In evaluating this limit, B2 can be used because it represents the ratio of
the second-order deflection to the first-order deflection.
14
B2 represents the ratio of second-order drift to first-order drift
1
B2 t 1.0
D ¦ Pnt
1
where: ¦ Pe 2
¦ Pnt total vertical load supported by all columns in story
6Pe 2 Elastic critical buckling resistance in plane of bending
determined from a sidesway buckling analysis,
or from a lateral drift analysis.
D 1.0 (LRFD) D 1.6 (ASD)
There’
A rigorous second-order analysis can be used to determine the ratio of second-

order to first-order deflections or moments to see if the 1.5 ratio limit is satisfied - or
the designer can calculate B2 directly. If B2 is greater than 1.5, the Effective Length
Method cannot be used. In general, B2 should not be greater than 1.5, as this
indicates that the structure is very flexible (moments are 50 percent higher than the
first-order moments) and should probably be made stiffer. The seismic provisions
of ASCE 7- 05 do not permit second-order effects to exceed 1.33 in SDCs B, C, D,
E, or F (Section 12.8.7 P-Delta Effects).
15
6HL
6Pe2 RM
'H
'H translation of the story

¦H story horizontal force producing ' H
L story height
RM 1.0 for braced frames
0.85 for moment frames and combined systems
There’
The equation on this slide for Pe2, taken from the Specification, is a function of
story height, story loads, and story drift. RM can be calculated as given in the
Commentary.
16
Design by the Effective Length Method
– Establish desired serviceability drift index.
– Perform a preliminary design to determine member sizes.
– Perform a first-
first-order analysis to check drift index.
– Apply additional notional loads (0.002Y
(0.002Yi) to all gravity only
load combinations and conduct a second-
second-order analysis to
determine member forces and moments.
Yi = gravity load from the LRFD load combination or

1.6 times the ASD load combination applied at level i,
kips (N).
The analysis must be conducted using load
combinations, not load cases, because second-
second-order
analysis is a non-
non-linear problem.
There’
This slide lists the steps for design using the Effective Length Method.
17
Y3
N3
Y2
N2
Y1
N1
Ni 0.002Yi
There’
This figure illustrates the application of the notional loads and the story loads.
Remember that the notional loads are determined based on individual story loads,
not an accumulation of story loads from above. For example, Y1 is the total of
loads only on story 1.
18
Method - C2.2b
Design by the First-
First-Order Method
The First-
First-Order Method can only be used if:
– The ratio of second-
second-order drift to first-
first-order drift is equal to
or less than 1.5 (evaluate by using B2)
– DPr must be < 0.5Py for members in the lateral load
resisting system
where
D = 1.0 (LRFD) D = 1.6 (ASD)
Pr = required axial compressive strength under LRFD or ASD
load combinations, kips (N)
Py = member yield strength (=AF
(=AFy), kips (N)
There’
This slide indicates the Specification requirements that must be satisfied in order to
use the First-Order Analysis Method - C2.2b.
19
Method
Design by First-Order Analysis
– If drift is less than target drift, determine additional loads based
based
on the drift index. If the drift index exceeds the target index,
index,
revise member sizes and repeat the analysis.
– Apply an additional load, Ni, to all load combinations to
determine member forces and moments.
There’
This slide lists the steps for design using the First-Order Analysis Method.
20
Method
Y3
N3 + H3
Y2
N2 + H2
Y1
N1 + H1
Ni 2.1D ' / L Yi t 0.0042Yi / D
There’
The additional lateral loads (Ni) are added to the other lateral loads at each story.
Note the alpha term in the equation for Ni. This requirement is not currently in the
2005 Specification and the reason for the change is shown on the next slide.
21
Method
2005 Specification Wording:
Yi = gravity load from the LRFD load combination or 1.6 times the
ASD load combination applied at level i, kips (N)
Intent:
Yi = gravity load from the LRFD or ASD load combination applied
at level i, kips (N)
Ignore this User Note:

User Note: The drift ' is calculated under LRFD load
combinations directly or under ASD load combinations with a 1.6
factor applied to the ASD gravity loads.
There’
The revised wording and the elimination of the associated user note provides better
clarity to the Specification. The user note was incorrect since the 1.6 factor had
already been used in the formulation of Ni.
22
Method
Determination of the additional loads:
Ni =2.1D(' / L) Yi 0.0042Yi/D
' / L = the maximum ratio of ' to L for all stories in the structure.
' = first-order interstory drift due to the design loads, in. (mm).
Where ' varies over the plan area of the structure, ' shall be
the average drift weighted in proportion to vertical load or,
alternatively, the maximum drift.
L = story height, in. (mm)
There’
In the First-Order Analysis Method, the additional loads (Ni) capture the effects of P-
delta.
23
Method
K is not a consideration, i.e. K = 1.0
The non-sway amplification of beam-column
moments is considered by applying the B1
amplifier to the total member moments.
There’
When using the First-Order Analysis Method or the Direct Analysis Method, the
effective length factor, K, can always be taken as 1.0, i.e., it is not an effective
length method. The phenomena addressed by effective length are addressed by
other means.
As the slide indicates, B1 amplification is still required.
24
Member Magnifier, B1
Member effect amplification factor
Cm
B1 t 1.0
§ D Pr ·
¨1 ¸
© Pe1 ¹
for members not loaded transversely
Cm 0.6 0.4 M 1 M 2
D 1.0 (LRFD) D 1.6 (ASD)
There’
All member forces should be multiplied by B1. Per the Specification, B1 is

almost always 1.0, but can never be taken less than 1.0.
25
Direct Analysis Method
Appendix 7
– Applicable to all types of structures
– Does not distinguish between systems
Braced frames
Moment frames
Shear wall systems
Any combination of systems
There’
The Direct Analysis Method is presented in Appendix 7 of the Specification. It is

suggested that this method of analysis be adopted, as it will be used in most cases.
It is generally the easiest to apply and seems to be catching on in practice. The
2010 Specification will remove this method from Appendix 7 and bring it forward to
Chapter C. Both the Effective Length Method and the First-Order Method will likely
be moved to an Appendix 7.
26
Notional loads, Ni, where
Ni 0.002Yi
Yi = the total gravity load on storyi
This accounts for an initial out-of-plumbness

at the maximum of 1/500 as defined in the
AISC COSP. If a lesser out-of-plumbness
can be justified, Ni can be reduced.
There’
The Direct Analysis Method also uses Notional Loads. These loads account for the
frame being out of plumb.
27
Use a reduced flexural and axial stiffness

EI * 0.8W b EI
EA* 0.8EA
to account for influence of inelasticity on
second-order effects (stiffness loss).
There’
The reduction in EI and EA are stiffness reductions due to inelasticity. If E is

reduced in the computer model, make sure to use the full value of E when using
member check routines.
28
Inelastic response
– Depends on the level of axial stress in the
member
when D Pr d 0.5Py ; W b 1.0
ªD P § D Pr ·º
when D Pr ! 0.5Py ; W b 4« r ¨¨ 1 ¸¸ »
«¬ Py © Py ¹ »¼
D 1.0 (LRFD) D 1.6 (ASD)
There’
Tau sub b corrects the analysis for residual stresses in the members and is a
function of the level of stress in the member (axial demand / axial strength (A·Fy)).
29
Wb
Wb is a function of the axial load in the columns
which are a part of the lateral load resisting system.
Wb accounts for loss of stiffness under high
compression loads (Pu > 0.5Py).
For Mid- Low-Rise structures, Wb will
Mid-Rise and Low-
usually be 1.0.
Rather than using Wb < 1, an additional notional load
equal to 0.001Y
0.001Yi can be conservatively added into
all load combinations.
There’
This slide presents additional definition on the function of the parameter, Tau sub b.
The additional 0.001 is compensating for the same thing as tau sub b.
30
Y3
N3
Y2
N2
Y1
N1
Ni 0.002Yi
There’
As before, the notional loads are applied at each story. The notional load at a story
is a function of the gravity load on that story.
31
If the second-order effects are limited,

' 2 nd order
d 1.5
'1st order
the notional loads can be treated as a

minimum lateral load for the gravity-only
load combinations.
Note: For many buildings, this will be the case.
There’
As discussed earlier, if the second-order effects are greater than 1.5, the structure
is very flexible and should most likely be stiffened.
32
If, ' 2 nd order
! 1.5
'1st order
the notional loads are to be combined with the

other lateral loads in their load combinations.
There’
If the ratio of second-order to first order effects exceeds 1.5, the notional loads are
to be combined with the lateral loads.
33
Design process
– Determine the ratio of second-
second-order to first-
first-order effects.
– Perform second-
second-order analysis
Use reduced stiffness, EI* and EA*
– Apply notional loads, Ni = 0.002Y
0.002Yi
As a minimum lateral load if the second-
second-order effects are less
than 1.5, or as an additional lateral load if the second-
second-order
effects are greater than 1.5.
The analysis must be conducted using load combinations, not
load cases, because second-
second-order analysis is a non-
non-linear
problem.
– Determine forces and moments.
There’
The procedure for the use of the Direct Analysis Method is shown on this slide. In
lieu of using notional loads it is acceptable to model in the imperfections providing
that the tolerances set forth in the project specifications are such that the
imperfections used in the model are not exceeded in the actual construction.
34
Analysis Methods-
Summary
Design by the Direct Analysis Method is
applicable to all structures.
Design by the Effective Length method is
limited to structures where the second-order
effects are less than 1.5.
Design by the First-Order Analysis Method
is limited to structures where the second-
order effects are less than 1.5 and the
factored axial loads are less than 0.50Py.
There’
This slide and the slides that follow summarize the applicability of the three
prescriptive methods provided in the Specification for analysis and design.
35
Analysis Methods-
Summary
Direct Analysis Effective Length First-Order Analysis
Method Method Method
Specification Appendix 7 Section C2.2a Section C2.2b
Reference
Limitations on None 2nd /1st 1.5 2nd /1st 1.5
Use of the Pr / Py 0.5
Method Note: 2nd /1st = B2
Analysis Type Second-order Second-order First-order

elastic elastic elastic
Structure Nominal Nominal Nominal
Geometry in
the Analysis
There’
The table on this slide and the tables which follow summarize the applicability of the
three prescriptive methods. The word “nominal” in the table indicates the use of the
undeformed shape. In lieu of using notional loads it is acceptable to model in the
imperfections providing that the tolerances set forth in the project specifications are
such that the imperfections used in the model are not exceeded in the actual
construction. Modeling using the imperfections is only permissible with the Direct
Analysis Method.
36
Analysis Methods-
Summary
Direct Analysis Effective First-Order Analysis
Method Length Method
Method
Notional 0.002Yi 0.002Yi 2.1(/L)Yi 0.0042Yi/D
Loads in the Minimum if Minimum Additive
Analysis 2nd /1st 1.5,
Additive if
2nd /1st > 1.5
Member Use EA* = 0.8EA Use nominal Use nominal
Stiffnesses in Use EI* = 0.8WbEI EA and EI EA and EI
the Analysis (See Note 4)
Wb = 1.0 for DPr /Py 0.5
Wb = 4[DPr/Py (1- DPr /Py)] for DPr /Py > 0.5
There’
The summary is continued on this slide.
37
Analysis Methods-
Summary
Direct Analysis Effective Length First-Order Analysis
Method Method Method
Design of Use Chapters E, Use Chapters E, Use Chapters E,

Individual F, G, H and I, as F, G, H and I, as F, G, H and I, as
Members applicable applicable applicable
Use K = 1 for Determine K for Use K = 1 for

