Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
6, JUNE 2010
Abstract—The piecewise linear model has traditionally been insight into the switching process, allowing designers to acquire
used to calculate switching losses in switching mode power supplies in-depth knowledge of the switching loss mechanisms.
due to its simplicity and good performance. However, the use of the The classical analytical model, or piecewise-linear model [2],
latest low voltage power MOSFET generations and the continu-
ously increasing range of switching frequencies have made it nec- is based on the assumption that MOSFET’s capacitances com-
essary to review this model to account for the parasitic inductances pletely determine its switching behavior. However, it does not
that it does not include. This paper presents a complete analytical account for parasitic inductances. The latest generation of low-
switching loss model for power MOSFETs in low voltage switching voltage power MOSFETs exhibit an extremely good switching
converters that includes the most relevant parasitic elements. It performance, mainly due to their low capacitances and increased
clarifies the switching process, providing information about how
these parasitics, especially the inductances, determine switching transconductances; this key fact means that parasitic inductances
losses and hence the final converter efficiency. The analysis pre- limit the switching process in practice. The classical model thus
sented in this paper yields two different types of possible switching needs a review to account for the effect of these parasitics (ac-
situations: capacitance-limited switching and inductance-limited tual values for the parasitic inductances vary from around 15 nH
switching. This paper shows that, while the piecewise linear model in a classic TO-220 package to less than 1 n in the DirecFET
may be applied in the former, the proposed model is more accurate
for the latter. Carefully-obtained experimental results, described package used by International Rectifier).
in detail, support the analytical results presented. Several detailed models that include such parasitics have al-
ready been proposed, including either a fully analytical treat-
Index Terms—Losses, modeling, MOSFETs, switched mode
power supplies. ment [3], [4] or a more empirical approach [5]. This issue has
also been addressed in [6]– [8], but applied to a current source
resonant driver. This paper presents an analytical loss model
I. INTRODUCTION for power MOSFETs in actual low-medium voltage (< 40 V)
HE continuously increasing range of operating frequencies switching converters that includes all the parasitics. It is ob-
T in actual power converters has caused switching losses to
greatly determine the final performance of a design. On the
tained by solving the equivalent circuits during the switching
transitions; all the approximations used are clearly stated, and
one hand, switching losses can be accurately calculated us- the solutions are presented in a relatively simple form. The
ing physical simulation software or circuit simulations that use model is easy to understand and provides a deep insight into the
complete MOSFET models [1]; unfortunately, both methods switching process. The paper is organized as follows: first, the
are quite time consuming, and the information required to ob- motivation and basis of the model are given. Then, the model
tain precise results is not always available for many designers. and the procedure employed to obtain all the waveforms are
Besides, as each simulation only provides valid results for the fully explained. Finally, the proposed model is compared to the
case under study, neither general conclusions nor a clear phys- classical model and tested by means of several experiments.
ical insight into the switching process are easily obtained from
these tools. On the other hand, analytical switching loss models II. MOTIVATION AND BASIS OF THE MODEL
(usually based upon certain simplifications) provide less accu- Fig. 1(a) shows a synchronous buck converter. During switch-
rate results, but enable the designer to make fast calculations, ing transitions, the output inductance L may be considered to be
thus allowing almost immediate comparison between different a current source, and the output capacitor C may be considered
operating conditions or between different semiconductor perfor- a constant voltage source. Such assumptions yield the circuit in
mances. Furthermore, analytical models also provide physical Fig. 1(b), from which the output voltage has been removed as it
is in series with a current source. As the dead time control used
Manuscript received June 23, 2009; revised November 3, 2009. Current in synchronous buck converters causes the freewheeling diode
version published June 4, 2010. This work has been supported by the
Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation under Grants AP2006-04777, Df either to be conducting before the high-side MOSFET, HS,
AP2008-03380, and project TEC-2007-66917. Recommended for publication turns on or to start conducting after HS turns off, the low-side
by Associate Editor E. Santi. MOSFET, LS, does not play any role during the switching tran-
The authors are with the Power Supply Systems Group, Department of Elec-
trical and Electronic Engineering, University of Oviedo, Gijón 33204, Spain sitions, and it can be removed from the circuit. Furthermore, the
(e-mail: rodriguezmiguel.uo@uniovi.es; rodriguezalberto@uniovi.es; fernan- said dead time forces LS to switch in zero voltage conditions,
dezpablo.uo@uniovi.es; gonzalezdiego@uniovi.es; sebas@uniovi.es). thus adding no extra losses. Thus, only HS has to be considered
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. in the switching loss analysis. After taking into account such
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPEL.2010.2040852 considerations and adding the parasitic capacitances of HS, the
0885-8993/$26.00 © 2010 IEEE
RODRÍGUEZ et al.: INSIGHT INTO THE SWITCHING PROCESS OF POWER MOSFETS: AN IMPROVED ANALYTICAL LOSSES MODEL 1627
Fig. 2. (a) Typical turn-ON waveforms in the classical model; (b) equivalent
Fig. 1. (a) Synchronous buck converter; (b) equivalent circuit for the switching
circuit with an extra parasitic drain inductance.
