Introduction to RF Planning

A good plan should address the following Issues :

• Provision of required Capacity.

• Optimum usage of available frequency spectrum.
• Minimum number of sites.
• Provision for easy and smooth expansion of the
Network in future.
• Provision of adequate coverage.
 Introduction to RF Planning
In general a planning process starts with the inputs from the customer.
The customer inputs include customer requirements, business plans,
system characteristics, and any other constraints.

After the planned system is implemented, the assumptions made during

the planning process need to be validated and corrected wherever
necessary through an optimization process.

We can summarize the whole planning process under the 4 broad

headings

• Capacity planning
• Coverage planning
• Parameter planning
• Optimization
 CELLULAR ENGINERING OBJECTIVES

1) To provide adequate coverage

- Contiguous coverage of the required areas without
appreciable holes
- Adequate depth of coverage (i.e. outdoor or indoor , 2 W
or 1.2 W mobiles ) to meet the company’s marketing plans.
2) To provide adequate network capacity
- Accommodating traffic in the busiest hour with only a low
probability of blocking (congestion).
3) To accommodate network growth
- Extension of coverage in new areas
- Expanding the network capacity so that the quality of
service is maintained at all times.
4) To achieve a cost effective design
- Lowest possible cost over the life of the network while
meeting the quality targets.
COST JUSTIFICATION OF CELLULAR RNP
The cellular mobile radio system design can be broken down
in the following elements, which have a mutual relationship.
- Reuse of frequency channels
- Co- channel interference reduction
- A desired minimum carrier to interference ratio (C/I)
- Handover mechanism
- Cell Planning
Historical perspective
- Wireless telephony network design is relatively new
business with a 10-15 year history
During this period many new tools and techniques have
been developed:
- More accurate radio coverage prediction
- More accurate facility network design
- Enhanced field measurement analysis to improve
network performance.
- New technology applications ( microcells, repeaters,
smart antennas systems. )
- Better tools and methods to evaluate and predict traffic
conditions
 COST JUSTIFICATION OF CELLULAR RNP
The challenge of accurate cellular network planning is still a
complex task.
Potential cost of Opportunities Lost Due to Network Planning
problems
Lost Subscribers
- Lost base subscriber fee revenues
- Lost enhanced service fee revenue
- Lost airtime revenues (local and long distance)
- Damaged reputation will impact competitive strength
Cost Considerations That Include in the Design of a quality
network
- Design optimal network : extensive modeling and numerous
revision of design.
- Acquire radio site candidates that meet the design
criterion.
- Manage delays in permitting / zoning of best candidates
- Extensive testing of radio site performance (coverage )
before commissioning.
- Integration of field measurements in design.
COST JUSTIFICATION OF CELLULAR RNP

Design Activity to compensate for Improperly designed or

less than than optimal radio site in design.

- Modify cell operational parameters (eg. Handover values

and location)
- Modify output power
- Modify equipment (eg. Change antenna )
- Move site location
- Add new sites (micro or macro cells)
COST JUSTIFICATION OF CELLULAR RNP
An equation for Costing Comparison of Accurate
Network Planning
Option one : Poor design / no redesign
- Weak competitive position
- Lost disgruntled subscribers
- Earn a poor service reputation (Weak attraction for
new subscribers ).
Option two : Quality network design
- Additional design cost (engineering and equipment ).
- Teardown and reinstall cost.
Simple equation for characterizing cost /benefits
- Quality network performances = ( Cost of engineering ,
equipment, installation ) – (Lost revenues, cost of
engineering, equipment, installation )
- The benefits of quality design should farweigh lost
revenues particularly in the fact of competition from
new wireless companies.
 DESIGN CONSTRAINTS

The objective of radio planning is a technical

realization of the marketing requirements, taking
into account of the following constraints.

- Technical requirements from the license conditions.

- GSM system specific parameters (e.g. GSM recs 5.05
etc.)
- Manufacturer specific features and parameters.
- Radio communications principles and fundamentals.
- Budgetary factors.
 LICENSE CONDITIONS
An example of technical requirements following from a
license.
Coverage requirements.
- Class 2 or class 4 coverage of 60 % of the population 12
months from commercial launch.
- Class 2 or class 4 coverage of 95 % of the population 36
months from the commercial launch.
Quality of coverage
- Service to be available in 90 % of the declared area and for
90 % of the time.
Grade of Service
- Endeavour to achieve 5 % or better
Frequency Allocation
- One of the major limitations in the GSM 900 system is the
number of frequencies available to a GSM network
operator. There is a relatively small bandwidth available that
has to be divided over all the licensed operators. Most
network operators are limited to 30-60 frequencies for
handeling all traffic.
- GSM 1800 offers 75 MHz bandwidth
MANUFACTURER SPECIFIC PARAMETERS

- BTS Transmit power

- Receiver sensitivity
- Combiner performances
- Cable loss
- Antenna performance
- Availability of frequency hopping and power control
- Handover algorithm
- Capacity – number of TRX provided.
RADIO COMMUNICATION FUNDAMENTALS

- Propagation loss
- Shadowing
- Multipath fading
- Power link budgets
- Interference effects
- The (un)predictability of radio wave propagation
 QUALITY OF SERVICE SPECIFICATIONS

