MICROPHONES AND LOUDSPEAKERS
measurement techniques
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Microphones
Device for converting
sounds: a device that
converts sounds to
electrical signals by means
of a vibrating diaphragm.
The signals can then be
amplified, transmitted for
broadcasting, or used for
recording the sounds.
B. Louspeakers
Device for converting
signals into sound: an
electronic or
electromagnetic device
used to convert electrical
energy into sound energy,
providing the audible sound
in equipment such as
televisions, radios, CD
players, and public-address
systems.
II. OVERVIEW
A. Microphones
In the 1980s, in the
early days of home
computer use, computers
relied on telephone lines
and modems to connect to
other computers. These
modems worked by
translating, or modulating,
the streams of bits (1s and
0s) from a computer into
sound waves; this stream is
known as the digital signal.
The sound waves were
played through a speaker
and picked up by the
microphone of a telephone
handset. The telephone’s
microphone translated the
sounds into an analog
signal, a signal that uses an
electrical current to
simulate sound waves. The
analog signal was sent
through telephone wire to a
second telephone, which
transferred the analog
signal to the receiving
modem’s microphone. The
receiving modem
translated, or demodulated,
the analog signal back into
a digital signal. Modern
modems operate in much
the same way, but they use
electronic circuits to pass
the digital signal to the
telephone line instead of
microphones and speakers
Microphone
Specification:
Because of
differences in their
construction, microphones
have their own
characteristic responses to
sound. This difference in
response produces non-
uniform phase and
frequency responses. In
addition, microphones are
not uniformly sensitive to
sound pressure, and can
accept differing levels
without distorting.
Although for scientific
applications microphones
with a more uniform
response are desirable, this
is often not the case for
music recording, as the
non-uniform response of a
microphone can produce a
desirable coloration of the
sound. There is an
international standard for
microphone specifications,
but few manufacturers
adhere to it. As a result,
comparison of published
data from different
manufacturers is difficult
because different
are used. The Microphone
Data Website has collated
the technical specifications
complete with pictures,
response curves and
technical data from the
microphone manufacturers
for every currently listed
microphone, and even a
few obsolete models, and
shows the data for them all
in one common format for a) Electret condenser
ease of comparison. microphones
An electret
Microphone Types microphone is a relatively
new type of capacitor
1) Condenser, microphone invented at
capacitor or electrostatic Bell laboratories in 1962 by
microphones Gerhard Sessler and Jim
In a condenser West. The externally-
microphone, also known as applied charge described
a capacitor microphone, the above under condenser
diaphragm acts as one plate microphones is replaced by
of a capacitor, and the a fixed charge in an electret
vibrations produce changes material. An electret is a
in the distance between the ferroelectric material that
plates. There are two has been permanently
methods of extracting an electrically charged or
audio output from the
polarized. The name comes
transducer thus formed: from electrostatic and
DC-biased and RF (or HF)
magnet; a static charge is
condenser microphones. embedded in an electret by
With a DC-biased
alignment of the static
microphone, the plates are charges in the material,
biased with a fixed charge
much the way a magnet is
(Q). The voltage made by aligning the
maintained across the
magnetic domains in a
capacitor plates changes piece of iron.
with the vibrations in the
air, according to the
capacitance equation (Q =
C \ V), where Q = charge in
coulombs, C = capacitance
in farads and V = potential
difference in volts. The
capacitance of the plates is
inversely proportional to
the distance between them
for a parallel-plate
capacitor.
 2) Dynamic
microphones
Dynamic
microphones work via
electromagnetic induction.
They are robust, relatively
inexpensive and resistant to
moisture, and for this
reason they are widely used
on-stage by singers.
Moving coil microphones
use the same dynamic
principle as in a cause a corresponding
loudspeaker, only reversed.
A small movable induction
coil, positioned in the
magnetic field of a
permanent magnet, is
attached to the diaphragm.
When sound enters through
the windscreen of the
microphone, the sound
wave moves the diaphragm.
When the diaphragm
vibrates, the coil moves in
the magnetic field,
producing a varying current
in the coil through
electromagnetic induction.
3) Carbon microphones
A carbon
microphone, formerly used
in telephone handsets, is a
capsule containing carbon
granules pressed between
two metal plates. A voltage
is applied across the metal
plates, causing a small
current to flow through the
carbon. One of the plates,
the diaphragm, vibrates in
sympathy with incident
sound waves, applying a
varying pressure to the 5) Ribbon
carbon. The changing m
pressure deforms the i
granules, causing the c
contact area between each r
pair of adjacent granules to o
change, and this causes the p 6) Laser microphones
electrical resistance of the h Laser microphones
mass of granules to change. o are portrayed in movies as