Calculating Calculating Calculating Member
Member Strengths Member Strengths Strengths
From Sidesway
Buckling Analysis
For effective length method
(Can use K=1 for braced frames; can use K=1
There’
There’s always a solution in steel! when 2nd/1st 1.1) 38
The summary is continued to conclusion on this slide.
38
Analysis Methods-
Summary
From the
AISC Manual
There’
The summary on this slide is contained in Table 2-1 of the AISC Manual.
39
Simplified Method
There’
The card illustrated on this slide was prepared for the lecture series on the 2005
Specification. The top half of the card presents a 4 step method, which by the use
of simplifying assumptions, permits a designer to meet the requirements of Chapter
C of the Specification for frame stability analysis. An in depth review of this card,
with an understanding of its assumptions and limitations, will provide a better
understanding of Chapter C in general.
The 4 steps of this simplified method are:
•Step 1: Perform a first order analysis with lateral loads equal to 0.2% of the gravity
story loads.
•Step 2: Set a drift limit (see vertical ordinate of chart) and the horizontal load (H)
required to produce it. This can be determined by ratio from the first order analysis.
•Step 3: Determine the ratio of the total story load (P) to (H). For ASD, multiply the
ratio by 1.6 (alpha).
•Step 4: Multiply analysis results by the value from the table for the associated Story
Drift and Ratio of P to H. K=1 when the table result is 1.0 or 1.1.
This simplified method is based on the permissible assumption that B1 may be
taken as B2.
This method is discussed in Part 2 of the Steel Construction Manual.
40
Example- Direct Analysis
Method
Moment Frame to
1 2 3 4
Be Designed
Pr
P4 1 2 3 4
P3 A
P2
P1 B
4 - 40 ft bays
C
N
Intermediate
columns
E
There’
There’s always a solution in steel! 3 - 30 ft bays 41
The following example is presented to illustrate the required input for the Direct
Analysis Method for the 5 story office building shown in the figure.
The elevation depicts a moment frame for the office building. The plan is shown to
the right.
The selection of preliminary member sizes will be discussed in this example, as well
as the member check for one of the interior columns.
A lateral load resisting system consisting of moment frames around the perimeter of
the structure has been selected due to architectural and floor to floor height
requirements. Notice that second-order effects may be significant due to the many
“leaning” columns being supported by the moment frames. To reduce spandrel
deflections in the 40 ft bays, intermediate columns are used. Notice that on grid
lines A and E, the corner columns are turned to participate in the end moment
frames. They are not used in the longer side frames because of the concerns
associated with weak axis moment connections. The gain in frame stiffness and
strength is not justified when compared to the weak axis moment connection costs.
41
Method
The footprint of the building is 160 ft by 90 ft The bays
are 40 ft by 30 ft. On the east and west perimeter
walls, the 40 ft bays are subdivided by columns to
control spandrel deflections. The floor to floor height
is 13 ft.
The lateral load system consists of moment frames
located on the four exterior walls.
Only the interior columns in the perimeter moment
frames are a part of the moment frame to avoid weak
axis moments in the corner columns.
There’
This slide provides additional description of the building in this example.
42
Method
Design the north and south moment frames.
Use the Direct Analysis Method.
Use LRFD (An ASD example is presented in
Lecture 8).
Consider the load combinations of:
1.2D + 1.6L +0.5Lr and 1.2D +1.6W + L + 0.5Lr.
Use a drift index of L/400 for serviceability,
for a 10-year wind, L/400 = (13)(12)/400 =
0.390 in.
There’
As indicated on this slide, LRFD has been chosen as the design approach. One
reason for choosing the LRFD method is that it involves less numeric manipulation
in the analysis as compared to ASD. The Specification’s requirement of multiplying
the ASD load combinations by 1.6 for analysis and then dividing the result by 1.6 for
design is required to properly capture the second-order affects.
For simplicity, only the IBC 2006 load combinations of 1.2D+1.6L + 0.5Lr and 1.2D +
1.6W + L + 0.5Lr are used in this example. Because of the many load combinations
that IBC and ASCE require, it is very easy to get lost in all the numbers and not pay
proper attention to the behavior of the structure and the significant load
combinations. It is the opinion of the authors that it is best to select two or three
load combinations you think will control the design, and after proper selection and
optimization of the members, examine other load combinations to make sure that
they do not control the design.
The drift index of L/400, chosen for this example, arises from serviceability and is
the index most commonly used by designers.
43
Method
The nominal loads are:
– D = 65 lbs / ft2.
– Floor L = 80 psf (not reduced)
– Roof L = 20 psf (not reduced)
– Curtain wall = 60 psf
– Wind loads based on 25 psf (simplification):
There’
The nominal loads are shown on this slide.
44
Method
Column Preliminary Design: (LRFD)
Maximum axial loads (Columns A2 and A3):
Load Case Axial Load, kips
1.2D (1.2)(0.065)(5)(30)(20) = 234
1.2(Curtain wall) (1.2)(0.060)(4.5)(13)(30) = 126
0.5Lr (0.5)(0.020)(30)(20) = 6
1.6L (1.6)(0.080)(4)(30)(20) = 307
L (0.080)(4)(30)(20) =192
There’
The table shown in this slide lists the axial loads used for the preliminary design of
the columns in the moment frame. For initial design, the same size columns will be
used for the entire height of the frame. This is done in acknowledgement of the
advice to minimize the number of column sizes and splices in the project. It is one
starting point, and others could have been used.
45
Method
Maximum moments (Columns A2 and A3)
Use the portal Method

Use load Combination: 1.2D +1.6W + L + 0.5Lr
Lateral Loads:
Roof: (1.6)(0.025)(2)(40)(13)/2 = 20.8 kips
Floor: (1.6)(0.025)(2)(40)(13) = 41.6 kips
Above bottom story V = (3.5)(41.6) = 146.6 kips

At bottom story V = 41.6 kips
Below bottom story V = 187.2 kips
There’
The portal method will be used for the preliminary design of the columns and
beams.
46
Method
Maximum moments (Columns A2 and A3):
A1 A2 A3 A4
145.6 k 24.3 k 48.5 k 48.5 k 24.3 k
41.6 k 30 ft 30 ft 30 ft 6.5 ft
187.2 k 6.5 ft
31.3 k 62.3 k 62.3 k 31.3 k
Column Number A1 A2 A3 A4
Tributary Width 15 ft 30 ft 30 ft 15 ft
Percent Shear 16.7 33.3 33.3 16.7
Max. Column Moment 203 k-

k-ft 405 k-
k-ft 405 k-
k-ft 203 k-
k-ft
There’
Based on the portal method the column moments are shown here
47
Method
Determine beam moment:
From the joint moments at A2:
M = (62.3 + 48.5)(6.5) = 720 kip-ft
Beam shear = 720/30 = 24.0 kips at inflection point
Beam moment = (24.0)(15) = 360 kip-ft
Add to this moment the estimated moment from the
gravity loads (1.2D + L). Use an end moment based on
0.10wL2
w = (1.2)(0.065)(20)+(1.2)(0.060)(13)+(1.0)(0.080)(20) = 4.1 kips/ft
Beam moment = 369 kip-ft
Total beam moment = 360 + 369 = 729 kip-ft
From the AISC Manual (p. 3-15) Try W30X108: I = 4470 in.4
There’
The preliminary beam moments are based on the portal method and from the
gravity moments.
48
Method
Trial Columns:
For the load combination of: 1.2D +1.6L + 0.5Lr:
Pr = (234 + 126) + 307 + 6 = 673 kips
Using KL = Lb = 13 ft, from AISC Manual Table 4-
4-1, page 4-
4-14, Try a
W14X74
For the load combination of: 1.2D +1.6W + L + 0.5Lr
Pr = (234 + 126) + 192 + 6 = 558 kips
Mr = 403 kip-
kip-ft
Try W14X109 (AISC Manual Table 6- 6-1, page 6-
6-69)
px103 = 0.788, bxx103 = 1.23
[(0.788)(558) + (1.23)(401)]/1000 = 0.93
Does not include second-
second-order effects or “leaning”
leaning” columns.
Determine the approximate girder size to control drift.
There’
For quick and accurate preliminary design of the beam-columns, the Tables in
Chapter 6 of the AISC Manual are used. Because we are using the Direct Analysis
Method, K = 1. This is much easier than using the alignment charts. We will add
the notional loads where required later.
49
Method
Proportion columns and girders from K = 2S/n
Method uses unfactored loads
6HL2c
S
12EG
6H (0.025)(80)( 4.5)(13) 117 kips (50 year wind)
6H (0.75)(117 ) 88 kips (10 year wind)
Lc (13)(12) 156 in.
(88)(156)2
S 15.8
(12)( 29000)(0.390)
K = 2S/n K ( 2)(15.8) /(3) 10.5
n = number of bays =3
There’
For brevity, the procedure in Design Guide 5 is used for just the bottom story. The
other stories can be checked following the same procedure. Note that this is a
serviceability check, so the load factors are not used in the summation of H. Also
note that the 10 year wind was determined based on it being approximately 75
percent of the 50 year wind.
50
Method
With the W14X109 columns, I = 1240 in.4
Ic/Lc = K = 10.5
Ic = (10.5)(156) = 1640 in.4 > I = 1240 in.4
This under size may be o.k. since the corner columns are the
same size, and the girders can be selected to compensate:
Ig = (10.5)(30)(12) = 3780 in.4
Try using W30X108 girders, I = 4470 in.4
From a first order analysis, using 10 year nominal wind loads

the story drift is 0.20 in. < 0.390 in. o. k.
Try W14X109 columns with W30 X108 beams.
There’
Using the W14X109 columns and the W30X108 beams a first order analysis was
performed. The drift is 0.20 in. which is less than the target drift of 0.39 in.
51
Method
Check B2 6Pnt = total vertical load supported
by all columns in story, since LRFD is used,
1 D =1.0. For moment frames RM = 0.85 (See
B2 t 1.0 AISC Specifications, page 16.1-23)
D ¦ Pnt
1
¦ Pe 2 6HL (88.0)(13)(12)
6Pe 2 RM 0.85 58,300 kips
'H 0.20
Roof: 6Pnt = [(1.2)(0.065) + (0.5)(0.020)](80)(90) = 634 kips
Floors: 6Pnt =(4)[(1.2)(0.065) + (1.0)(0.08)](80)(90) = 4550 kips
Curtain wall = (1.2)(0.060)(4.5)(13)(90 + 80 + 80) = 1053 kips
Total load = 6237 kips
1
B2 1.12 < 1.50
(1)(6237)
1
58,300
Therefore, the notional loads need only be applied to the gravity load case.
There’
Since the denominator Pe2 is a constant, the largest B2 results from the load
combination that produces the largest Pnt, i.e. 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5Lr. Summation of H
and delta sub h can be used at the service-load level while the summation of Pnt is
calculated at the factored-load level. The summation of H divided by delta sub H is
simply the frame stiffness. The stiffness of one frame is the same as the stiffness of
the whole building because of symmetry and similarity. Half the building is then
used in these calculations.
52
Method
Determine the notional loads, Ni = 0.002Y
0.002Yi
Determine Yi and Ni
Load Combination: 1.2D + 1.6L +0.5Lr
Roof: Yi = [(1.2)(0.065)+(0.5)(0.020)](80)(90) +
(1.2)(0.060)(13/2)(250) = 634 + 117 = 751 kips
Ni = (0.002)(751) = 1.50 kips
Each floor: Yi = [(1.2)(0.065)+(1.6)(0.08)](80)(90) +

(1.2)(0.060)(13)(90 + 80 + 80) = 1480 + 234 = 1720 kips
Ni = (0.002)(1720) = 3.44 kips
There’
In this slide, the determination of Yi and Ni is illustrated.
53
Method
Application of the Notional Loads
1.50 kips
3.44 kips
3.44 kips
3.44 kips
3.44 kips
There’
This slide illustrates the application of the notional loads and their magnitudes. Note
that the notional loads at each framing level are a function of the gravity loads on
each individual framing level. They are not based on an accumulation of story
loads.
54
Method
Lateral Loads for the combination of 1.2D + 1.6W + L + 0.5Lr:
Roof: (1.6)(0.025)(2)(40)(13)/2 = 20.8 kips

Floor: (1.6)(0.025)(2)(40)(13) = 41.6 kips
These lateral loads are applied to the analysis model along

with the gravity loads.
There’
This slide gives the story loads for the load combination 1.2D + 1.6W + L + 0.5Lr. Ni
loads are minimums when B2 is less than or equal to 1.5 and need not be added to
these loads except for gravity combinations only.
55
Method
Beam loads: (LRFD)
1.2D + 1.6W + L + 1.2xCurtain wall
Roof:
1.2D + 0.5Lr: = [(1.2)(0.065) +(0.5)(0.020)](20) = 1.76 kips/ft
1.2xCurtain wall = 1.20(0.060)(13/2) = 0.47
Total = 2.23 kips/ft
Floor:
1.2D + L: = [(1.2)(0.065) +(0.080)](20) = 3.16 kips/ft
1.2xCurtain Wall:
1.2(0.060)(13) = 0.94 kips per ft
Total = 4.10 kips/ft
There’
Preliminary beam sizes to be used in the lateral load resisting system are based on
the simple-span moments.
56
Method
For the Direct Analysis Method the moment
frames can be modeled as a 3-D model to
pick up the effects of the “leaning” columns, or
a pseudo column and links can be added to a
2-D model.
The floor and roof loads for the “leaning”

columns are placed on the pseudo column.
There’
This slide explains a way to adapt a 2-D model to account for the leaning columns
in other parallel frame lines.
57
Method
Story “leaning” loads