transition; (c) intermediate circuit after the LS MOSFET has been removed and
the parasitic capacitances of HS have been added; (d) final equivalent circuit
obtained from a rearrangement of elements in (c).
TABLE I
SUMMARY OF LOSS CALCULATIONS DURING TURN-ON
A. Substage I Applying Laplace transforms to (12) and (13) and solving for
During substage I, the gate-source equivalent capacitance is vg s yields
charged until it reaches VTH . As the MOSFET is open circuited, 1 Vg
approximately no drain current flows in the circuit and the drain- vgs (s) = 2
(14)
s Leq Ceq s + Rg Ceq s + 1
source voltage remains constant. Thus, only the gate circuit must
be considered. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 7. The Leq and Ceq now being
initial conditions for the electrical variables are:
Ls Ld
ig (0) = 0 (10) Leq = Lg +
Ls + Ld
Ceq = (Cgs + Cgd ) .
vgs (0) = 0 . (11)
The inverse Laplace transform of (14) is shown in Table I as
From the circuit in Fig. 7, the following equations are (4). The current ig can be obtained from (12) and (13), following
obtained: the same procedure. This current, as shown in Table I as (5), is
Ls Ld dig used to calculate the initial current for the following substage.
Vg = Lg + + ig Rg + vgs (12)
Ls + Ld dt As the MOSFET is not activated, there is no power loss during
this period, except for the losses in the gate drive circuit that are
dvgs
ig = (Cgs + Cgd ) . (13) included as a separate term in the final loss calculations.
dt
1630 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 25, NO. 6, JUNE 2010
TABLE II
SUMMARY OF LOSS CALCULATIONS DURING TURN-OFF
RODRÍGUEZ et al.: INSIGHT INTO THE SWITCHING PROCESS OF POWER MOSFETS: AN IMPROVED ANALYTICAL LOSSES MODEL 1631
Vg − Vth = (ig + Ig 1 ) Rg
dig did dig
+ Lg + vgs + Ls + (29)
dt dt dt
Fig. 6. Equivalent circuit at the beginning of the turn-ON transition.
did did dig
0 = vds + Ld + Ls + (30)
dt dt dt
dvgs dvds dvgs
Cg s = ig + Ig 1 + Cgd − (31)
dt dt dt
dvds dvgs dvds
id = Cgd − + Cds + gm vgs . (32)
dt dt dt
B. Substage II
When vgs reaches VTH , the MOSFET channel starts conduct-
ing. Equation (3) then applies, and the channel current is directly
proportional to Vgs − VTH . Fig. 8 shows the equivalent circuit
for this substage.
The initial conditions are:
Equation (34) is no longer needed, and the other three equa-
vgs (0) = VTH (24) tions are uncoupled. Thus, the remaining set of equations can
vgd (0) = Vin − VTH (25) be solved to find voltages and currents in a simple form. Using
Laplace transforms, vgs (s) is obtained as
vds (0) = Vin (26)
id (0) = 0 (27) 1
vgs (s) =
ig (0) = is (0) = Ig 1 (28) s
Vg − Vth + Ig 1 Leq s
· (37)
with Ig 1 being the initial current in the gate circuit. s2 (Leq Ceq ) + s (Rg Ceq + (M − 1) (Leq /Rg )) + M
1632 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 25, NO. 6, JUNE 2010
1
Eloss = Vin Qrr − QD Vin (48)
2
with QD being the total charge supplied to the diode junction;
this charge can be calculated integrating the capacitance versus
voltage graph.
Noteworthily, significant reverse recovery parameters are
very difficult to calculate; for instance, Qrr strongly depends
on Iout and on the rate of change of the current, see, e.g., [10].