The changes in resistance n spying devices.
e
change in the voltage s 7) MEMS microphones
across the two plates, and Ribbon microphones are The MEMS
hence in the current often used as an alternative (Micro Electrical-
flowing through the to condenser microphones. Mechanical System)
microphone, producing the Some modern ribbon microphone is also called a
electrical signal. Carbon microphones do not require microphone chip or silicon
microphones were once power, and some do. The microphone. The pressure-
commonly used in first ribbon microphones, sensitive diaphragm is
telephones; they have developed at RCA in the etched directly into a
extremely low-quality 1930s, required no power, silicon chip by MEMS
sound reproduction and a were quite fragile and could techniques, and is usually
very limited frequency be destroyed by just accompanied with
response range, but are very blowing air through them. integrated preamplifier.
robust devices. Modern ribbon mics are
much more resiliant, and Working distance
4) Piezoelectric can be used with the same
microphones level of caution as  Close miking
A crystal condenser mics.
microphone uses the Ribbon When miking at a distance
phenomenon of microphones provide a of 1 inch to about 1 foot
piezoelectricity—the ability warmer sound than a from the sound source, it is
of some materials to condenser mic, with a less considered close miking.
produce a voltage when brittle top end. Some This technique generally
subjected to pressure—to vocalists (including Paul provides a tight, present
convert vibrations into an McCartney) prefer them sound quality and does an
electrical signal. An condenser mics. In the effective job of isolating
example of this is Rochelle studio they are used on the signal and excluding
salt (potassium sodium tart vocals, violins, and even other sounds in the acoustic
rate), which is a drums. Popular models for environment.
piezoelectric crystal that recording include the Royer
works as a transducer, both R121 and the AEA R84.  Bleed
as a microphone and as a Bleeding occurs when the
slim line loudspeaker signal is not properly
component. isolated and the
microphone picks up
another nearby instrument.
This can make the
mixdown process difficult
if there are multiple voices
on one track. Use the
following methods to
prevent leakage:
  Place the Accent miking is a A. Loudspeakers be specified. If the
microphones technique used for solo loudspeaker has a
closer to the passages when miking an Loudspeakers generally compression horn
instruments. ensemble. A soloist needs used in home systems come driver, the
 Move the to stand out from an in pairs (or five plus one for diameter of the
instruments farther ensemble, but placing a surround sound) and horn throat may be
apart. microphone too close will resemble boxes. Within given.
 Put some sort of sound unnaturally present each box, or enclosure,
acoustic barrier compared the distant there may be one or more  Rated Power –
between the miking technique used with actual speakers. The Nominal (or even
instruments. the rest of the ensemble. enclosure itself affects the continuous)
 Use directional Therefore, the microphone loudspeaker’s performance. power, and peak
microphones. should be placed just close The speakers within the (or maximum
enough ot the soloist so that enclosure share the same short-term) power
 A B miking the signal can be mixed signal. The largest speaker a loudspeaker can
The A B miking distance effectively without handles the lowest handle (i.e.,
rule (ratio 3 - 1) is a general sounding completely frequencies, and the maximum input
rule of thumb for close excluded from the smallest speaker handles power before
miking. To prevent phase ensemble. the highest. The signal from thermally
anomalies and bleed, the  Ambient miking the amplifier is divided up destroying the
microphones should be Ambient miking is placing into frequency ranges and loudspeaker. It is
placed at least three times the microphones at such a then is routed to the never the sound
as far apart as the distance distance that the room specific speakers. These output the
between the instrument and sound is more prominent speakers work as a single loudspeaker
the microphone. than the direct signal. This unit, reproducing the produces). A
technique is used to capture recording in the most driver may be
audience sound or the accurate way. damaged at much
natural reverberation of a less than its rated
room or concert hall. power if driven
Speaker Specifications
past its mechanical
generally include:
limits at lower
frequencies.
 Speaker or driver
Tweeters can also
type (individual
be damaged by
units only) – Full-
amplifier clipping
range, woofer,
(lots of high
tweeter or mid-
frequency energy
range.
in such cases) or
 Distant miking  Size of individual by music, or sine
Distant miking refers to the drivers. For cone wave input at high
placement of microphones drivers, this frequencies. Each
at a distance of 3 feet or number may be of these situations
more from the sound the outside passes more
source. This technique diameter of the energy to a tweeter
allows the full range and frame, the than it can survive
balance of the instrument to diameter of the without damage.
develop and it captures the surround, or the
room sound. This tends to diameter of the
add a live, open feeling to cone. It may also
the recorded sound, but be the distance
careful consideration needs from the center of  Impedance –