Pr
Pseudo column
P4
P3
P2
P1
There’
The elevation shown on this slide represents the frame with the pseudo column and
the links, which tie it to the frame under consideration.
58
Method
Pseudo column loads: (Load area = 90 ft by 60 ft)
– Roof: 1.2D + 0.5Lr:
[(1.2)(0.065) + (0.5)(0.020)](90)(60) = 475 kips
– Roof: 1.2xCurtain wall:
[(1.2)(0.060)](13/2)(80-10)(2) = 66 kips
– Roof: Total = 541 kips
– Floor: 1.2D + L:
[(1.2)(0.065) + (0.080)](90)(60) = 853.0 kips
– Floor: 1.2xCurtain wall:
[(1.2)(0.060)](13)(80-10)(2) = 131 kips
– Floor: Total = 984 kips
There’
This slide list the loads and load combinations that will be applied to the pseudo
column in the analysis. Note that the load on the pseudo columns is based on the
tributary area not taken directly by the columns along grid line A.
59
Method
Check member sizes:
Center bottom W14X109 column:
From the analysis:
Pr = 593 kips, Mbot = 430 kip-
kip-ft
From AISC Manual Table 6- 6-1
px103 = 0.788, bxx103 = 1.23
[(0.788)(593) + (1.23)(430)]/1000 = 1.0 o.k.
Required beam moment = 713 kip- kip-ft
Available moment of the W30X108 is 785 kip-kip-ft
There’
For simplicity, only the bottom center column is checked. This slide lists the results
of the analysis and the design check using values from Table 6-1 in the Manual,
which is based upon the interaction equations from the Specification, Chapter H.
60
Quips
“Don’t get lost in your own technology.” -

Fazlur Khan
“The product of an arithmetical
computation is the answer to an equation;
it is not the solution to a problem.” - Ashley-
Ashley-
Perry Statistical Axiom No. 5
“I’d rather be in an over-braced, under-

designed building than an over-designed,
under-braced building.” – Jim Fisher
There’
The quips on this slide once again focus attention on simplicity, directness, and
attention to detail.
61
End – Lecture 6
There’
62
Lecture 7: Connections
and Project Specifications
There’
Lecture 7 covers connections and project specifications, which includes

specification requirements for connections.
1
DESIGN
Design = Analysis + Member Design +

Connections
Time spent on Connection Design should
be consistent with time spent on Analysis
and Member Design.
Framing decisions must be made along
with connection decisions.
Majority of shop labor is in the
connections.
There’
This lecture module on connections begins with a reminder that the main focus of
the session is design - with an additional reminder that design is analysis plus
member design plus connections. The connection design on any given project
should be consistent with the analysis and member design. It is essential to
achieve a balance in the level and sophistication of analysis, member design, and
connection design, i.e., they must be appropriately consistent.
As you make framing decisions and prepare preliminary and final designs,
connection decisions must be made! Do not think about framing without
thinking of the connections.
Another important consideration with regard to connections is that the majority of
shop labor is in the connections. Manipulating and cutting the length of the
members is a small percentage of the fabrication activity. More time consuming is
the preparation of the connection detail material, fitting this material to the main
members, and the necessary labor associated with connection fabrication.
Likewise, much of the labor in the field is related to connections.
Connections are essential to the strength of a steel frame and they are also
essential to the success of a structural steel project.
2
DESIGN
About 30% of fabricated and erected
structural steel cost is material.
Everything else is about 70% and is mostly
labor, including material handling, cutting,
fitting, bolting, welding, shipping, unloading,
raising and connecting. The clear majority
of this labor intensive activity is related to
connections, shop and field.
Design activity must respect this
fundamental truth.
There’
This may very well be the most important slide in the lecture.
Designers must educate their clients, owners, and general contractors in bid
projects regarding the relationship of material costs to the total costs of the
completed steel frame. Least weight is not least cost. Weight of steel in pounds
per square foot is a poor measure of a successful design. Numerous examples
have already been given in this lecture illustrating that a heavier section which
eliminates detailed shop work is desirable. The lecture also recommends
replication of multiple members for economy, the emphasis being on reducing the
final total erected cost.
3
Connections
How to Achieve
Economical
Connections and
Facilitate Efficient
Detailing
There’
This lecture, as the slide indicates, gives guidance as to how to achieve economical
connections and facilitate efficient detailing.
4
Connections
Be familiar with ASTM A6 Tolerances
There’
Understanding steel mill tolerances plays a major role in the design and detailing of
connections. Designers should be familiar with mill tolerances when selecting or
designing connections. This table, taken from ASTM A6-05, illustrates the essential
tolerances on the configuration of a wide flange shape. The essential parameters
are overall depth, flange tilt, and the position of the web in the wide flange shape.
Recognizing these allowable variations from square and true will guide designers to
connections that are relatively easy to fit up and complete. Allowance for the
variations must be included in the connection. This is usually accomplished with
gaps for shims and oversized and slotted holes. These solutions require their own
considerations, including using lesser bolt values for bolts in oversized holes, large
washers, the need to use SC connections, etc.
5
Connections
AISC’s “Detailing for Steel Construction”

– Clearance for field work
Clearance to erect
– Avoid tilting columns
and moving members
Clearance to bolt
Clearance to weld
There’
The AISC “Detailing for Steel Construction” publication provides valuable

information on the detailing and construction of various connection types. For
example, designers should consider access and “swing in” requirements in the
selection of connection types and connection details.
6
kdesign vs. kdetailing
kdes is tabulated in Part 1 of the Manual as the
conservative lower bound dimension based on the
smallest fillet used in production. This value is
recommended for design.
kdet is tabulated in Part 1 of the Manual as the
conservative upper bound dimension based on the
largest fillet used in production. This value is
recommended for detailing.
Note these dimensions are not controlled by ASTM
A6.
There’
Relative to clearances, it is important that the designer recognize the difference

between the k-distance for detailing versus the k-distance for design. They are both
important in their own context. The dimension, k , is not controlled by ASTM A6.
The tabulated values are based on survey data from the producers. kdes represents
the smallest expected value and kdet represents the largest expected value.
7
kdesign vs. kdetailing
There’
This figure shows kdes and kdet. Note the dimensions T and k1 are provided in the
Manual for detailing only.
8
Connections
Maximize prefabrication and shop work.

Minimize field work.
Maximize work requiring periodic
inspections.
Minimize work requiring continuous
inspections.
There’
Maximize prefabrication and shop work and minimize field work.

Maximize work requiring periodic inspections and minimize work requiring
continuous inspections. As codes and standards evolve, the amount of inspection
in the field is increasing. This is third party inspection, beyond the work of the
contractors, so it can impose a significant burden on the project. The types of
connections used will affect the amount of third party inspection work that has to be
performed in the field and the associated costs.
9
Connections
IBC Chapter 17
– Periodic inspection (part-
(part-time or intermittent)
Bolted Bearing Connections
Fillet welds 5/16 in.
Joint details, member locations, bracing

– Continuous inspection (in process)
Slip Critical Connections
CJP, PJP, multipass fillet welds
Fillet welds > 5/16 in.
There’
The reference document with regard to inspections is the International Building

Code. Inspections are covered in Chapter 17. There are two types of inspections:
Periodic inspection, i.e., part time or intermittent inspection, and continuous
inspection, i.e., inspection in-process while the work is actually being done.
Periodic inspections may be performed on bearing connections and on fillet welds
less than or equal to 5/16 in., and must be done with respect to joint details,
member locations, and bracing. Continuous inspection must be done for slip critical
connections, complete joint penetration groove welds, partial penetration groove
welds, multi-pass fillet welds, and fillet welds exceeding 5/16 in. Needless to say, if
the in-process or continuous inspections make up a substantial part of the
inspections, the burden on the project to pay for these continuous inspections will
be significant.
10
Establishing Criteria for Connections
AISC COSP Section 3.1.2 provides two methods for the

establishment of connection criteria
The EOR designs all connections.
Advantages:
- No need to provide connection loads
- Greater accuracy during bidding
The fabricator is allowed to select or complete the
connections.
Advantages:
- Fabricator’
Fabricator’s standard connections can be used,
which can result in greater economy
There’
The AISC Code of Standard Practice provides two different methodologies in

Section 3.1.2 with regard to establishing criteria for connections. The first
methodology (Method 1) is that the Engineer of Record designs all the connections
and shows those connections in the construction documents. One advantage of
this approach is that there is no need to provide connection loads in the drawings.
This approach also provides greater accuracy during bidding, in that the estimators
can actually see the connection material required as well as the members and other
aspects of the frame. These connections should be complete as described in the
Code of Standard Practice.
The second methodology (Method 2) is to allow the fabricator to select or complete
connections. This selection or completion effort is based on the requirements
provided in the contract documents. The advantage with this approach is that the
fabricator’s standard connections or methodologies for connections both with
respect to the fabricator’s work and the erector’s work can be chosen to suit either
their shop’s limitations, or the erector’s preference in erecting the building. Giving
the latitude of choice to the fabricator and erector can result in greater economy.
But the information needed to do this work must be provided.
11
Information Needed by the
Fabricator to Select or Complete
Connections
Standard Connection Details and Schedules
Reactions for Shear Connections
Moment Envelopes for Moment Connection
Design
Forces for Braced Frame and Truss
Connection Design
See detailed presentation in Section 2 of Steel
Construction Manual
There’
When the fabricator is allowed to select or complete the connections

(Method 2), design documents must convey a significant amount of
information. This slide illustrates some of the information required.
Refer to Section 2 of the Steel Construction Manual for detailed information
on this topic.
12
Connection Types
Shear Connections
– Double Angles
– Single Plate Connections
– Single Angles
– Shear End Plates
– Seated Connections
Moment Connections
– Fully Restrained, Partially Restrained
– Bolted
– Welded
– Seismic – ANSI/AISC 358-
358-05
Bracing Connections
Connections to Concrete and Masonry Walls
There’
This slides lists several connection types, including shear connections, moment
connections, bracing connections, and connections that are required to connect the
structural steel to concrete and masonry walls.
Shear connections are well established in the steel construction industry. They consist of
double angles, single plate connections, single angles, shear end-plate connections and
seated connections. These are common connections that have been used for years in
steel construction and have connection strengths tabulated in the Steel Construction
Manual. They are also discussed in detail in AISC Detailing for Steel Construction.
Moment connections are identified as either fully restrained or partially restrained
connections in Chapter B of the Specification. Refer to the Steel Construction Manual and
other treatises with regard to the applicability of partially restrained connections as that is a
very specialized topic. One normally thinks of moment connections as those which are fully
restrained and develop the end connection moment between a beam and column. Moment
connections can either be bolted or welded or a combination of both. There is a separate
category of moment connections that are used in high seismic areas (R>3). Those
connections are limited to those included in an ANSI AISC 358-05.
Bracing Connections are found in braced frames and connect the bracing diagonals to
the horizontal and vertical boundary members. They are discussed in detail in Part 15 of
the AISC Manual and in Detailing for Steel Construction.
Connections to concrete and masonry walls must accommodate the tolerances to which
these non-steel elements can be constructed. The material built into the concrete and
masonry is referred to as embedded material.
13
Shear Connections
Show connections or reactions on framing plans.