The service requirement from the marketing should include

information on which the technical plan can be based ,
including :
Coverage Quality : Defined as a part of optimizing the
business plan (indoor / outdoor coverae, handheld car,
mobile set). Interference should be taken into account for
coverage quality including margin of 12 dB) :
Co channel C/I
Adjacent channel C/I
Call completion and Dropped call Rates : Dictated by the
lisence conditions and quality of the competing
network(includes Blocking rates 2% etc.)
Service availibility
QUALITY OF SERVICE SPECIFICATIONS
Traffic forecast:
- Longterm forecast and trends for the network must be
developed by the marketing.
- Traffic distributions for the existing coverage areas and
typical densities may be obtained from the network.
Spectral effeciencies : for demonstration within the context of
winning maximum points for a mobile license. The spectral
efficiency is determined by decisions taken in :
- Quality of coverage
- Frequency Reuse plan
- Use of cell splitting
- Design for traffic demend
- Feedback into the business plan
Customer support measures
 DEFINITION OF COVERAGE QUALITY
Outdoor coverage:
- Default definitions of coverage
- Refers to 2 Watt class 4 mobiles in the street
- Probability of coverage is 95 % averaged across the cell area.
- Coverage probability at the edge of cells is less than this
value.
In car coverage :
- A supplementary level of coverage for highways
- Refers to a Class 4 mobile inside car or other vehicles.
- Coverage probability is nominally 95% averaged
- Coverage is critically dependent on the position of the
handheld mobile within the vehicle.
8 Watt Coverage
- A Supplementary level of coverage for remote areas.
- Refers to class 2 mobile or class 4 with an 8 watt booster and
external antenna
DEFINITION OF COVERAGE QUALITY

Indoor coverage
- Especially good coverage for city centers and stragetic
locations
- Refers to a class 2 mobile indoors
- Building loss is very variables, so indoor coverages can
never be guaranteed
- Where indoor coverage is provided , outdoor coverage will
be nearly 100 %
 BLOCKING RATE ( Grade of Service, GOS )

GOS is defined as the probability that a call will be blocked or

delayed due to unavailability of the radio resource. Example
for license requirement
- 5 % Averaged over a defined sub-network (e.g. weighted
average by traffic load over the worse 10 cells )
- No cell to be worse than 10%
- By a particular date , 8 % of the cells permitted to be
between 2 % and 10 % GOS.
- By a particular date , 5 % of the cells permitted to be
between 2 % and 10 % GOS.
- Ultimate target is that no cells should be worse than 2 %
GOS.
 CALL SUCCESS RATE
Call failure may be due to :
- Coverage holes
- Interference
- Congestion
- Problem in fixed network
- Handover failures
- Equipment failures

Call success rate is often expressed as the proportion of calls

connected and held for 2 min.
- Target is normally 90 % at launch of service
- Mature networks achieve in excess of 98 %
- Only applies within a declared coverage area.

By a particular date , 95 % of the calls to the network

boundary should be set up within four seconds and held for
two min.
 RADIO PLANNING METHODOLOGY
Overall picture
It is important to create an overall picture of the network
before going into the detailed network planning. This is the
fact the main objective of this presentation.

Coverage Capacity and Quality

Providing coverage is usually considered as the most
important activity of a new cellular operator. For a while ,
every network is indeed coverage driven. However the
coverage is not the only thing. It provides the means of
service and should meet certain quality measures.
The starting point is a set of coverage quality
requirements.
To guarantee a good quality in both uplink and downlink
direction, the power levels of BTS and MS should be
balanced at the edge of the cell. Main output results of
the power link budget are:
- Maximum path loss that can be tolerated between MS
and the BTS.
- Maximum output power level of the BTS transmitter.
 Introduction to RF Planning
• A simple Planning Process Description
Business plan. Capacity
No of Subs. Studies
Traffic per Subs.
Subs distribution Plan verification
Grade of service. Implement Monitor
Quality check
Available spectrum. Plan Network
Update documents
Frequency Reuse.
Coverage
Types of coverage Optimize
&C/I study
RF Parameters Network
Search areas
Field strength studies
Available sites Capacity Studies
Site survey Coverage plan & Interference studies
Frequency plans and interference Studies
Antenna Systems
Customer BSS parameter planning
Acquires Data base & documentation of approved sites
sites Expansion Plans.
 Introduction to RF Planning
Data Acquisition Implemented
Planning
Data
OMC Statistics
Data Implemented
“A” Interface Evaluation Recommendation

Drive Test
Recommendations :
Change frequency plan
Change antenna orientation/Down tilt
Change BSS Parameters
Dimension BSS Equipment
Add new cells for coverage
Interference reduction
Blocking reduction
Augment E1 links from MSC to PSTN
 Cell Planning Aspects
At the end of it all, a good cell plan should have the following
characteristics :

• Coverage as required as predicted.

• Co Channel and Adjacent Channel interference levels as predicted.
• Minimum antenna adjustments during the optimization process.
• Minimum changes to the BSS parameters/database during the
optimization phase.
• Should be well phased, requiring optimization only for short periods in
the initial commissioning phase and during
• Facilitate easy expansion of the network with minimal changes in the
system.
 The Basic Cell Planning Process
The basic approach to cell planning is to provide good coverage and capacity.
Initially, both are not known !!

Hence the planning is based on the projections given by the customer. The
customer based on market surveys and the company plans, may specify :

• Number of sites he want in the city

OR
• Number of subscribers expected in a city.
Base on the inputs from the customer, the initial planning process begins. From
these we can determine either the capacity that is possible for a given number
of sites OR minimum number of sites needed to provide service to a given
number of subscribers. The site density required for a specific capacity should
also pass the coverage criteria. This aspect will be covered later in the course.
 Cell Planning Aspects
• What is the area of coverage needed ?
• How many sites are required for this area ? ( cell radius of 1
Km. Means an approximate coverage area of 3 sq. Kms. )
• Do we need so many sites ? Can some site be bigger ?
Decide number of sites based on capacity and coverage
requirements.
• Divide city into clutter types such as .
>Urban
>Suburban
>Quasi Open
>Open
>Water.
• Identify search areas covering all clutter types.
• Customer selects a few sample sites.
 Cell Planning Aspects
• Survey sites with reference to :
>Clutter heights
>Vegetation levels.
>Obstructions.
>Sector orientations
>Building strengths and other civil requirements
• Prepare Power Budgets.
• Conduct propagation tests
• Calculate Coverage probabilities based on the drive test
results.
• Verify Power budget sensitivityagainst drive test result ,
modify planning tools parameters.
• Prepare final coverage maps.
.
 A typical Power Budget
RF Link Budget UL DL
Transmitting End MS BTS