to be given to the acoustic one mounting hole typically 4Ω
environment. to its opposite. (ohms), 8 Ω, etc.
 Accent miking Voice coil
diameter may also
  Baffle or  Sensitivity – The the Vas of the driver. You phase with one another. As
enclosure type sound pressure don't need to build an a result there is a "nil" or
(enclosed systems level produced by enclosure for this type of dead zone due to phase
only) – Sealed, a loudspeaker in a loudspeaker. You simply cancellation in the space
bass reflex, etc. non-reverberant mount them in the wall and between the loudspeakers
environment, use the wall cavity as the which unfortunately also
 Number of usually specified enclosure or if were talking kills a lot of the
drivers (complete in dB, and about car speakers the trunk loudspeakers bass. This
speaker systems measured at 1 becomes the enclosure. In type of loudspeaker will
only) – 2-way, 3- meter with an general these enclosures give the desired effect only
way, etc. input of 1 watt or have the least amount of within a defined space and
2.83 volts, sound coloration and they need special considerations
And optionally: typically at one or are inefficient because the in their placement. Not
more specified rear energy which was intended to be used as a
 Crossover frequencies. This never intended to be heard general loudspeaker.
frequency(ies) rating is often by the listener is "wasted".
(multi-driver inflated by The important thing to 4) Bandpass
systems only) – manufacturers. remember is to have the
The nominal front and rear of the A combination of
frequency  Maximum SPL – speaker isolated into a sealed and a ported
boundaries of the The highest output different air spaces so the enclosure. Combining the
signal division the loudspeaker air from the front of the two together will result in
between drivers. can manage, short speaker can't interact with louder bass output than
of damage or not the air at the rear of the what the sealed enclosure
 Frequency exceeding a speaker to avoid phase alone would put out. This
response – The particular cancellation. type of enclosure is not
measured, or distortion level. used as true subwoofer
specified, output This rating is often 2) Isobaric because the frequencies that
over a specified inflated by come out of the port are a
range of manufacturers and In this design the limited to a very narrow
frequencies for a is commonly speakers face one another; bandwidth. This design is
constant input given without one of them is in the often used to enhance the
level varied across reference to enclosure. It's also wired lower frequencies of
those frequencies. frequency range or out of phase; the speaker in smaller bookshelf type of
It often includes a distortion level. the enclosure is wired loudspeakers.
variance limit such normally and the other
as within "+/- Loudspeaker Types: one's wires get flipped 5) Vented Enclosures
2.5 dB". around. This will allow (ported, bass reflex, tuned,
1) Passive Radiator them to move together in or tuned ported)
 Thiele/Small the same direction at the
parameters This is essentially same time. This design may This is a much
(individual drivers a unpowered driver which be used when enclosure harder design to "get it
only) – these replaces the port on a size must be small. This right" with (unless you got
include the driver's ported loudspeaker. It has enclosure can be half the some good loudspeaker
Fs (resonance the advantage over the port size of the regular software). In the first two
frequency), Qts (a of less distortion and it enclosure. designs the wave at the
driver's Q (more allows the loudspeaker to front of the speaker was
or less, its act with precision of a 3) Dipole used while the wave at the
damping factor) at sealed enclosure without rear of the speaker was
resonant the loss of efficiency. This is for an "thrown away". Vented
frequency), Vas "effect" rear surround designs use this "thrown
(the equivalent air 2) Infinite Baffle sound home theater type of away' energy to enhance
compliance loudspeaker which "hides" the overall sound of a
volume of the Is defined as an the source of the sound loudspeaker (if properly
driver), etc. enclosure that contains a very well. In this design the designed) with better
larger volume of air than drivers are fired out of efficiency and deeper bass
extension from sound 3.WWW.WIKIPEDIA.C
produce in the port. This is OM
done by tuning the ports
(length and diameter) so the
rear wave pressure will
produce a lower tuned
frequency in the port. Put
the port somewhere close
around the woofer,
preferably just below it
(within one foot). The
direction the ports face
(rear or front) is a personal
design choice, and if the
need arises smaller multiple
ports can be used in place
of a larger single port.
Variations of this design
include the use of multiple
rear chambers tuned to
different frequencies and
passive radiators.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
S

First and foremost,

I would like to thank GOD
in giving me much
knowledge in making this
assignment.

I would like also

to take this opportunity to
thank my classmates in
helping and encouraging
me in my studies.

And lastly, I
would like to thank my
parents and my siblings in
supporting me in my
studies and for giving me
strength to pursue my
engineering course.

REFERENCES

1.WWW.ENCARTA .
COM

2.WWW.ANSWERS.CO
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