Use AISC Standard Details:
• Double Angle - bolted / bolted or bolted / welded
• Single Angle - for beam to beam
• Single Plate - for beam to beam & skewed
• End Plate - heavy skewed connections
Show special connections.
There’
Beam reactions should be shown in the framing plans. Beam reaction

schedules generally are not effective in conveying reactions for connection
design. Computer programs such as RAM have the ability to factor actual
end reactions and download this information directly to an AutoCAD
program. Unique connections should always be shown in the design
drawings.
For shear connections, either show the connections on the drawings or show
reactions on the framing plans so that standard details can be selected. Use
standard connection details, including double angles, bolted-bolted, or
bolted-welded single angles. Single plates can also be used and they are
especially useful for beam to beam connections or for skewed connections.
Single angles may be slightly easier to fabricate in that they do not have the
tendency to tip while welded as opposed to single connection plates, which
do. Some fabricators use single angles as their standard single element
connection, whereas others prefer single plates.
Another connection is a shear end-plate connection. This connection can be
especially useful in heavy skewed connections.
If special connections are used, they must be shown in the drawings. These
may be connections that not only have to resist shear, but may also have
strut forces.
14
Avoid Using % of UDL!
When beams are selected for serviceability

considerations or for shape repetition, the
uniform load tables will often result in
heavier connections than would be required
by the actual design loads.
When beams have relatively short spans,
the uniform load tables will often result in
heavier connections than would be required
by the actual design loads.
There’
It is not uncommon for engineers to specify the connection reaction on a simple

span beam as a percent of the uniform design load (UDL). Uniform design loads
are tabulated in the Steel Construction Manual for various shapes and spans. The
problem is that beams are frequently selected for serviceability, which means that
the beam size shown is actually heavier than is required for a strength design.
Therefore, if the percent of UDL method is used, the connections will be heavier
than would be required by the actual design loads. This is an unfavorable condition
that can result in uneconomic structures.
The uniform load tables are also inappropriate for relatively short spans. These
short spans have very high load capacities that often result in connections in excess
of that which would be required by the actual design loads. In short beams where
the UDL method is specified, it is frequently required to extend the webs and cope
the bottom flanges so that there is enough connection depth to actually make the
connection. All of this is inappropriate if one considers the actual design loads.
15
Avoid Using % of UDL!
When beams support other framing beams or when

additional concentrated loads occur on girders
supporting beams, the end reactions can be higher
than 50 percent of the total uniform load.
For composite beams, the end reactions can be
higher than 50 percent of the total uniform load.
The percentage requirement can be increased for
this condition, but the resulting approach is still
subject to the above considerations.
There’
Using the uniform design load (UDL) methodology when beams are framing into
beams or girders is a concern. The non-uniform loading may result in an end
reaction greater than that of fifty percent of the total uniform load taken from the
Table. Likewise in composite beams, specifying either the end reaction using the
Table or perhaps a higher percentage than 50% at each end is inaccurate in some
cases. Using UDL is a shortcut that may result in connections that are undersized
with respect to the actual required loads.
16
Connection Tables
Sample connection tables to be put in

construction documents.
Avoid “one size fits all” for a nominal beam
depth. Group by connection strength, not
nominal beam depth.
Reference to beam reactions shown on
plan.
Avoid multiple linked tables.
There’
Connection designs can be provided by using connection tables. Be very attentive

to avoid the “one size fits all” approach. It is not appropriate to say that all W14
beams should have a particular connection. The size range of W14 beams is
significant, as is the case for many other nominal beam depths.
Connections should always be grouped by strength and not by nominal beam depth.
The tabulated connections should be matched to framing by comparing the
tabulated connection strength to the connection reactions shown in the framing
plans. For instance, a three row double angle connection with 3/4 in. diameter bolts
might correspond to some heavy W12 beams, but also to some light W18 beams.
Tables should be referenced back to the plan, where beam reactions are shown, so
that the right connections get matched to the right location. Take care to avoid
presentation of the connection requirements in multiple linked tables as this is
simply an invitation to make an error. The presentation of these connection designs
or connection requirements should be as straightforward as possible so that the
detailing process can move forward in an orderly way. The documents must be
presented in a clear fashion to minimize or eliminate errors.
17
Single Plate Connection -
Example
There’
This slide contains an example of a standard tabulated connection showing

various beam sizes. Notice that the W8 and W10 beams are grouped
together in the table. This is a two bolt connection and the connection
design strength is 14 kips. The 14 kips can now be related back to the plan.
Also note that the connection reactions provided in the table guide the
detailer to distinguish between the two categories of W14 beams that have 3
and 4 rows in the web with different connection strengths.
18
Moment Connections
Either show connections in the Documents.

– All weld sizes and lengths
– All bolt sizes, locations, quantities and grades
– All plate and angle sizes, thicknesses and
dimensions
– All work point locations and related information
Or show connection and load criteria for
connections to be completed in detailing.
See COSP and Manual Section 2.
There’
The two options for connection design in the Code of Standard Practice also apply
to moment connections.
The first option is to show the connections in the documents and the Code of
Standard Practice lists four requirements with regard to the completeness of the
connection designs in the drawings.
•Show all weld sizes and lengths
•Show all bolt sizes, locations, quantities and grades.
•Show all plate and angle sizes including thicknesses and dimensions
•Show all work point locations and related information
When the connections include the listed information, they can be regarded as
completely designed and the detailer merely needs to take this information and
incorporate it into the shop drawings.
The second option is to show connection and load criteria in the drawings for the
connections that are to be completed in detailing and this is covered in Section 3 of
the Code of Standard Practice. There is also a detailed narrative in Part 2 of the
Steel Construction Manual on this important topic.
19
Specifying Design Forces
The full force envelope should be given for each

moment connection. Provide either:
– the governing load combination, OR
– the effects of all appropriate load combinations should be
indicated.
– the maximum moment imbalance should also be given for use
in the check of panel-
panel-zone web shear.
Avoid approximate methods. Provide:
– the actual beam end reactions (moment, shear, and other
reactions, if any) be indicated in the structural design
drawings.
Consider a tabulation for each joint and load
combination.
There’
When specifying moments and forces for connections, it is essential that the full
force envelope be given for each connection. If a particular governing load
combination can be identified by the engineer of record, then that combination
should be presented. Otherwise, it will be necessary to provide more than one load
combination. It is clear that if the moment imbalances are not provided, the panel
zone web shear cannot be checked.
The second bullet point on this slide reminds us that if one uses approximate
methods, there is potential for both over estimation and under estimation of the
connection design. Therefore, it is recommended that the actual beam end
reactions be used and that these be included in the structural construction
documents.
20
Specifying Using Strength
Although not recommended, reactions for

beam to column moment connections can be
specified as a function of the beam strength
(Mp). This approach is not appropriate and
results in over design when:
– beams are selected for serviceability considerations
or for shape repetition.
– column(s) or other members that frame at the joint
cannot resist the forces and moments determined
from the criteria so specified. The apparent demand
for stiffeners and other reinforcement may be
unfounded in the true reactions.
There’
Specifying connection design forces at beam to column moment connections using

beam strength criteria should be avoided because of its inherent confusion and
illogic.
If the elements of moment connections are selected for serviceability and the
connection design forces are based on member strength, this approach will produce
heavier connections than are really required. Additionally, in some instances, the
columns may have to be reinforced to satisfy the specified criteria.
21
Bolted Flange Plates
There’
The situation shown in this slide is the result of weld distortion on the flange
plates. The large CJP welds used caused the plate deformations.
What you see in this picture is not usually a problem as the flange bolts will
pull these plates together as they are snugged up. The real concern is
whether the plates are far enough apart to accommodate depth variations
and flange tilt. The authors know of a 42 story high rise with heavy W24
beams (like the one shown here) with a ¼ in. clearance. A majority of the
beams were almost ¼ in. over in depth and had some flange tilt. Some of
the beams were installed with great difficulty, but in several instances, plates
had to be cut off. Fortunately, time permitted a change to be made in the
detail on the upper floors.
Most fabricators do not like this detail because of the problem with field fit up
except when over sized holes are used. The increase in number of bolts
and the reduction in net section often makes this an uneconomical
connection. To be used successfully, this connection must account for mill
tolerances, fabrication tolerances and field fit up.
22
Bolted Flange Plates
Provide shim space, check A6 tolerances.

Use oversize holes in the flange plates.
Weld sequence can reduce out of plane
distortion.
Heat straightening may be required after
welding.
Field bolts in flanges will contribute to
stability during erection.
There’
Solutions to the problems in the connection shown on the previous slide

include the first two items in the list shown on this slide. A second and more
frequent problem with bolted flange plate connections is that the flange
plates are not detailed far enough apart. To address over run in beam depth
and flange twist on the beams, it is suggested that the flange plates be
detailed with a minimum of 1/4 in. extra gap for shims. Shim space at the
top and bottom can be increased to 3/8 to1/2 in. for heavier beams.
As stated on the previous slide, the bolts should pull these plates together so
that there isn’t a problem.
The fabricator must plan the weld or straighten the plates as required. It is
best to spread the plates as indicated above.
23
Bolted End Plates
There’
Bolted end-plate moment connections are illustrated and discussed in these two
AISC Design Guides. These are effective connections in that:
•They are field bolted so there is no field welding
•If the bolts are installed above and below the beam, or at least opposite each
flange, then there is a contribution to erection stability as the frame rises
Moment end plate connections provide efficiency in the erector’s work which will
yield lower cost if recognized in the erector’s bid.
24
Seismic Connections
For Moment Frames in SDC B and C when

R is taken >3, and in SDC D, E, and F
– Reduced Beam Section, RBS
– Bolted End Plates
See ANSI/AISC 358-05, Prequalified
Connections for Special and Intermediate
Steel Moment Frames for Seismic
Applications
There’
ANSI/AISC 358-05 lists connections that are appropriate for seismic design
categories B and C when R is taken greater than 3, and in seismic design
categories D, E, and F, or in other words, for frames that have high demand for
ductility. One of those connections is the Reduced Beam Section or RBS. In this
connection, the beam flanges are carved away into an hourglass shape which
moves the point at which the section can yield away from the column connection.
Bolted end plates have also been tested and their criteria are presented.
25
Moment Connection Guides
Provide actual moment envelope.

Design considerations:
• End plates may be limited by bolts or column flange
bending capacity.
• CJP welds are a “no brainer”
brainer” but generally more
expensive.
• Top and bottom bolted plates are an option if less than Mp
required.
Size column to avoid reinforcement.
There’
Gravity loads often tend to dominate the reaction magnitudes for moment
connections so the connection does not need to be designed for full reversal.
When wind moments govern the frame design, the members are often selected for
drift control and the connections can be designed using bolted end plates with no
column stiffening. See AISC Design Guides 4 and 16 for more information on
design of extended end plate connections and column reinforcement.
With regard to moment connections, it is essential that the actual moment envelope
for the governing load combination or the applicable load combinations be
provided, rather than providing only the maximum moment and forces. End plates
may be limited by the bolts or column and column flange bending capacity, so they
may not be applicable in all situations. One should consider them first, because of
some of their other obvious advantages.
It is easy and convenient to specify CJP or complete joint penetration welds at the
flanges; however, this is a very labor intensive field activity, and requires, as was
indicated previously, continuous in-process inspections. As was also suggested
earlier, one may want to consider top and bottom bolted connections since they are
field bolted. However, these connections by their very nature cannot develop Mp.
As the AISC has advised for many years, column sizes should be selected to avoid
reinforcement. The shop installation of stiffeners and web doubler plates is very
labor intensive, and it is almost always economically favorable to use a heavier
column size, with heavier and thicker flanges and webs, than to provide stiffeners
and web doubler plates.
26
Cantilever Design Guides
Provide actual moment and shear forces.