Tx Rf power output 33 dBm 43 dBm

Body Loss -3 dB 0 dB
Combiner Loss 0 dB 0 Db
Feeder Loss(@2 Db/100 0 dB - 1.5 dB
M)
Connector loss 0 dB - 2 Db

Tx antenna gain 0 dB 17.5 dB

EIRP 30 dBm 57 dBm
 A typical Power Budget
RF Link Budget UL DL
Receiving End MS BTS
Rx sensitivity -107 dBm -102 dBm
Rx antenna gain 17.5 dBm 0 dB
Diversity gain 3 Db 0 dB
Connector Loss - 2 dB 0 dB
Feeder loss - 1.5 dB 0 dB
Interference degradation 3 dB 3 Db
margin
Body loss 0 dB -3 dB
Duplexer loss 0 dB 0 dB
Rx Power -121 dBm -96 dBm
Fade margin 4 dB 4 dB
Reqd Isotropic Rx. Power -117 dBm -92 dBm
Maximum Permis. Path los 147 Db 149 dB
 Summary
• A good RF Planning ensures that the mobiles receive certain minimum
signal strength for specified percentage of time over a specified area of
coverage.

• The MS receive signal strength depends on the path loss depends on

the path loss between the MS and the BTS.

• The path loss in a mobile environment includes :

> Free space path loss

>Additional Loss due to Topography of the site ( clutter Factor )
>Confidence level required. (Probability of area coverage )
• In general RF Planning means the understanding of :

> Propagation Models

> Coverage aspects
> Link Budgets ( Power Budgets)
> Antenna considerations
> Frequency planning and reuse aspects.
 Urban Propagation Environment
This is the most common and yet unpredictable propagation environment for a mobile
system.

Building Penetration:

Building are responsible for the reflection and shadowing of signals. Trees and foliages
also contribute to shadowing as well as scattering of radio signals.
Attenuation of signals by building is measured by taking the difference between the
median signal level in front of the building and inside the bu9ilding. Obviously, the
building attenuation depends on the type of construction and the material used as well
as how big or small it is.
Typically the attenuation values may cause the signal levels to vary by – 40 to +80 Db
The negative value implies that the signal is attenuated and the positive values implies
that the increase in the signal level.
Windows and Doors in general give a good penetration of RF signals. Another
important factor is the angle of arrival of RF signals in to the building. Generally, a
building facing the BTS site has better penetration than the one that is side facing and
without windows.
The furniture used in the building also contributes to attenuation. Typically a furnished
building gives a loss of 2-3 dB more than an empty one.
 Propagation Environment
Some Typical values for Building Attenuation
Type of building Attenuation
in dBs
Farms, Wooden houses, Sport halls 0-3
Small offices,Parking lots,Independent 4-7
houses,Small apartment blocks
Row Houses, offices in containers, Offices, 8-11
Apartment blocks
Offices with large areas 12-15
Medium factories, workshops without roof tops 16-19
windows
Halls of metal, without windows 20-23
Shopping malls, ware houses, buildings with 24-27
metals/glass
 Propagation Models
• Classical Propagation models :-

• Log Distance propagation model

• Longley – Rice Model (Irregular terrain model )
• Okumara
• Hata
• Cost 231 – Hata (Similar to Hata, for 1500-2000 MHz band
• Walfisch Ikegami Cost 231
• Walfisch-Xia JTC
• XLOS (Motorola proprietary Model )
• Bullington
• Du path Loss Model
• Diffracting screens model
 Propagation Models
• Important Propagation models :-

• Okumara Hata model (urban / suburban areas )( GSM

900 band )
• Cost 231 – Hata model (GSM 1800 band )
• Walfisch Ikegami Model (Dense Urban / Microcell
areas )
• XLOS (Motorola proprietary Model )
 Okumara Hata Models
In the early 1960 , a Japanese scientist by name Okumara conducted
extensive propagation tests for mobile systems at different frequencies.
The test were conducted at 200, 453, 922, 1310, 1430 and 1920 Mhz.
The test were also conducted for different BTS and mobile antenna
heights, at each frequency, over varying distances between the BTS
and the mobile.
The Okumara tests were valid for :

• 150-2000 Mhz.
• 1-100 Kms.
• BTS heights of 30-200 m.
• MS antenna height, typically 1.5 m. (1-10 m.)
The results of Okumara tests were graphically represented and were not
easy for computer based analysis.
Hata took Okumaras data and derived a set of empirical equations to
calculate the path loss in various environments. He also suggested
correction factors to be used in Quasi open and suburban areas.
 Hata Urban Propagation Model
The general path loss equation is given as :-
Lp = Q1+Q2Log(f) – 13.82 Log(Hbts) - a(Hm)+{44.9-6.55
Log(Hbts)}Log(d)+Q0
Lp = L0 +10r Log (d) path loss in dB
F = frequency in Mhz.

D = distance between BTS and the mobile (1-20 Kms.)

Hbts = Base station height in metres ( 30 to 100 m )

A(hm)={ 1.1log(f) - 0.7 } hm - {1.56log(f) - 0.8} for Urban areas and

2
= 3.2{log(11.75 hm) - 4.97 for dense urban areas.

Hm= mobile antenna height (1-10 m)

Q1 = 69.55 for frequencies from 150 to 1000 MHz.

= 46.3 for frequencies from 1500 to 2000 MHz.

Q2 = 26.16 for frequencies from 150 to 1000 MHz.