If the freewheeling diode is a Schottky diode, which suffers
almost no reverse recovery effects, then (47) becomes
Qrr
Fig. 12. (a) Turn-ON example waveform (the reverse recovery period is not
included). The sudden change in the channel current is a consequence of the The inverse Laplace transform of (54) is shown in Table II
approximations that were made during the analysis; (b) gate to source voltage as (15). The current ig can be obtained from (52) and (53), fol-
example waveform. The Miller effect takes place during substage II and causes
the actual channel current waveform. lowing the same procedure. This current, as shown in Table II
as (16), is used to calculate the initial current for the follow-
ing substage. Even though the MOSFET is carrying the output
current, this period lasts for a short time and the losses can be
neglected.
Substage I finishes at a time t1 , when the MOSFET enters into
the linear region, where (3) applies. Thus, t1 can be calculated
as
Iout
vgs (t1 ) = −Vg + VTH + . (55)
gm
B. Substage II
Fig. 13. Equivalent circuit at the beginning of the turn-OFF transition. Fig. 15 shows the equivalent circuit during this period. The
channel current suddenly decreases, thus causing the excess
current Iout − ichannel charging the MOSFET capacitances. The
From the circuit in Fig. 14, the following equations can be initial conditions are
easily obtained:
Iout
dig vgs (0) = VTH + (56)
−Vg = (Lg + Ls ) + ig Rg + vgs (52) gm
dt
Iout
dvgs vdg (0) = − VTH + (57)
ig = (Cgs + Cgd ) . (53) gm
dt
Using Laplace transforms, vgs is found vds (0) ≈ 0 (58)
Leq = Lg + Ls Ceq = Cgs + Cgd . with Ig 2 being the initial current in the gate circuit.
RODRÍGUEZ et al.: INSIGHT INTO THE SWITCHING PROCESS OF POWER MOSFETS: AN IMPROVED ANALYTICAL LOSSES MODEL 1635
dig
0 = (ig + Ig 2 ) Rg + Lg
dt
Iout diL s
− vgs − VTH + + Ls (62)
gm dt
vds = vgs + vgd (63)
dvgs dvgd
ig + Ig 2 + Cgs = Cgd (64)
dt dt
dvds dvgd
Iout − Cds = ichannel + Cgd (65)
dt dt
ig + is = 0 . (66)
1
vgs (s) = −
s
sLeq Ig 2 + (Vth + (Iout /gm )) Fig. 16. (a) Equivalent circuit during substage III; (b) intermediate circuit
· obtained by changing the position of the current sources; (c) final equivalent
Leq Ceq s2 + (Rg Ceq + (M − 1) (Leq /Rg )) s + M circuit during substage III.
(67)
using (67) and the final value theorem
with M , Leq , and Ceq being the same as in Section III-B Ich,∞ = lim ichannel = lim gm Vgs (t)
t→∞ t→∞
Cds Cgd Iout
Leq = Ls + Lg Ceq = Cgs + = lim svgs + VTH +
Cds + Cgd s→0 gm
Cgd Iout (M − 1) − VTH gm
M = 1 + Rg gm . = . (72)
Cgd + Cds M
Applying the inverse Laplace transform to (67) yields (17) In this substage, the initial conditions have been represented
in Table II. The results are very similar to those obtained in by independent voltage and current sources in the circuit in
Section III-B. The drain-source voltage can be obtained from Fig. 16(a); instead of solving the circuit equations, a rearrange-
(62)–(66) using the same procedure. The result is shown in ment of these sources easily yields the circuit in Fig. 16(c).
Table II as (18). This period ends when the drain-source voltage Fig. 16(c) shows that the final equivalent circuit is a simple
reaches Vin . The channel current could reach 0 A before that parallel resonant circuit. As the current and voltage waveforms
moment; such a situation will be addressed in Section IV-F. in this circuit are oscillating, it seems clear that the proposed
approximation is valid as long as the substage lasts for a time
shorter than half a resonant period. vds is easily found from
C. Substage III
Fig. 16(c)
At the beginning of this substage, vds has reached Vin and the
vds (t) = Vin + (Iout − Ich,∞ ) Ld ω0 sin (ω0 t) (73)
freewheeling diode becomes forward biased. Fig. 16(a) shows
the equivalent circuit during this period. The initial conditions with ω0 being
are 1
ω0 = . (74)
id (0) = Iout (68) (Ls + Ld ) Cds
is (0) ≈ Iout (69) This substage ends when the drain current reaches the chan-
nel current Ich,∞ . At this moment, the drain-source voltage has
ichannel (0) = Ich,∞ (70) reached its peak voltage Vds,p eak . This value can easily be cal-
culated once t3 is known.