Indicate if camber is required.
Use end plate connections where possible for
erection ease and safety.
Shop weld short cantilevers where possible.
There’
Cantilevers can be an erection safety issue since the cantilever is not fully
supported until the moment connection is completed. OSHA (.756 (a)(2)) requires
that the minimum bolts for a cantilever be evaluated by a competent person. Field
welded cantilevers typically require shoring or some other type of support until the
flange welds are made. Either bolted moment connections or continuous beam
construction is preferred for erection. Design of bolted moment connections is
more efficient when actual design loads are used instead of the default design
requirement of full Mp of the section.
With regard to cantilevers, it is appropriate to provide the actual moments and
shear forces and to indicate if camber is required. As in the case of other moment
connections, end plate connections may be appropriate and they are efficient with
regard to erection ease and safety. When the top flange bolts are installed, the
connection is secure. If a CJP groove weld is required, the cantilever element
usually requires temporary support because the web connection will likely be
unable to support the cantilever moment under the dead weight of the structure
alone. Remember that if a CJP groove weld is used, it will likely have a root gap.
On the compression side of the member, that root gap has to be preserved as
open, and therefore the tendency of the connection to rotate on the web connection
is significantly increased.
Short cantilevers can be welded directly to the column and completely eliminate the
need for any field connection. This is a very efficient way to go. The only concern
is whether or not the pieces can be efficiently stacked and shipped. Of particular
concern is that these pieces are not symmetrical and not balanced about the
column centerline so the stability of these pieces during the erection of the frame
must be addressed by the erector.
27
Cantilever Design Guides
Consider making the beam continuous and

stacking columns on long cantilevers.
For short cantilevers, it is often economical
to have the column take the cantilever
moment rather than the back span, i.e., only
a shear connection on the back span.
There’
Another cantilever design approach is to run the back span and cantilever beam as
one piece. This means that the columns are stacked above and below these
cantilever beams. Under normal circumstances, it is recommended that stacked
beam column construction not be used as flange squareness and fit up of the
column end plates are concerns. This method does make the frame a little more
difficult to erect.
It may be that the cantilever moment can be resisted efficiently by the column. If
so, the column must be designed for that cantilever moment and the back span
would merely require a shear connection.
28
Provide Actual Forces
Moment Connection Schedule

Mark Moment Shear Axial Remarks
(kip-
(kip-ft) (kips) (kips)
202 25
MC-
MC-1 43
-68 -25
289 30
MC-
MC-2 65
-97 -30
359 43
MC-
MC-3 126
-120 -43
There’
An example of a table that provides maximum and minimum moments is

shown on this slide. Notice that there are sign reversals. The shear value is
simply given as a single value, i.e., the maximum value. The moment
connections shown have a strut force in them and the axial load is paired
with the moment.
29
Design for Actual Loads
There’
This slide shows an example of an end plate moment connection that has
been designed for actual loads. It can be seen that there are fewer bolts on
the bottom flange than there are on the top flange. This particular
connection presumably either would not go into moment reversal under the
different load combinations or the bottom bolts are sufficient to resist the
lesser moments when the bottom flange is in tension. Notice that the
stiffeners shown at the top are only half depth. This indicates that the
stiffeners are designed for the full flange force since there is not a
connection on the opposite side of the column. It would be unnecessary to
make these stiffeners full depth for the design that is illustrated. The
requirements for stiffeners in columns can be found in Section J10 of the
Specification.
30
Data Shown on Plan
C=1-1/4”
There’
This slide shows an example of how the various connection design forces
and requirements for detailing of a beam can be communicated on the plans.
From left to right, there is an end reaction given and the requirement that the
connection be slip critical. Next, there is the notation for a beam web
penetration and the size of the beam itself. Following that information is the
number of studs and beam camber that is required. The minus three below
the line indicates the beam’s position with respect to a referenced top of
steel elevation. The shear of 88k is shown at the right end of the beam
along with a triangle and note indicating a moment connection. That
moment connection is shown in Detail 5/S4.1.
31
Bracing Connections
Either show connections in the Documents

– All weld sizes and lengths
– All bolt sizes, locations, quantities and grades
– All plate and angle sizes, thicknesses and
dimensions
– All work point locations and related information
Or show connection and load criteria for
See COSP and Manual Section 2.
There’
Regarding bracing connections, either show complete connections in the

documents with the required information or show the connection and load criteria for
32
Bracing Connection Guides
Show all forces for complete load path and provide

equilibrium condition at joint. See Manual
Section 2.
Transfer forces should include all drag strut forces.
Consider establishing work points at column faces
to reduce gusset plate sizes. Then design the
column for the added moment.
Use oversized holes and field welding for ease of
erection.
There’
You have to make sure that the load path in a connection is complete, and that
there is an equilibrium condition at the joint for the load combination given. This is
discussed in detail in the Section 2 of the Steel Construction Manual.
Transfer forces and drag strut forces must be shown in the drawings. Beams along
the sides of braced bays usually have significant drag forces to transfer loads to the
bracing and these forces must be dealt with.
To simplify connections, you might consider moving the work points to the column
faces, however, the column must be designed for the added moment. Some
programs already do this or something similar. This is balancing connection design
with member design. A heavier column does not burden the frame as much as
large, complex connections (to take bracing forces) do. This is similar to selecting
column sizes that are of such a shape and size that stiffeners and doublers are not
required. It is further confirmation of the general proposition stated at the beginning
of the lecture module that member and connection design go together.
Needless to say, the geometry at diagonal brace members can be rather complex,
so for ease of fit up and entering the bolts, you want to use oversized holes. Field
welding will give greater latitude for adjustment and may be appropriate in some
instances, however, field welding is an activity which should be minimized. It is
simply more difficult to weld in the field than in the shop and is just another
consideration to make when balancing costs in material, labor in the shop and in
the field, and the requirements for inspection.
33
X- Bracing
6 - Braces 4 - Braces
12 - Connections 8 - Connections
There’
X-brace systems usually work best for tension type braces where angle members
are used. Wide flange and HSS braces work best in diagonal and chevron
configurations.
This slide illustrates two examples of braced bays. As discussed earlier in the
seminar, the bracing system on the right is almost always more economical as there
are fewer members and fewer connections.
34
Developing Member Strength
Providing maximum member forces does not
permit a check of the joint equilibrium when
there are different load combinations governing
the members. Nor does it reflect the possibility
of load reversal as it may influence the design.
Providing a percentage of member strength
may not properly account for the interaction of
forces at a joint or the transfer forces through
the joint. Nor does it allow for a cross-check of
all forces at a joint using equilibrium.
There’
There are concerns with regard to bracing connections when the project
specification requires simply a maximum member force. This does not permit an
equilibrium check, and it does not reflect the possibility of load reversal, etc.
Likewise, specifying the percentage of the member strength may not account for the
interaction of forces at the joint or transfer forces, and does not allow an equilibrium
check which may result in overly heavy connections.
35
Steel to Concrete
Connections
Provide adjustable connections.
Recognize concrete tolerances – refer
to ACI 117-06.
– Tighter tolerances may be appropriate,
and if so should be clearly provided in
the concrete specification or the steel
must be designed to accommodate the
ACI tolerances.
List tolerances on embedment placing
drawings.
There’
Connections to concrete walls must be designed and detailed to

accommodate ACI tolerances as well as the AISC tolerances on beam
lengths. If possible, use only shear connections at concrete walls so that
long slots can be incorporated into the beam connections for adjustment.
Make sure the embeds in the wall are oversized.
It is good practice to design these connections for at least plus or minus 3/4
in.. This requires a long slot and the connection has to be either field welded
or designed as an SC connection. The design engineer must be aware of
and consider the tolerances provided in ACI 117.
36
ACI Tolerances on Walls
From the Standard Specifications for Tolerances
for Concrete Construction and Materials (ACI 117-
117-
06), Section 4 – Cast – in – Place Concrete for
Buildings:
4.1 Vertical alignment (plumb):
4.1.1 For heights 83.33 ft : 0.3% of height or ±1 in.
4.1.2 For heights > 83.33 ft : 0.1% of height or ± 6 in.
4.2 Lateral Alignment (deviation from location)
4.2.1 Vertical elements (horizontal deviation) : ±1 in.
Permissible deviations may exceed range of
adjustment in connection.
There’
Listed on this slide are a few tolerances taken from ACI 117-06. The dividing
line is 83.33 ft for vertical alignment or plumbness. The deviation from
plumb is three-tenths percent of the height, not to exceed plus or minus an
in.. For heights greater than 83.33 ft, it is one-tenth of a percent of the
height, or plus or minus six in.
For the lateral deviation from position, i.e., horizontal deviation, the tolerance
is plus or minus an in.
There are concrete contractors that produce work that is well within the
specified allowable deviations in ACI 117; however, if the work actually
comes close to the permissible deviations, you will find that the range of
adjustment in the connections that have been detailed will be exceeded.
You need to be cognizant of these allowable deviations from the plumb
position, and design connections that have the adjustments that are
appropriate so that the adjustment matches the tolerance.
37
Connection to Embed Plate
There’
Steel to concrete connections should provide adjustment to accommodate

ACI tolerances. The standard shown in this slide was designed for a
tolerance of approximately 3/4 in. Long slots are provided in the beam web
and the slot is covered by the connection angles. Because of the long slot,
the bolts are designed as slip critical with the connection angles field welded
to the embed. The lesser SC bolt values somewhat limit the capacity of the
connection.
38
Design Rules for Economy
Cost of connections
– Use “snug-tight” joints
– Do not mix bolt sizes
– Do not specify “slip-critical” unless
necessary
– 2004 RCSC Specification Section 4
indicates where pretensioned bearing
and slip-critical connections are required
There’
Shown on this slide are some basic design rules for economy.
Whenever possible, specify snug tight joints. Do not specify slip critical joints
unless they are required. Referring back to the slide on intermittent versus
continuous inspection, remember that slip critical joints require continuous in-
process inspection. Section 4 of the RCSC indicates where snug-tightened, and
pretensioning and, slip critical connections are required.
The advice from the fabricators and erectors has always been to not mix bolts of
the same size in different strengths. Wherever possible, a single bolt size should
be used on a project; however, this is not always feasible and the common advice is
to specify additional bolts two sizes larger. For example, if you need ¾ in. A325
bolts – jump to 1 in. bolts when you need a larger bolt, i.e., skip the 7/8 in. bolt.
Different strength bolts (A325 vs. A490) should be of different diameters.
39
RCSC: When Pretensioned Joints are Required
Joints in which fastener pretension is required in

the specification or code that invokes this
Specification
Joints that are subjected to significant load reversal
Joints that are subject to fatigue load with no
reversal of loading direction
Joints with ASTM A325 or F1852 bolts that are
subject to tensile fatigue
Joints with ASTM A490 bolts that are subject to
tension or combined shear and tension, with or
without fatigue
There’
This slide lists conditions for which the RCSC Specification requires pretensioned
joints.
40
RCSC: When SC Joints are Required
Joints that are subject to fatigue load with reversal

of loading direction
Joints that utilize oversized holes
Joints that utilize slotted holes, except those with
applied load approximately normal (within 80 to 100
degrees) to the direction of the long dimension of
the slot
Joints in which slip at the faying surfaces would be
detrimental to the performance of the structure
There’
This slide lists conditions for which the RCSC Specification requires slip critical
joints.
41
Cost of Connections
– Use fillet welds rather than groove welds
Less preparation cost
Less material cost
– Take advantage of transverse weld
strength increase
Specification Section J2.5 provides a
50% increase for welds perpendicular
to load direction
There’
As discussed earlier, fillet welds should be used wherever possible as there is less
preparation cost, less material cost and less labor cost. Always try to select
members and connection materials where fillet welds can be used. The AISC
Specification, Section J3, indicates that under certain circumstances, weld strength
can be increased by 50%.
42
Cost of Connections
– Use fillet welds that can be made with
one pass
That is less than or equal to 5/16 in.
for horizontal welds
Use horizontal or flat positions when
possible
There’
Use fillet welds that can be made with one pass, i.e., less than or equal to 5/16 in.
Note that 5/16 in. fillet welds require only periodic inspection rather than in-process.
Also, favor connections in which there is a horizontal or flat position welding as
opposed to welding that is vertical or overhead.
43
Cost of connections
– Consider connections early in design process
– Rules of thumb:
One pair of fillet welded stiffeners # 300 lbs. of steel
One pair of groove welded stiffeners # 1000 lbs. of steel
One doubler plate # 350 lbs. of steel
One column splice # 500 lbs. of steel
– Avoid stiffeners and doubler plates if possible
There’
Consider connections early in the design process. This harkens back to the second
slide in this lecture where the point was made that connections, framing systems,
and member designs are all interrelated, and that connections are inherently tied to
framing decisions. Therefore, connections must be considered early in the design
process, and quite frankly must be considered simultaneously as part of the design
process. This slide lists some additional rules of thumb.
44
Cost of connections
– Limit different bolt grades
Avoid the quality assurance issues of correct
material installation
– Limit bolt diameter to 1 in. maximum
Standard equipment is keyed to 1 in. bolts
Edge distances must be increased from

standard for bolts > 1 in.
3/4 in. and 7/8 in. bolts are usually preferable
There’
As stated earlier, limit or minimize the number of bolt grades specified. For
instance, you do not want to specify the same size bolt in two different grades on a
job. This would increase the chance for error, and if there is a higher chance for
error, the probability of remedial work is increased. Limit bolts to a maximum of 1
in. in diameter. This is a common guideline and may not be appropriate for certain
heavy connections; however, it relates to the use of standard equipment and
standard edge distances. Wherever possible, specify 3/4 in. and 7/8 in. diameter
bolts as they are preferable to other sizes.
45
Select members with favorable geometry.