 Path Loss & Attenuation Slope
The path loss equation can be rewritten as :
Lp = L0 + { 44.9 – 6.55 + 26.16 log (f) – 13.83 log (h BTS)-a(Hm)
Where L0 is = [69.55 + 26.16 log (f) – 13.82 log ( H BTS ) – A (Hm)
Or more conveniently
Lp = L0 + 10 log(d)

is the SLOPE and is = {44.9 – 6.55 log(h BTS)}/10

Variation of base station height can be plotted as shown in the
diagram.
We can say that Lp 10 log(d)
typically varies from 3.5 to 4 for urban environment.
When the environment is different, then we have to choose
models fitting the environment and calculate the path loss
slope. This will be discussed subsequently.
 Non line of Sight Propagation
Here we assume that the BTS antenna is above roof level for any
building within the cell and that there is no line of sight between
the BTS and the mobile
We define the following parameters with reference to the diagram
shown in the next slide:
W the distance between street mobile and building
Hm mobile antenna height
hB BTS antenna height
Hr height of roof
hB difference between BTS height and roof top.
Hm difference between mobile height and the roof top.
 Non line of Sight Propagation
• The total path loss is given by:
• Lp = LFS+LRFT+LMDB
• LFS= Free space loss = 32.44+20 log(f) + 20 log(d)
• Where,
• LFS = Free space loss.
• LRFT = Rooptop diffraction loss.
• LMDB = Multiple diffraction due to surrounding buildings.
• LRFT = -16.9 – 10 log(w) +10log(f) +20log(^Hm)+L(0)
Where
hm=hr-hm
L( ) = Losses due to elevation angle.
L( ) = -10 + 0.357 ( -00) for 0< <35
2.5 +0.075 ( -35) for 35< <55
4.0 +0.114 ( -55) for 55< <90
 Non line of Sight Propagation
• The losses due to multiple diffraction and scattering
components due to building are given by :

LMBD = k0 + ka +kd.log(d) +kf.log(f) – 9.log(w)

Where
K0 = - 18 log (1+ hB)
Ka = 54 – 0.8 ( hB)
Kd = 18 – 15 ( hB/hr)
Kf = - 4 +0.7 {f/925) – 1 } for suburban areas
Kf = - 4 +1.5 {f/925) – 1 } for urban areas
W= street width
hB= hB –hr
For simplified calculation we can assume ka = 54 and kd = 18
 Choice of Propagation Model
Environment Type Model
Dense Urban
Street Canyon propagation Walfish Ikegami,LOS
Non LOS Conditions, Micro cells COST231
Macro cells,antenna above rooftop Okumara-Hata
Urban
Urban Areas Walch-ikegami
Mix of Buildings of varying heights, vegetation, Okumara-Hata
and open areas.
Sub urban
Business and residential,open areas. Okumara – Hata
Rural
Large open areas,fields,difficult terrain with Okumara-Hata
obstacles.
 Calculation of Mobile Sensitivity.

The Noise level at the Receiver side as follows:

NR= KTB
• Where,
• K is the Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10-20
(mW/Hz/0Kelvin)
• T is the receiver noise temperature in 0Kelvin
• B is the receiver bandwidth in Hz.
 Signal Variations

Fade margin becomes necessary to account for the

unpredictable changes in RF signal levels at the receiver.
The mobile receive signal contains 2 components :
• A fast fading signal (short term fading )
• A slow fading signal (long term fading )
 Probability Density Function
The study of radio signals involve actual measurement of signal levels at
various points and applying statistical methods to the available data.
A typical multipath signal is obtained by plotting the RSS for a number of
samples.
We divide the vertical scale in to 1 dB bin and count number of samples is
plotted against RF level . This is how the probability density function for
the receive signal is obtained.
However, instead of such elaborate plotting we can use a statistical expression
for the PDF of the RF signal given by :
P(y) = [1/2 ] e [ - ( - y – m )2 / 2 ( )2

Where y is the random variable (the measured RSS in this case ), m is the mean
value of the samples considered and y is the STANDARD DEVIATION
of the measured signal with reference to the mean .
The PDF obtained from the above is called a NORMAL curve or a Gaussian
Distribution. It is always symmetrical with reference to the mean level.
 Probability Density Function
Plotting the PDF :

Plotting the PDF RSS

-20

-40
RSS

-60

-80
SAMPLES
-100

A PLOT OF RSS FOR A NUMBER OF SAMPLES

 Probability Density Function
Plotting the PDF :

Plotting the PDF ni/N

P(x) = ni/N

Ni = number of RSS within

P(x)

1 dB bin for a given level.

Bin Numbers

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
 Probability Density Function
A PDF of random variable is given by :
P(y) = [ ½ ] e [ - (y-m)2 / 2( )2 ]
Where, y is the variable, m is the mean value and is the Standard
Deviation of the variable with reference to its mean value.
The normal distribution (also called the Gaussian Distribution ) is
symmetrical about the mean value.
A typical Gaussian PDF :
 Probability Density Function
The normal Distribution depends on the value of Standard
Deviation
We get a different curve for each value of
The total area under the curve is UNITY
 Calculation of Standard Deviation
If the mean of n samples is “m”, then the standard deviation is
given by:

= Square root of [{(x1-m)2 + …..+( xn-m)2 }/(n-1)]

Where n is the number of samples and m is the mean.

For our application we can re write the above equation as :

= Square root of [{RSS1-RSSMEAN)2+…..+(RSSN-RSSMEAN)2/(N-1)}]

 Confidence Intervals
The normal of the Gaussian distribution helps us to estimate the
accuracy with which we can say that a measured value of the
random variable would be within certain specified limits.
The total area under the Normal curve is treated as unity. Then for
any value of the measured value of the variable, its probability
can be expressed as a percentage.
In general, if m is mean value of the random variable within
normal distribution and is the Standard Deviation, then,
The probability of occurrence of the sample within m and any
value of x of the variable is given by :
P=

By setting (x-m)/ = z, we get,

P=
 Confidence Intervals
The value of P is known as the Probability integral or the ERROR
FUNCTION
The limits (m n )are called the confidence intervals.
From the formula given above, the probability

P[(m- ) < z < (m+ )] = 68.26 % ; this means we are 68.34 % confident.
P[(m- ) < z < (m+ )] = 95.44 % ; this means we are 95.44 % confident
P[(m- ) < z < (m+ )] = 99.72 % ; this means we are 99.72 % confident.