vds (0) = Vin . (71)
Vds, p eak = vds (t3 ) . (75)
As the drain inductance impedes a sudden change in the drain
D. Substage IV
current, the drain-source voltage continues increasing. It is as-
sumed that the gate voltage remains constant during this period, During this period, the drain current continues decreasing
and as does the channel current. The latter can be approximated toward zero, forced by the voltage difference that exists between
1636 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 25, NO. 6, JUNE 2010
Fig. 17. (a) Equivalent circuit during substage IV; (b) equivalent circuit for
the resonant turn-OFF stage (substage V).
and its effect should be taken into account. Both conditions are
stated in (86) and (87):
Fig. 19. Comparison between the losses provided by the proposed model and
the classical piecewise–linear model [2]. tturn−on Vin
Iout << ⇒ capacitance limited (86)
2Ld
change rate during turn-ON, thus inducing an almost zero- tturn−on Vin
current-switching transition. Conversely, during the turn-OFF Iout >> ⇒ inductance limited. (87)
2Ld
transition, the inductances lengthen the duration of the process,
thereby causing an increase in the losses. A comprehensive differentiation of these two cases can also
be found in [12].
V. COMPARISON WITH THE CLASSICAL PIECEWISE-LINEAR
MODEL VI. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Fig. 19 shows a comparison between the results provided by To experimentally test the proposed model, several labora-
the classical model (extracted from [2]) and the proposed model. tory measurements were conducted. First, the efficiency of a
It is apparent that the classical model yields higher losses during synchronous buck converter was measured and compared with
turn-ON than the proposed model, whereas during turn-OFF the the data provided by the proposed model. A National Semicon-
opposite happens and the classical model yields smaller losses ductor LM3152 demo board switching at 500 kHz (see Fig. 20)
than the proposed model. was used. As not enough reverse recovery data are given in
However, there is a “compensation effect” between these two the datasheet of the MOSFETs (RJK0305), a Schottky diode
errors that leads to the final losses not being very different from was connected in parallel with the low-side MOSFET. Thus,
one model to another. This coincidence means that the classical (49) can be used to estimate the losses during substage IV of the
model is still very useful, but only when the switching process is turn-ON transition. Conduction losses of both MOSFETs and the
not inductance limited: in that case it yields inaccurate results, diode were fully taken into account and calculated using con-
as is shown in Section VI. The proposed model clearly indicates ventional equations (e.g., in the case of one of the MOSFETs,
that turn-OFF losses are much higher than turn-ON losses in the the expression i2rm s Rds,ON was used, irm s being the root mean
inductance-limited case. square current through the MOSFET); power losses in input and
From a designer’s point of view, it is interesting to establish an output capacitances and in the control circuitry were also con-
approximate boundary between the region where the classical sidered, as well as the increase of the MOSFETs on-resistance
model can be reliably applied (capacitance-limited switching) with operating temperature.
and the region when the proposed model should be used be- The results are shown in Fig. 21(a) and (b). It can be seen that
cause the effect of parasitic inductances cannot be neglected the model provides accurate results and that the trend followed
(inductance-limited switching). The classical model states that by experimental data is clearly reproduced by the model. Switch-
the turn-ON time is ing losses account for approximately 25% of the total amount
of losses in this experiment. There is a certain amount of un-
Qswitching Rg
tturn−on = (85) certainty in the efficiency results provided by the model mainly
Vth + (Iout /gm )
caused by the uncertainty in the current ripple of the demo board
with Qswitching being the total switching charge that has to output inductance and by the reverse recovery losses that may
be transferred into the gate-drain capacitance during the Miller still be existing in the circuit.
effect period, the value of which is usually given in the datasheet. A second experiment was carried out to minimize these un-
Thus, the current increase through Ld during the estimated turn- certainties. A synchronous buck converter switching at 1.3 MHz
ON time can be compared with the output current Iout ; if the was built using RJK0305 MOSFETs and an LM2727 controller.
latter is much smaller than the former, Ld will not be able to limit Several changes were made with respect to the previously de-
the current rate of change and the switching will be capacitance scribed experiment. First, the switching frequency was increased
limited. On the contrary, if Iout is much bigger than the current to give more weight to switching losses against other loss terms.
increase through Ld , then Ld will limit the current rate of change Second, a very small inductor (≈ 300 nH) was used to obtain a
1638 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 25, NO. 6, JUNE 2010
Fig. 22. Prototype with the small coreless inductance and different positions
of decoupling capacitors in the layout used to achieve the extra drain inductance.
Fig. 21. (a) Experimental and model results (V in = 6 V); (b) experimental
and model results (V in = 12 V).