– Watch for connections at changes in floor elevations
– Watch out for W6 and W8 columns – connection problems
– Minimize need for stiffeners
Trade more (less expensive) member weight
for reduced labor costs.
Don’t require bolting and welding to the same
member.
There’
Additional rules for economy:

Select members with favorable geometry for connections and fit up. Be sure to be
attentive to connections at changes in floor elevation as there may be a step in the
story height for raised area floor. Make sure that if an upper member beam is
framing to a lower member girder, the connection makes sense. The most obvious
connection in this case would be to have the upper level beams bear on the lower
girder.
Watch out for W6 and W8 columns. There are significant problems that can arise
with framing beams or joists into the webs of W6 and W8 columns.
As always, minimize the number of stiffeners required and use partial depth
stiffeners when possible.
Guidelines comparing labor costs to structural steel weights were discussed earlier
in the presentation. Trade off increased member weight for reduced labor costs.
For economy, do not shop bolt and shop weld to the same member.
46
Painting
– MSC December 1993
– Paint only when
necessary
– If steel is not exposed
to the elements (kept
dry) there is no need to
paint
– Fire protection adheres
better to unpainted
steel
There’
This 1993 article in Modern Steel Construction relates to painting. The guidance
from AISC is that painting be restricted to those conditions when it is absolutely
necessary for either corrosion protection or final appearance. If those two
conditions do not exist, and if members are kept dry, there is no need to paint
structural steel. Remember that the shop coat is not a permanent paint system and
has limited protective qualities. With regard to fire proofing systems, they usually
adhere better to unpainted steel. Refer to the AISC Code of Standard Practice and
its Commentary on the subject of surface preparation and shop painting for more
information on this topic.
47
Painting
– Inspection of aged structures shows that the
presence or absence of primer is immaterial
– If there is a roof leak, shop primer is of little
value
– Shop coat is a temporary coat
– Watch for compatibility of paint and topcoat
– Check Specification M3 and Commentary
– See COSP Section 6.5 and Commentary
There’
Inspections of in service structures re-affirm that primers are not required. Shop
coats, as indicated in the second and third bullet points on this slide, are not
intended to prevent the steel from rusting or corroding over the long term. If final
top coats are required, then it is essential that the painting specification carefully
consider the paints that are used in the shop and in the field. Give very close
attention to various finish coating systems and the required shop work that is related
to them. See Specification Section M3 and its Commentary for more information on
this topic.
48
Tolerances
– Do not require non-
non-standard mill, fabrication, or erection
tolerances.
– Tolerances have been established by:
ASTM A6 – mill practice
AWS D1.1 – weld acceptance and built-

built-up members
AISC COSP – fabrication and erection
RCSC – bolt acceptance
AWS D1.8
– They have served the industry well.
There’
Additional economy tips are shown on this slide.

If fabrication tolerances that are more strict than standard tolerances are required
on a particular project, they should be clearly specified. The published standard
mill, fabrication, and erection tolerances are well established industry standards and
the industry is aware of the effort that is required to achieve these tolerances.
Specifying excessive tighter tolerances significantly add to the cost burden on the
project. The following reference documents have been discussed previously in this
lecture, but as a reminder:
•ASTM A6 is referred to as Mill Practice, but is in fact a manufacturing specification.
•American Welding Society D1.1 covers welding and tolerances for built-up
members.
•The Code of Standard Practice contains fabrication and erection tolerances.
•The Research Council for Structural Connections contains criteria for bolt
inspection and acceptance.
•A relatively new document, AWS D1.8, contains shop and field inspection
requirements for high-seismic construction.
These standard tolerances have served the industry well and it must be emphasized
that these are commonly accepted standard practices within the industry. If they are
modified, be very clear as to what the specific project requirements are.
49
Column Splices
– 1 bearing splice # 500 lbs of steel
– 1 moment splice # 2000 lbs of steel
– Permit fabricator to omit splices if appropriate
– Splice every 2 or 4 floors
– Avoid 3 floor columns - they are difficult to erect
– Splice at 4 ft minimum above the top of finished
floor
There’
This slide contains rules of thumb with regard to splices.

As indicated in Lecture 1, column splices are common every two to four floors, with two and
four preferred over three, and that a three-floor splice interval is not preferred based on the
following. The structural framing is erected by a raising gang and the decking is installed
by a decking crew. One key influencing factor in this process is that OSHA limits the
maximum elevation above a work platform (the last decked level in this case) to 30 ft. In a
two-floor tier (a tier is the height between splices), the raising gang will erect the framing
and the decking crew will deck the top level first. That permits the raising gang to erect the
next tier while the decking crew decks the intermediate floor -- all work in the typical range
of interstory heights is then within the OSHA limit. In a four-floor tier it is somewhat similar,
but slightly different. The raising gang will erect the first two levels of framing, and the
decking crew will then deck the second level. The raising gang then continues with the
third and fourth levels as the decking crew decks the first level. After that the decking crew
decks the fourth level. As the raising gang continues with the next tier, the decking crew
finishes by decking the third level. Again all work is done within the OSHA limit. In a three-
floor tier, some efficiency is lost. That is, the height limit means that you can't nest two
floors of raising with two floors of decking in each cycle; you have a two-floor cycle followed
by a one-floor cycle. The reduced efficiency of a 2, 1, 2, 1 ... Alternating cycle makes the 3-
level tier less attractive. Of course, sometimes you can't avoid it.
The recommendation to splice 4 ft above the top of finished floor can be found in OSHA
Subpart R, Rules for Steel Erection. This was discussed earlier in this lecture.
50
For further information on design rules for

economy, see the paper by Charles J. Carter,
and Thomas J. Schlafly, “Save More Money”,
MSC, March 2008
There’
51
Poor Project Specifications
Problems:
– More restrictive than required for the project
– Require the fabricator to complete the design in
order to make the bid
– Have conflicts between the drawing notes and the
specifications
– Not written for the specific project
– Connect all beams to columns with full moment
connections
– Design all moment connections to satisfy the
building code
There’
Avoid specifications that are more restrictive than what is actually required
for your project.
The more complete the construction documents are, the easier it will be to
do take offs and prepare responsive bids.
Avoid conflicts between drawing notes and specifications as they are
confusing.
A general specification that is not adapted to the specific project can cause
problems.
In some instances, engineers require that every beam-to-column connection
be a full moment connection, developing Mp. Even though this requirement
results in great redundancy, it also results in high cost due to the relative
cost between shear and moment connections.
A specification requiring that all connections be full moment connections in
order to satisfy the building code is clearly inadequate and does not conform
to the AISC Code of Standard Practice. In addition, it doesn’t conform to the
concepts that are presented in Section 2 of the Steel Construction Manual,
and is simply not appropriate.
52
Good Project Specifications
Avoid problem specifications by:

Using recognized formats such as CSI or
MASTERSPEC.
Make sure drawing notes agree with the
specifications.
Follow the specification requirements set forth
in the AISC Code of Standard Practice.
Make sure the drawings show all requirements
unique to project.
There’
Avoid problem specifications by using common national templates such as

MASTERSPEC or master specifications developed by the Construction
Specification Institute. Remember that these template specifications must be
adapted to your project.
Make sure that the drawing notes agree with the specifications.
The Code of Standard Practice contains recommendations and requirements for the
contents of construction documents, i.e. the plans and specifications, with regard to
completeness and what is required in those documents.
The drawings must show all requirements that are unique to the project.
53
Provide Complete Documents
Required Information – Section 2, Manual

– Drawing information, per COSP 3.1
Size, section, grade and location of all members
All geometry and working points for layout
Floor elevations
Column centers and offsets
Camber requirements for members
– Per COSP 3.1.1 through 3.1.6
Permanent bracing, stiffeners and doublers
Connection information
Leveling plates
Non-
Non-Structural Steel elements required for the stability of the
frame
Members required to be painted
There’
This slide is a reminder of various requirements that are taken from the Code of
Standard Practice with regard to the content of construction documents.
54
Required Information – Section 2, Manual

– Drawing numbers and revision numbers, per
COSP 3.5
– Structural system description, per COSP 7.10.1
– Installation schedule for non-
non-structural elements
in the structural system, COSP 7.10.2 (not EOR)
CASE Guidelines (Document 962 D)
NISD “Guidelines For Successful
Presentation Of Steel Design Documents”
There’
Section 3.5 of the Code of Standard Practice requires that consistent drawing
numbers and revision numbers be used - and not changed during the course of the
project.
Section 7.10.1 of the Code of Standard Practice requires that the lateral-load-
resisting system be identified by the Owner’s Designated Representative for Design.
Section 7.10.2 of the Code of Standard Practice requires that the installation
schedule for non-Structural steel elements of the lateral-load-resisting system and
connecting diaphragm elements be provided to the erector by the Owner’s
Designated Representative for Construction.
Document 962D, published by the Council of American Structural Engineers
(CASE), outlines guidelines and checklists that allow the Engineer of Record to
examine the completeness of his/her work. By following these guidelines and
making this final check, the EOR will help ensure that when the documents go out
to fabricators, erectors and contractors, they will be complete in describing the work
and the requirements for construction.
55
First Life Safety, THEN

– Dimensions, Dimensions, Dimensions
– All framing, plus dimensions for:
Slab edges
Stair openings
Elevator openings
Mechanical openings
There’
The message of this slide is to remind the designer that in order to have a
successful project, he/she must first address the life safety issues and then provide
the dimensions and details to completely describe the project. Life safety is
paramount, but complete documents that contain dimensions and details - and
openings and edges - are the key to having a project move smoothly from detailing
through fabrication to erection and completion.
56
Quips
“God is in the details” - Mies van der Rohe

Least weight is not least cost.
No intelligent person would estimate a steel
building cost based on weight.
“Pounds per square foot is only a measure
of economy in Great Britain” – Mark Holland
There’
These quips conclude the lecture module and reinforce the observations and
recommendations presented. Perhaps the single most important principle is that
Least Weight is not Least Cost.
57
End – Lecture 7
There’
58
Lecture 8: Case Studies
and Summary
Five Story Office Building
Warehouse
There’
In this lecture module, two case studies are presented. The first is a 5 story
suburban office building and the second is a warehouse.
1
There’
The photograph in this slide is the five story steel framed office building that we will
study. As can be seen from the picture, and as will be illustrated in the plans, this
building was designed to provide numerous corner offices.
2
There’
This photograph shows the steel framing that will be further discussed in the slides
that follow.
3
Location – Chicago suburbs
Use - Offices
Size – 125,000 square feet
Height – 5 stories, Fireproofed
Construction Features
– Atrium with exposed elevators and large skylight.
– 80 corner offices!
– Window washing from roof.
– Metal panel curtain wall on steel studs.
There’
Building Information:
•Located in the Chicago suburbs
•Office occupancy
•Area of the building is 125,000 square feet
•Five stories
•Fireproof construction
•Exposed elevators in the atrium
•Entire structure has 80 corners allowing for a total of 80 corner offices
•Window washing was supported at the roof and required some davit and tie-off
details
•Curtain wall system is a cold-formed steel stud system with metal panels
•The windows and the curtain wall are suspended from the exterior of the steel
frame
4
Atrium with exposed

elevators and large
skylight.
There’
5
Bay size: 30 ft x 30 ft
– Established in initial architectural design
Story height: 12’- 6”
Live load
– 50-
50-psf offices and 80-
80-psf corridors
– Reductions not taken for filler beams
Structural system: Steel rigid frames
– Provided maximum plan flexibility
There’
•Bays are 30 ft x 30 ft as established by the initial architectural design and the