This is basically the area under the Normal Curve.

 The Concept of Normalized Standard Deviation
The probability that a particular sample lies within specified limits is given
by the equation :

P=

We define z = (x-m)/ as the Normalized Standard Deviation.

The probability P could be obtained from Standard Tables (available in

standard books on statistics ).

A sample portion of the statistical table is presented in the next slide..

 Calculation of Fade Margin
To calculate the fade margin we need to know :

Propagation constant(γ)
>From formulae for the Model chosen
>Or from the drive test plots
Area probability :
>A design objective usually 90 %
Standard Deviation(σ)
>Calculated from the drive test results using statistical formulae or
>Assumed for different environments.
To use Jakes curves and tables.
 Calculation of Edge Probability and Fade Margin
From the values of σ and γ we calculate :
ρ= σ / γ

Find edge probability from Jakes curves for a desired coverage probability,
against the value of on the x axis.

Use Jakes table to find out the correlation factor required –

Look for the column that has value closest to the edge probability and read
the correlation factor across the corresponding row.

Multiply σ by the correction factor to get the Fade Margin.

Add Fade Margin to the RSS calculated from the power budget
 Significance Of Area and Edge Probabilities

Required RSS is – 85 dBm.

Suppose the desired coverage probability is 90 % and the edge probability

from the Jakes curves is 0,75

This means that the mobile would receive a signal that is better than – 85
dBm in 90 % of the area of the cell

At the edges of the cell, 75 % of the calls made would have this minimum
signal strength (RSS).
 In Building Coverage
Recalculate Fade Margin.
>Involves separate propagation tests in buildings.
>Calculate and for the desired coverage ( say 75 % or 50% )
>Use Jakes Curves and tables to calculate Fade Margin.
>Often adequate data is not available for calculating the fade margin
accurately.
>Instead use typical values.
Typical values for building penetration loss :
Area 75 % coverage 50 % coverage
Central business area < 20 dB < 15 dB
Residential area < 15 dB < 12 dB
Industrial area < 12 dB < 10 dB
In Car 6 to 8 dB
 Fuzzy Maths and Fuzzy Logic
The models that we studied so far are purely empirical.
The formulas we used do not all take care of all the possible environments.
Fuzzy logic could be useful for experienced planners in making right
guesses.
We divide the environment into 5 categories viz., Free space, Rural,
Suburban, urban, and dense urban.
We divide assign specific attenuation constant values to each categories ,
say
Fuzzy logic helps us to guess the right value for , the attenuation constant
for an environment which is neither rural nor suburban nor urban but a
mixture, with a strong resemblance to one of the major categories.
The following simple rules can be used :
 Mixture of Free space and Rural :
 Mixture of Rural and Suburban :
 Mixture of Suburban and Urban :
 Mixture of Urban and Dense urban :
 Cell Planning and C/I Issues
The 2 major sources of interference are:
• Co Channel Interference.
• Adjacent Channel Interference.
The levels of these Interference are dependent on
• The cell radius ®
• The distance cells (D)
The minimum reuse distance (D) is given by :
D = ( 3N )½ R
Where N= Reuse pattern
= i2 + i j + j 2
Where I & j are integers.
Cell Planning and C/I Issues

D
 Cell Planning and C/I Issues
Assuming the cells are of the same size .
All cells reansmit the same power.
The path loss is not free space and is governed by the
attenuation constant .
By geometry, for every cell there are 6 interfering cells in the
first layer.
The reuse distance Dand cell radius R are related to the c/I as
given below

(D/R) = 6 (C/I)

The C/I is in absolute value.

 Cell Planning and C/I Issues

Co Channel Interference C/I for Omni Cells

D/R = 3N
C/I = 10 Log [ 1/m (D/R ) ], where m is the number of interferers.
M= 1 to 6 for the first layer of interfering cells.

Assuming = 3.5, m = 6 (worst case ), we calculate the theoretical

C/I available for various reuse plans as shown below :
N D/R = 3N C/I = 10 Log [ 1/6 (D/R) ]
3 3 8.917 dB
4 3.46 13.29 dB
7 4.58 21.80 dB
9 5.19 25.62 dB
12 6 29.99 dB
 Cell Planning and C/I Issues

Adjacent Channel Interference :

Adjacent Chl Interference = - 10 Log [1/m (D/R) ]+

Where is the isolation offered by post modulation filters

Minimum value of is 26 dB , as per EIA standards.

If ( C/I ) for co channel interference is 10 dB, then for adjacent
channel interference it is 36 dB.
 Frequency Planning Aspects

The primary objective of frequency planning is to ensure that,

given the limited RF spectrum, we achieve the required capacity
(traffic channels), keeping the interference within specified limits.

There are two types of frequency planning :

>Frequency planning based on Reuse patterns (manual)
>Frequency planning based on heuristic algorithm (automatic)

Manual planning is done by dividing the available frequencies in

to a number of frequency groups (as per a selected reuse pattern
) and assigning frequencies to various sectors / cells.

Suppose we have “n” frequencies . For a 3 cell repeat pattern with

3 sectors, we have 9 frequency groups, each group having n/9
frequencies.
The sectors are labeled A1,A2,A3,B1,B2,B3 and so on..
Assuming that an operator has 32 frequencies, say, from ARFCN 63
to 94, the frequencies could be grouped as shown in the table
opposite.
 Frequency Planning Aspects

Say, for 32 frequencies (ARFCN 63 –94 ), for a 3*3 reuse

pattern, the frequencies are grouped as shown below
A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3
63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
90 91 92 93 94

OR
A1 B1 C1 A2 B2 C2 A3 B3 C3
63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
90 91 92 93 94
 Frequency Planning Aspects

The Frequency reuse could be done in either of 2 ways

mentioned in the tables in the previous slide :
 Frequency Planning Aspects
Directional reuse :
In a sectorised site, a group of channels (ARFCN) is
transmitted in the direction of antenna orientation , This is
based on tri cellular platform consisting of 3 identical cells
as shown in the diagram in the last slide.
Every cell is considered as an omni logically. The cells
are excited from the corners, separated by 1200
The axes of the diagram represent the 3 directions of
reuse. These are designated as { f(00)}, {f(1200)} and
{f(2400)}
Because we use directional antennas, the worst co
channel interference will be from only one interfering
station in the same direction
 Frequency Planning Aspects
We form a generic combination of the tricell pattern
using 7 such pattern, as shown in fig. Down. From this
we can see that each of three axes has three parallel
layers.
This result in a total of six or multiples of six frequency
GROUPS.
While assigning frequencies to individual calls we have
to take the directions of reuse into account.
 Antenna Considerations
• Uniform coverage in all cells
• Alignment with hexagonal pattern
• Space availability
• Connectivity to BSC/MSC

Urban areas may have the following conditions :

• Several sites may be needed.

• Frequency reuse is unavoidable
• In building penetration is must
• Building act as RF shield and contain coverage.
• Buildings reflect signals and provide coverage to
areas where LOS would have failed.
• Such additional paths improve in building
penetration.
• Antenna at a very high point may not meet in
building coverage requirements
 Tackling Multipath Fading

In general we have the following methods to combat Multipath

fading:

• In time domain Interleaving and coding

• In Freq. Domain Frequency hopping
• In spatial domain Space diversity
• In the polarization domain Polarization diversity

The last two are related to Antenna Systems.

 Diversity Antenna Systems
A diversity antenna System essentially has :

• Two or more antenna

• A combiner circuitry.

Signals A and B should have minimum correlation between them

typically the correlation coefficient <0.7
 Diversity Antenna Systems
Antenna Spacings :
Separation D/ 900 Mhz 1800Mhz
Horizontal 10 3.3 m 1.7 m
Vertical 17 5.7 m 2.8 m
>Figures in the table are of minimum required separation
>If space is not a constraint, larger separation is always
recommended.
>Horizontal separation is preferred because it provides low
correlation values.
>However, horizontal separation suffers from angular
dependence (demonstrated in the diagram, next page ).
>Vertical separation does not suffer much from the angular
dependence.
>It also requires minimum supporting fixtures and does not
occupy a lot of space.
>But as the distance increases the correlation between the RF
signal at the antenna points increases rapidly, thereby negating
the very advantage of space diversity.
 Diversity Antenna Systems
Space diversity can be achieved using:

• 3 antenna system
• 2 antenna system

The 3 antenna system provides very good spatial separation

between the two receive antenna and avoids the use of
duplexers. This reduces the risk of generating intermodulation
products.

The 2 antenna system is preferred where the space for the

antenna structure is limited or where the operators want to use
less number o antenna.
 Diversity Antenna Systems
Advantages of dual polarization :

• Reduced support structure for the antenna

• Reduced weight
• Slim towers and hence quicker construction and low cost.
• Cost of one dual polarized antenna is generally lower than the
cost of two space diversity antenna.

Choice of Dual Polarized type

H/V type :
• As most mobile are held at an angle 450, H/V is more likely to
cause balanced signals at the two branches.
• The diversity performance is less dependent on the mobile
location

Slant type
• Correlation between the two elements is angular dependent.
• Unbalanced signals at the two arms of the receive antenna, since
one of the signal could be at the same angle as the mobile
 General Antenna Specifications
Typical parameters of importance :
• Polarization
Linear polarization :Evector contained in one plain
Horizontal polarization :H Vector parallel to the horizontal
plane
Vertical Polarization : E Vector parallel to the vertical plane
Circular / Elleptical Polarization

The extremity of the E or H field describes a circle or an ellipse in

the direction of propagation

• Radiation pattern
This is a plot of electric field intensity as a function of direction from
the antenna, measured at the fixed distance.
 General Antenna Specifications
When the main radiation lobe of the antenna is intentionally
adjusted above or below its plane of propagation, the result is
known as a beam tilt. When tilted downward, we get the Downtilt.

Down tilt can be done in two ways :

Electrical down tilt
Mechanical down tilt
 RADIO PLANNING METHODOLOGY
Overall picture
It is important to create an overall picture of the network
before going into the detailed network planning. This is the
fact the main objective of this presentation.

Coverage Capacity and Quality

Providing coverage is usually considered as the most
important activity of a new cellular operator. For a while ,
every network is indeed coverage driven. However the
coverage is not the only thing. It provides the means of
service and should meet certain quality measures.
The starting point is a set of coverage quality
requirements.
To guarantee a good quality in both uplink and downlink
direction, the power levels of BTS and MS should be
balanced at the edge of the cell. Main output results of
the power link budget are:
- Maximum path loss that can be tolerated between MS
and the BTS.
- Maximum output power level of the BTS transmitter.
 RADIO PLANNING METHODOLOGY
These values are calculated as a result of design
constraints.
- BTS and MS receiver sensitivity.
- MS output power level
- Antenna Gain
- Diversity reception
- Losses in combiners, cables etc.

The cell ranges are derived with propagation loss

formulas such as Okumara Hata or Walfisch Ikegami,
which are simply to use . Given a maximum path loss,
differences in the operating environment and the quality
targets will result in different cell ranges.