layout of the floor plate.
•Story height is 12’-6”.
•The live load used for design was 50 psf in the office and 80 psf in the corridors.
•In order to enhance flexibility, the decision was made to not apply live load
reduction to the filler beams. This meant that the filler beams were stronger than
required by the Code. This added strength was then potentially available to a future
tenant that required a small file room or library.
•Rigid frames were designed to take the lateral loads as they provided full open
floor plans that allowed maximum flexibility for partition layouts and suite
subdivisions.
6
System components
– Lightweight concrete on 3- 3-in., 20-
20-gage composite metal
deck, both floor and roof.
– Filler beams (W18x35) at 10 ft on center,
non-
non-composite, no camber.
– Girders (W21x68), raised 2- 2-in. to eliminate filler beam
copes.
– Slab edge at 1’
1’- 6-1/2”
1/2”, bent plate with concrete slab
designed to cantilever.
– Columns (W14x120) with Firetrol columns at elevators.
There’
Both the roof and floor structural slabs are lightweight concrete on 3 in., 20 gage composite
metal deck. The roof was designed as a concrete slab. This was done to achieve the
required fire rating, sound deadening and RTU access. The use of the concrete slab also
meant that the framing layout was the same as the floors below. The same slab and
perimeter details could be used and detailing, fabrication and erection was simplified. The
non-composite beams and girders were found to be the least expensive floor framing
system for the project, even though they were not the least weight solution. This may not
always be case. The decision to use non-composite beams and girders was based on a
cost analysis using data for the project location. Costs for the framing and the shear
connectors were obtained from fabricators.
The filler beams are non-composite W18X35s, spaced at 10 ft on center. These members
met the strength requirements and the construction dead load deflection was less than ¾-
inch. Thus, camber was not specified. This is consistent with recommendations presented
elsewhere in this lecture.
The girders are W21X68s and are not a part of the lateral load system. The girders were
raised 2 in. with respect to the beams so that the beams could be connected to the girders
without top flange copes. Eliminating the need for copes saved fabrication cost and the
additional costs in deck layout and deck flashings along the girders was minimal.
Additionally, since there is a 3 in. difference in depth between the W21s and the W18s,
bottom copes were not necessary.
The slab edge projects 1 ft - 6½ in. from the column centerline at the perimeter, which was
accomplished with a bent plate. The slab was designed to cantilever. The columns on
either side of the exposed elevators are W14X120 and they were provided with
prefabricated fireproofing. The manufacturer of the fireproofing was Firetrol Co.
7
Connections
– Single plate and skewed single plates.
– Bolted end plate moment connections
CJP flange welds
Column stiffeners and web doublers where

required
– Bolted column splices, including moment
resisting splices
ALL connections were shown in the CD’s.
There’
The connections for this building are single plates and skewed single plates. The
moment connections on the filler beams that participated in the lateral load resisting
system are bolted end plate moment connections. The flange-to-plate connections
are CJP groove welds. The column splices are bolted, including the moment
resisting splices in the rigid frames. The design included stiffeners sized and shown
on the structural drawings where necessary. It is significant and very noteworthy to
point out that all of the connections were fully shown on the construction
documents.
8
There’
This slide illustrates the floor plate showing the filler beams at 10 ft o.c. The lateral
load resisting system in one principle direction is shown in red and the lateral load
resisting system in the other principle direction is shown in yellow. As you can see,
the framing for the four corners of the diamond are oriented in the same direction
radiating out from the core. This provided a certain amount of repetition in the
detailing and member sizing. Notice the way the red frames are oriented so that the
two Firetrol columns on either side of the elevators were not engaged. The
horizontal element in the rigid frames was always a beam, not a girder, which
limited the demand on the connection moments.
9
Design issues
– Flexibility
Rigid frames, open plan
Steel framing, future modification
Web openings for ducts at high ceilings
Slab LL capacity, 150-

150-psf
Filler beam LL capacity, 58-
58-psf
– Bay size
Set in original design
There’
With respect to the design of this suburban Chicago office building, flexibility was
paramount. The owner required flexibility in arranging the floor plate and
subdividing the floors into suites, so rigid frames were designed to allow for
maximum open space. If future openings had to be cut from floor to floor to connect
suites for tenants on multiple floors (which would require a secondary staircase),
this was possible. It was also possible to easily reinforce the steel frame for higher
loading, including compact and dense filing systems. Steel framing also provided
opportunities to readily modify the frame if increased strength became necessary.
A few web openings, in high ceilings at the entrances, allowed a relatively low story
height of 12’- 6” which could still accommodate ducts. Since no live load reductions
were taken, the filler beam capacity actually provided for a 58 psf effective live load
plus partitions. Thus, the filler beams were stronger than required by the Code.
This added strength was then potentially available to a future tenant that required a
small file room or library. As stated previously, the bay size was set by the architect
in the original floor plate.
10
Design issues, continued

– Framing plan, floors and roof
Two filler beams per bay simplified framing
and optimized deck
Eight bays turned per floor to maximize
similar framing and connections
Girders framed to flanges, where possible
40 columns, 20 N-
N-S and 20 E-E-W
40 moment connections, 20 N- N-S and 20 E-
E-W
There’
The use of two filler beams per bay simplified the framing and optimized the deck.
Eight of the bays were turned to maximize the number of similar framing conditions
and connections. The girders were framed to the column flanges wherever
possible, which simplified the connections. This also simplified web-to-web
connections since they were made with the lighter filler beams. There are 40
columns in the floor plate, 20 of them oriented north-south and 20 oriented east-
west. There are 40 moment connections, 20 in the north-south direction and 20 in
the east-west direction. All of the rigid frame connections are strong axis to the
columns.
11
Preliminary Design
Four systems were studied.

– Structural steel using 1-
1-1/2-
1/2-in. composite deck
– Structural steel using 3-
3-in. composite deck
– CIP concrete post tensioned slabs
– CIP concrete mild steel reinforced slabs
Structural steel using rigid frames was

selected.
Steel framing and connection approaches
were worked out before final design began.
There’
It was pointed out earlier in the lecture that one of the keys to successful design is a
solid preliminary design. This project had a preliminary design that not only
confirmed the framing system, but also its design features. Final design carried the
preliminary design to completion.
12
Office Building Design Effort
PRELIMINARY VS. FINAL
Preliminary
Design
18%
Preliminary Design
Final Design
Final Design
82%
There’
The pie chart on this slide shows the division of effort between preliminary design
and final design. This chart and the two that follow were developed based on a
review of the calculation file.
13
FINAL DESIGN
Foundation
Design
20%
Foundation Design
Superstructure Design
Superstructure
Design
80%
There’
The pie chart on this slide shows the division of effort between foundation design
and superstructure design.
14
SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN
Member
Design
50%
Analysis
Analysis
30%
Member Design
Connection Design
Connection
Design
20%
There’
The pie chart on this slide shows the division of effort among the three main tasks in
the final design of the superstructure, i.e., analysis, member design, and connection
design.
15
Office Building Drawings
S1 - Foundation Plan, Schedules, and Details
S2 - 1st Floor Plan, Beam Schedule, and Details
S3 - 2nd thru 5th Floor Plan, Beam Schedules,
Moment End Plate Schedule, and Misc.
Framing Details
S4 - Roof Framing Plan, Beam Schedule, and
Skylight Curb Details
S5 - Column Schedule, Column Splice Details,
Connection Details, and Slab Edge Details
There’
The design of this building was conveyed to the contractors on 5 structural

drawings. The contents of each drawing is listed in the slide.
16
The moral of the story:
– Successful designs are possible, as
demonstrated in this case study.
– Practice the message from this lecture.
– Allocate and monitor time throughout design to
allow adequate time for all design activities:
analysis, member design, and connections.
– Set out to prepare complete construction
documents.
– …and it can be done within budget.
There’
In conclusion, this case study is presented to demonstrate that a building structure,

including connections, can be successfully designed and drawn following the
principles presented in this seminar. In order to have time to design and fully
specify connections, time must be allocated for this activity. This case study
illustrates how this was done for one project, but it is not and need not be an
isolated event.
17
Warehouse
There’
The next example illustrates the design of a one story warehouse.
18
Warehouse
Design the 360 ft by 360 ft warehouse structure shown in the
figure. For analysis, use the Effective Length Method.
Eave height = 40 ft
Nominal Loads:
Dead load = 20 psf
Roofing = 5 psf X- bracing each wall
Deck = 2 psf
Structure = 4 psf
360
Mechanical = 5 psf
Collateral = 4 psf
Precast Walls = 100 psf
Roof snow load = 30 psf
Wind pressure = 20 psf
Mean Wind Uplift = 10 psf
There’
There’s always a solution in steel! 360 19
This slide shows a sketch of the one story warehouse to be designed and the
relevant design load parameters. The Effective Length Method of analysis has
been chosen so that all of the calculations can be done by hand. Also, since this is
a braced frame, K = 1.0. The example illustrates the effect of the “leaning” columns.
Other methods include the Direct Analysis Method and the First-Order Analysis
Method. These are illustrated in a paper by Carter and Geshwinder (2008) in the
AISC Engineering Journal.
19
Warehouse
Use ASD
Load Combinations:
– D+S
– D+W
– D + 0.75(S + W)
Design criteria:
– For manufacturing operations, use 60 ft by 60 ft bays
– The mechanical load includes 3 psf sprinklers
Structural system
– Use roof diaphragm with wall x-
x-bracing
– Use open web steel joists and Joist Girders
Walls are non-
non-load bearing 8 in. precast
There’
By observation, the three load combinations shown will control the design. Since
the structure’s footprint is square, a roof diaphragm is the most economical system
for transferring the lateral loads and stability forces. Because of the large bay size,
open web steel joists and Joist Girders are the most cost effective roof framing
members.
20
Warehouse
Roof deck design:

– Based on loading and loss prevention
requirements, use Type 22 wide rib deck.
– Deck span 6 ft
– Use a minimum of 1 – side lap screw (s.l.s.),
other fastening to be selected for diaphragm
requirements
There’
Based on experience, 22 gage wide rib roof deck is chosen as the most economical
thickness and type. The one side lap screw satisfies FM Global requirements.
21
Warehouse
Structure:
– Joists at 6 ft on center, Joist Girders at 60 ft
– Columns (40 ft long, pinned ends):
Load = (20 + 30)(60)(60)/1000 = 180 kips
Check using W and HSS sections
From the AISC Manual with H = 40 ft, select

a W14X90, Pn/:c = 236 kips, or an HSS
12X12X3/8 (Wt. = 58 plf), Pn/:c = 220 kips
Based on cost, use the HSS
There’
Joist spacing is based on the deck span and the bay size. The HSS section for the
columns is selected based on economy. The authors have found that HSS are
generally most economical for one story structures when the unsupported height is
30 ft or more.
22
Warehouse
Serviceability criteria
– For non-
non-load bearing concrete walls, use a drift
criteria of H/100 = (40)(12)/100 = 4.8 in. for a 10
year wind. This is approximately 6.4 in. for a 50
year wind.
Determine if serviceability criteria is satisfied
using first-order analysis.
There’
See AISC Design Guide 3 for serviceability considerations. The H/100 limit is
appropriate for buildings of this occupancy and construction.
23
Warehouse
Diaphragm shear:
Shear = (W)(H/2)(Width/2) = (20)(40/2)(360/2) = 72,000 lbs.
Shear per ft = 72000/360 = 200 lbs. / ft
From the 3rd Edition of the SDI “Diaphragm Design Manual”:

The allowable shear for Type 22, wide rib deck, with a 36/4 weld
pattern and 1 s.l.s. = 270 lbs./ft G’ = 12300 lbs./in.
Deck deflection from wind (neglecting flexural deflection):

'd = wL2/8DG’ = [(20)(40/2)](360)2/[(8)(360)(12300)] = 1.46 in.
Brace design and deflection:

Brace angle with horizontal = arctan (40/60) = 33.7 degrees
There’
Determine the roof deck and wall bracing deflections. The deck deflection can be
determined based on the shear deflection equation found in the SJI Diaphragm
Design Manual.
24
Warehouse
Brace force = 72.0 / cos(33.7) = 86.5 kips
Use Fy = 36 ksi for brace angles.
Brace area, (yielding controls) = :Pn/Fy = (1.67)(86.5) / 36 = 4.01 in.2
Rupture limit state not shown and does not control.
Use 2L’
2L’s 4X4X5/16, A = 4.80 in.2
Brace length = 60/cos(33.7) = 72.1 ft
Brace stiffness = (AE/L)(cos2T)

= [(4.80)(29000)/(72.0)(12)][cos2(33.7)] = 111 kips/in.
Brace deflection = 72.0/111 = 0.650 in.
Total deflection = 1.46 + 0.65 = 2.11 in. < 6.4 in. o.k.
There’
This slide shows the calculations for the brace force and deflection of the vertical
bracing. The calculated drift is less than the limit chosen based on serviceability.
25
Warehouse
Design the columns at the braced bays. Ht = 40 ft
For (D + S): Pr = [(20 + 30)(60)(60/2)]/1000 = 90 kips
For (D + W): Pr = (20)(60/2)(60)/1000 + (86.5)sin(33.7)
= 36.0+48.0 = 84.0 kips
[D +0.75(S + W)]: 36.0 + 0.75(54.0 + 48.0) = 113 kips
Controls
Use HSS10X10X3/8, A = 13.3 in.2 Pn/:c = 132 kips
There’
The design of the perimeter columns at the braced bay is shown on this slide.
These columns have larger axial loads as compared to the other perimeter columns
due to the additional bracing forces. The wind uplift force has not been
conservatively deducted from the column load for this calculation.
26
Warehouse
Determine B2: 1
B2 t 1.0
D ¦ Pnt
1
¦ Pe 2
where:
D = 1.0 (LRFD), D = 1.6 (ASD)
6Pnt = total vertical load supported by the story using LRFD or ASD
load combinations, including gravity column loads, kips
Pe2 = RM6HL/'H
RM = 1.0 for braced frames
6H = story shear produced by the lateral forces used to compute 'H,
kips
L = story height, in.
There’
The second order effects can be determined using the B2 multiplier. One could use
rigorous second order analysis instead; this presentation follows the hand method.
27
Warehouse
Calculate 6Pnt
Load Case 6Pnt, kips
D (20)(360)(360)/1000 = 2592
Precast walls (100)(40/2)(360)(2)/1000 = 1440
S (30)(360)(360)/1000 = 3888
W (-10)(360)(360)/1000 = -1296
Determine Pe2 = RM6HL/'H
6HL = (20)(360)(40/2)(40)(12)/1000 = 69100 kip-in.