The traffic capacity requirement have to be combined

with the coverage requirements, by allocating
frequencies. This also may have impact on the cell
range.
 COVERAGE PLANNING STRATEGIES
The selection of site configurations, antenna and cables in
the core of the coverage planning strategy. The right
choice will provide cost saving and guarantees smooth
network evolution.

Some typical configurations are :

- 3 sector site for (sub)urban areas
- 2 sector site for road coverage.
- Omni site for rural areas.
These are not the ultimate solutions, decisions should be
based on careful analysis.
Cell Range and Coverage Area :
For any site configurations, the cell ranges can be
determined given the equipment losses and gains. The site
coverage areas can be calculated then and these will lead
to required number of sites for a given coverage region. This
makes it possible to estimate the cost, eg. Per km 2, to be
used for strategic decisions
After getting the overall picture, the actual detailed
radio network planning is done with a RNP tool.
RADIO PLANNING METHODOLOGY

- Marketing specifications
- Define design rules and parameters.
- Set performance targets.
- Design nominal cell plan.
- Implement cell plan.
- Produce frequency plan.
- Optimize network.
- Monitor performances.
 METHODOLOGY EXPLAINED
Define design rules and parameters
- Identify design rules to meet coverage and capacity targets
efficiently
- Acquire software tools and databases
- Calibrate propagation models from measurements.
Set performance targets
- Clear statement of coverage requirements (rollout and
quality)
- Forecast traffic demand and distribution.
- Test business plan for different roll out scenarios and quality
levels.
Design nominal cell plan.
- Use computer tool to place sites to meet coverage an d
capacity targets.
- Verify feasibility of meeting service requirements
- Ensure a frequency plan can be made for the design.
- Estimate equipment requirement and cost.
- Develop implementation and resource plans (including
personal requirements)
- Radio plan will provide input to fixed network planning.
 METHODOLOGY EXPLAINED

Implement Cell plan

- Identify physical site locations near to nominal or
theoretical locations, using search areas.
- Modify nominal design as theoretical sites are replaced
with physical sites
- Modify search areas in accordance with envolving
network.

Produce Frequency Plan

- Fixed Cluster configration, can be done manually.
- Flexible, based on interference matrix using an automatic
tool.
 METHODOLOGY EXPLAINED

Optimize the network

- Campaign of measurements
- Analyze results
- Adjust network parameters such as : antenna directions,
handover parameters, and frequencies.

Expand the network

- In accordance with rollout requirements
- In accordance with forecast traffic levels
- To improve coverage quality.
- To maintain blocking performances.
 RF Planning Process
1 Understand the Customers requirements
Coverage requirements
In building coverage experiments
Initial Roll out plans
Pre determined number of sites ?
2 Survey
Traffic Distribution and Pattern
Growth areas
High density business/ residential areas
Propagation tests for in building coverage estimates
and model calibrations
3. Prepare Planning Tool
Get Digitized maps
Load maps in the planning tool.
Use survey data and run the programme.
 RF Planning Process

4. Draft Plan
Divide the city into number of regions-
Busy business areas
Areas that need excellent inbuilding coverage
areas
Use appropriate model and link budgets to
calculate the number of sites required per region.
5. Fine Tune plan.
Perform more with drive test, confirm plan
predictions.
Review plan with customer and fine tune the plan.
 RF Planning Process
Understanding Customer Requirements :

What are the boundaries for the network ?

Are there any special pockets to be covered due to
Govt. requirements ?
What are the areas in which medium to average in
building coverage is acceptable ?
What are the areas where excellent in building
coverage is needed ?
Areas with high growth potential
• Need colonies under development
• High revenue areas
• Shopping malls , offices complex, industrial estates
etc.
 RF Planning Process
Initial Implementation Strategy :
High usage, high revenue users first ?
High end residential and business areas ?
Street coverage first ?
Special areas like 5 star hotel, commercial
building with fine in building coverage ?
High way coverage critical ?
Total coverage on day one ?
Number of sites more than the competition ?

Any Budget Limitations ?

Give an ideal plan to start with.
Let the customer cut corners.
Not an easy job !!
 RF Planning Process
City Surveys :
• Basically a scouting exercise
Looking for :-
Major traffic routes
Markets
Business Centres
Shopping malls
General customer behaviors
Telephone density
Congested areas with narrow lanes
Narrow water canals/lakes/ponds
General city layout
Prestigious residential areas.
VIP areas
Parks/ playground/open areas.
General Building types.. Multistoried, Row houses,
apartments, colonies etc.
Airport coverage
 RF Planning Surveys
In building Coverage Surveys :
• Classify Buildings-
Hotel/restaurants
Commercial
Industrial
Residential
Shopping malls/markets
• Propagation tests in a number of buildings in each variety.
• Rf signal on road Vs. inside building gives building penetration loss.
• Repeat tests in as many buildings as possible to get an estimate of
building loss for the area.
• In building coverage affected mostly in ground floor/basement
• Typical values (examples only) :
> Hotel restaurants 15 dB
> Commercial buildings 20 dB
> Shopping malls 15 dB
> Industrial Estates 12-15 dB
> Residential buildings 15-20 dB
> Old/Historical buildings 25-30 dB
 RF Propagation Test Kits
Battery powered Transmitter.
Portable mast
Transmit antenna
Receiver TEMS mobile
Positioning system
Computer
Cables accessories
Power meter, VSWR meter.
10 or 20 Watts output : frequency in
GSM 900/1800 Mhz.
Adjustable upto 5 m. With 1 m
antenna on top, effective height
above ground is 6 m.
High gain omni or directional antenna
as required
Hand held mobile phone with RS232
connection to a laptop. Or an
accurate portable RF sensitivity meter
/ CW receiver if model calibration is
required.
GPS system, with PCMCIA card
Laptop PC with TEMS software and
GPS software
Calibrated cable lengths (10 m) of low
loss feeder with known attenuation
values; 12 Volts battery with
appropriate cable to connect to
transmitter.
 RF Planning Tool
Planning Tool preparation and Model Calibration :

There are many planning tool available toaday :

PLANET (MSI)
Cell Cad (LCC)
Odessy (Aethos)
Asset (Aircom)
NetPlan (Motorola)
A planning tool Should be :
Easy to use
Compatible with tools like TEMS
Minimum hardware requirements.
Economical.
Maps collected from authorized sources.
1:50000 or 1:25000 scale
50 m resolution for macro
Less than 30 m resolution for Micro cell planning using “Ray tracing Tool”
Maps are digitized under 3 categories :
LandUse
Digital Terrain Map
Vectors (Roads, Railways, etc.)
 RF Planning Tool
Planning Tool preparation and Model Calibration :

Most Planning tools use corrections for the land use or clutter.
Propagation Model tuned by assigning the values to
• Clutter factor (Gain or Loss due to clutter )
• Clutter Heights (for diffraction modeling)
Different types of clutter are defined in these models/ tools

1. Dense Urban
2. Urban
3. Suburban
4. Suburban with Dense Vegetation
5. Rural
6. Industrial area
7. Utilities (marshalling yards, docks, container depots etc. )
8. Open area
9. Quasi Open Area
10.Forest
11.Water

Too many clutter type definitation complicate planning process 10 to 15 is

typical.
 RF Planning Tool
Planning Tool preparation and Model Calibration :

DTM
• Provided by the map vendor
• Provides contour information as a digital map.

Vectors
• Highways
• Main Roads
• Railways
• Canals / water ways.
• Coast line
• Rivers.

Each categories is digitized as different layer

Displayed separately if required
Map information is set up in the planning tool.
Model calibration carried out.
 Model Calibration
All tools have provision for manipulating clutter values.
Different tools have different directory structures and means of handling
geographical data.
The procedure mainly talks about ensuring correct data header files to
include.

• BTS location
• EIRP of BTS
• Antenna Type
• BTS antenna height
• Description of surrounding area.

Procedure uses a general core model equation :

• The equation has constant k1 to k6 and a constant of clutter, kclutter

• Initial values for the constants are set as per the model chosen (say
Okumara Hata )
• PLANET programme is run repeatedly to make RMS error values for
all data files ZERO or a minimum.
• For each run of the programme, the values of k1 to k6 are manipulated.
• This completes model calibration.
 Link Budget and other Steps

Key Points To be Considered :

Coverage Probability
Expected inbuilding coverage
Edge probability
Fade margin required
Maximum permissible path loss ( from the link Budget )
What is the radius of the cell ?
Number of sites required (from coverage point of view )
Is the number of sites calculated as above adequate for
capacity ?
Decide on more sites for capacity.
 Capacity Calculations
Capacity calculations :

Check if number of sites is enough to give capacity.

Depends on
• Spectrum available
• This decides the site configuration.
• Availability of features like frequency hopping etc.

If Capacity is not met, add more sites.

If number of site is not OK with the customer, then :-

Recalculate site density, for 50 % in building coverage in place

of 75 %
 Fine Tune The Plan
Use Planning tool to return Coverage predictions
Iterate the process in consultation with the customer.
Finalize Plan and document it.

Search Areas

Planner issues search areas for each site location with information
on :
• Location
• Lat/Long
• Antenna heights
• Specific target areas if any
• Size of search areas
Size acquisition team scouts for buildings.
3-5 alternatives preferred.
 Site Selection
Central Business area

Small Search areas (100 m)

Avoid near field obstruction.
Antenna at or slightly above the average clutter height.
Orientation is critical.
Try solid structure (lift room ) for antenna mounting.
This helps reduce backlobe radiation problems
Avoid towers on building tops. This reduces interference to neighbouring cells.

Residential suburban areas :

Larger search areas (200 m)

Location not very critical.
Antenna 3-5 metres above average clutter height.
Antenna orientation less critical.
 Site Selection
Industrial area :

A suitable central location.

Avoid proximity to electrical installations like towers, transformers
etc.
Towers are common

Quasi / open Highways

Larger search areas (500 m)

Limited by terrain and not the clutter. Hilly areas need care.
Highways need closer search areas along road.
Tall sites give better coverage.
 Extending Cell Range
Extended cell range reduces number of sites.

Cell range improvement achieved through :

• BTS transmit power enhancement

• BTS sensitivity enhancement
• Combination of both
 Extending Cell Range
Increasing BTS transmit EIRP:

To maximize BTS O/P power, single carrier cells can be used.
This will avoid the combination losses of multiple carrier cells.
The output power at the top of the cabinet could be set to 40 Watt, giving an
increase in signal strength of 3 Db.
For cells with more than aone carrier, air combination can be implemented so
that the combination loss is minimized.
Another way to maximize Tx and Rx signals is to implement lowloss feeder
cable.
A typical 7/8 “ Andrewscoaxial cable has an attenuation of 3.92 dB/100 m. If
a 5/8” Andrews cable with an attenuation of 2.16 dB/100 m is used, then an
increase of 1.6 dB can be obtained per 100m.
 Extending Cell Range
Improving BTS receiver sensitivity :

Better devices in the BTS receiver.

Using Mast Head amplifiers with very low noise figures.
Better RF cables.
 Extending Cell Range
Improvement in the transmit side gives 2 dB advantage.
MHA’s extend the BTS receiver sensitivity to –110 dBm instead of the usual –
107 dBm.
Overall improvements result in 4-5 dB advantage in path loss, leading to
extended coverage.
This improves quality of coverage.
Experiments with MHA’s have shown improvements

• In areas with 50 % probability to approximately 70 % probability.

• In areas with 70 % probability to approximately 85 % probability.
• In areas with 85 % probability to approximately 95 % probability.
• In areas with 95 % probability to approximately 98 % probability.