For 'H use the average deflection of the diaphragm plus 'brace.
The average diaphragm deflection = 0.6 'd (parabola)
'H = (0.6)(1.46) + 0.650 = 1.53 in.
6Pe2 = (1.0)(69120)/(1.53) = 45200 kips
There’
The precast walls weigh 100 psf. For stability, the weight of the walls must be
included in the analysis. For stability the weight of the walls is taken at the mid-
height of the wall. The end walls need not be included in the “leaning” weight as
their overturning is resisted by their base attachment. The average deck deflection
is used to determine the stability forces from the leaning columns. To be more
conservative, the total deck deflection could be used.
28
Warehouse
Calculation of B2:
Load 1
Combination B2 t 1.0
D6P
D6Pnt =1.66
=1.66Pnt 1.6 ¦ Pnt
1
¦ Pe 2
D + Precast + S (1.6)(2592 + 1440 + 3888) 1.39 < 1.5 o.k.
= 12700
D + Precast + W (1.6)(2592 +1440 +-
+-1296) 1.11 < 1.5 o.k.
= 4380
D + Precast + (1.6)[(2592 + 1440) + 1.27 < 1.5 o.k.
0.75(S + W) (0.75)(3888 - 1296)] = 9560
There’
The calculation for B2 shows that the effective length method can be used since B2
is less than 1.5 (AISC Specification requirement). B2 is calculated for the three load
combinations shown in the table.
29
Warehouse
Notional loads:
D + Precast + S: Ni = 0.002(2592 + 1440 + 3888) = 15.8 kips
Eave force = 15.8 / 360 = 0.044 kips/ft
D + Precast + W: Ni = 0.002(2592 + 1440 -1296) = 5.5 kips
D + Precast + 0.75(S + W): Ni = 0.002[2592 + 1440 + 0.75(3888
– 1296)] = 12.0 kips
Wind eave force = (20)(40/2)/1000 = 0.40 kips/ft
The notional loads do not need to be added to the combinations

with wind since the notional load is a minimum load.
There’
The notional loads on the frame are calculated in this slide. The notional loads are
only required for the gravity only cases, or as a minimum for the lateral load cases.
30
Warehouse
Account for second-
second-order effects:
Diaphragm shear (D + Precast + W) controls:
(B2)(200) = (1.11)(200) = 222 plf 270 o.k.
Brace force (D + precast + W) controls:

(B2)(86.5) = (1.11)(86.5) = 96.0 kips < (0.6)(36)(4.80) = 104 kips o.k.
Use 2L’
2L’s 4X4X5/16
Column @ braced bay [D + Precast + 0.75(S + W)] controls:
Pr = (B2)(113.0) = (1.27)(113) = 144 kips > 132 kips.
Use HSS12X12X3/8: Pn/:c = 220 kips
There’
The second-order effects are determined by multiplying the diaphragm shear,

vertical bracing forces, and the columns axial loads in the bracing system by B2.
The final bracing diagonal size and the final column size is confirmed.
31
IN CONCLUSION = C10
Cogitate
Consult
Calculate
Costs
Coordinate
Connect
Communicate
Collaborate
Construct
Cooperate
There’
In conclusion, ten key concepts are listed on this slide. The fact that they all begin
with the letter “C” may make them more memorable. These concepts embody the
attitudes and actions that are necessary to achieve successful design.
32
COGITATE
Think about the problem before attempting

the solution. Perhaps the problem is
wrongly stated, thus limiting the range of
solutions.
There’
Think about the problem.
33
CONSULT
Consult with others, both within your firm

and outside it. Your colleagues will bring a
different perspective and the discussion
should prompt a better solution. Consult
with general contractors, fabricators, and
erectors. Develop the contacts and
relationships so that you can get candid and
reliable advice.
There’
Consult with others. This expands the pool from which solutions can be drawn and
is a cross check on the proposed solutions.
34
CALCULATE
Of course, calculations must be made to

support the design, but they should be
made with judgment. Calculations do not
design buildings, people do.
There’
Calculation must be made. Budget design time to allow proper attention to details,
dimensions, and connections.
35
COSTS
Material and labor costs vary locally,

seasonally and with demand, i.e., temporary
shortages. The design community can keep
informed on market developments, but only
the construction industry has the best
information. They need to be consulted.
There’
Be aware of costs. Fabricators and erectors can provide important guidance with
regard to cost.
36
COORDINATE
Although co-ordination is not usually the

primary responsibility of the engineer, the
designer should work with the prime
professional to see that structural frame has
been integrated with the overall building
design.
There’
Coordination of the structure with the other disciplines is a key to realizing a

successful design.
37
CONNECT
Lecture module 7 points out the essential

role that connections play in the overall
success of the design. The design of the
frame, its members and its connections
must form an integrated whole.
There’
Consider connections as part of the design.
38
COMMUNICATE
The contract documents, plan and

specifications, are the primary medium of
communication for any design. Lecture
module 7 points addresses the need for
completeness and clarity of these
documents. Other forms of communication
are also important: response to questions,
meeting and site visits and reports.
There’
The design is communicated to others through the construction documents. Be

attentive to clear communication in all forms as the project proceeds.
39
COLLABORATE
Collaboration and mutual respect are the

keys to a successful design. This
collaboration must occur among all
members of the design and construction
team, working together.
There’
Collaboration is essential to success.
40
CONSTRUCT
Until a design is constructed it is just an

hypothesis. It is proved in construction,
where any shortcomings will be uncovered
and addressed. Good communication and a
collaborative spirit will bear fruit during
construction as conditions in the field are
solved.
There’
A design is realized in construction. Until it is successfully constructed, a design is

just a hypothesis.
41
Cooperate
Work together, do not be adversaries.
There’
Cooperation means working together toward a common goal.
42
Acknowledgements
AISC
John Ruddy, AISC
Shankar Nair, Teng & Associates, Inc.
Larry Griffis, Walter P. Moore
Larry Kloiber, LeJeune Steel Company
There’
The authors wish to acknowledge the many contributions of AISC and these
individuals.
43
THANK YOU !
There’
Thank you for your time and attention.
44
There’s always a solution in steel
American Institute of Steel Construction
One East Wacker Drive, Suite 700
Chicago, IL 60601
312.670.2400 www.aisc.org

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Intelligent Design!

Low-Rise and Mid-Rise Buildings

Two Story Concentric

James M. Fisher, Ph.D., P.E.

Michael A. West, P.E., AIA

How To Achieve Intelligent

In 1991 AISC published Design Guide 5 on Low-and Medium-Rise Steel Buildings.

In Lecture 1 we will discuss the topics shown on this slide.

What Design Is and What Design Is Not.

 An intelligent design is a successful design in which

What is an intelligent and successful design?

 An intelligent and successful design can

 Engineers must ask the right questions

 What are you going to do when first given a

To achieve an Intelligent design, think about these items.

 Think about the Big Picture

 Think Through the Design Solution(s)

Think Constructability from the very beginning!

 Human Error: Understanding past

Obtaining Intelligent designs by reducing design errors:

How can you best help the team?

The success of any project depends upon effective communication.

For the Fabricator / Detailer:

For the Fabricator / Detailer:

For the Erector:

Take the following steps to achieve an

 Select the serviceability criteria for the

 Select the direction of roof drainage

 Select the members to be used for the lateral

 Check member sizes for strength.

To achieve intelligent designs, remember to:

 “Strength is essential but otherwise

The information on this slide is the main theme of this seminar.

 Considerations other than strength

 Considerations other than strength

 “The profession of structural

Lecture 2 covers loads and other design criteria.

 Loads from IBC and ASCE 7

Load criteria can also be found in recommendations in AISC Design Guide 7,

Code specified loads are specified in the

 “Those loads produced by the use and

 “Those loads produced (1) during

 “Dead loads shall be considered permanent

Dead loads are determined by using the fundamental relationship of material

 Roofing – Ballast and Membrane 10 - 18 psf

 Permanent Partitions 10 - 20 psf

 1607.3 Uniform live loads

 1607.4 Concentrated loads

 1607.8 Impact loads

L = L0 [ 0.25 + 15 / (KLL x AT)1/2]

L = Reduced Live Load / ft2

KLLx AT 400 ft2

L 0.5 L0 for memb. supporting one floor

R = 0.08 ( A – 150) (IBC Equation 16-

R 40% for horizontal members,

 1607.10 Distribution of floor loads

Floor loads in Group A occupancies, i.e., assembly occupancies, cannot be reduced

 1607.11.2 Reduction in roof live loads

 1607.11.2.2 Special-purpose roofs

 Ground Snow Load, pg

 Drifts on Lower Roofs, Behind Parapets and

 1611.1 Design Rain Loads

 R = 5.2 (ds + dh) (Eq. 16-36)

 Basic Wind Speed

An intelligent design is a successful design in which

An intelligent and successful design can

Engineers must ask the right questions

What are you going to do when first given a

Think about the Big Picture

Think Through the Design Solution(s)

Human Error: Understanding past

Select the serviceability criteria for the

Select the direction of roof drainage

Select the members to be used for the lateral

Check member sizes for strength.

“Strength is essential but otherwise

Considerations other than strength

Considerations other than strength

“The profession of structural

Loads from IBC and ASCE 7

“Those loads produced by the use and

“Those loads produced (1) during

“Dead loads shall be considered permanent

Roofing – Ballast and Membrane 10 - 18 psf

Permanent Partitions 10 - 20 psf

1607.3 Uniform live loads

1607.4 Concentrated loads

1607.8 Impact loads

1607.10 Distribution of floor loads

1607.11.2 Reduction in roof live loads

1607.11.2.2 Special-purpose roofs

Ground Snow Load, pg

Drifts on Lower Roofs, Behind Parapets and

1611.1 Design Rain Loads

R = 5.2 (ds + dh) (Eq. 16-36)

Basic Wind Speed

Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems

Method 1 – Simplified Procedure

The 2006 IBC references ASCE 7-05 for

BASIC COMBINATIONS – IBC 1605.3

Wind Forces on Buildings

Metal Roof Systems

Perimeter Roof Flashing

Roof Loads for New Construction

Nearly all Low- Rise commercial

D902, D916, and D925 are typical UL designs

Important aspects of D916

Concrete thickness (over deck flutes) = 4 1/2"

Concrete thickness (over deck flutes) = 3 1/4"

The UL Fire Resistance Directory states

¨ 0.6 ¸ EOR is not responsible for

Code of Federal Code Regulations 29, Part

Minimum Design Loads For Buildings And

REDUCED FLOOR LIVE LOAD

Table 1604.3 cont.

Deflection, Vibration and Drift

Roofs and Roofing

Interior Partitions and Ceilings

2005 AISC Specification

Minimum Slopes – Maximum Deflections per:

IBC: ¼ in. per foot, minimum.

Area Dividers for roofing at 150 to 200 feet

Steel Deck Institute

Through Fastener Roofs (TFR)

Standing Seam Roofs (SSR)

1 + 2 ± 1/8 IN. 25 DEG. DL + LL

1 + 2 ± 5/16 IN. 25 < < 45 DEG. DL + LL

1 + 2 ± 1/2 IN. 45 DEG. DL + LL

3 + 4 L1 / 240 1/2 IN.MAX. DL + LL