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Introduction to the course
Course overview:
1. An introduction to fire engineering
- Examples
- Tutorials
- Additional reading
- Exam
LECTURE 1
Introduction to Fire Engineering
Course Example
Course Example
Steps to Design
1. Classify a building and determine the required fire rating of
elements.
2. Do a quick design using prescriptive methods, or
3. Generate a parametric time-temperature fire curve according to
the building properties, or use a standard fire curve for a specific
period of time (less “scientific” but often a better bench mark).
4. Calculate the heat transfer and maximum temperature of the
steelwork.
5. Determine the steel mechanical properties at the elevated
temperature.
6. Design the members using simple calculations according to the
Canadian steel code.
7. Do performance-based design using more advanced methods for
composite floors or entire frames.
What is Structural Fire Engineering
?
What is Structural Fire Engineering
Probability of fire
Protection Method
being out of control
Public fire brigade 10-1
Sprinkler 2 x 10-2
High standard fire brigade, combined with alarm system ≤ 10-2 to 10-3
Both sprinkler and high standard residential fire brigade ≤ 10-4
Compartmentation
Compartmentation involves the division of fire zones
to limit the spread of fire.
- Prescriptive design
?
Has this failed?
What is Failure?
Various parameters for failure have been identified such as
those given in BS 5950 Part 8 for:
• Beams: maximum deflection limited to span/20, or for
deflections greater than span/30 the rate of deflection must
not exceed span2/(9000 x member depth) [mm/min].
• Columns: Failure to support the applied load or a lateral
deflection of 120mm.
• Insulating materials or floors: objects on the unexposed face
must not combust. Temperature on the unexposed side must
be limited to 140°C (average) or 180°C (maximum).
• Integrity: boundaries required for compartmentation must not
allow the passage of smoke or flames from one compartment
to another.
Fire Rating
Stability (min)
Class of
Type of occupancy occupancy Single-storey Double-storey 3 to 10 storey 11 storeys and Basement in any
building building building more building
Not
Detached dwelling house H4 30 30 60 120
applicable
Not Not
Hospitality H5 30 30 120
applicable applicable
1000
Gas Temperature (ºC)
800
600
400 Standard
External
200
Hydrocarbon
0
0 50 100
Time (mins)
Fire Curves
Standard Fire:
θg = 20 + 345 log10 8t + 1 [°C]
Hydrocarbon Fire:
𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 = 1080 1 − 0.325𝑒𝑒 −0.167𝑡𝑡 − 0.675𝑒𝑒 −2.5𝑡𝑡 + 20 [°C]
External Fire:
𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 = 660 1 − 0.687𝑒𝑒 −0.32𝑡𝑡 − 0.313𝑒𝑒 −3.8𝑡𝑡 + 20 [°C]
1000
Gas Temperature (ºC)
800
600
Standard fires
400
Standard
200 External
Hydrocarbon
0
0 50 100 150 200
Time (mins)
Parametric fires
Comments on the Standard Fire
It must be understood that the Standard Fire (ISO 834 fire)
does not replicate a real fire, does not help in predicting
certain failure mechanisms and generally is acknowledged
as being technically out-of-date.
However, all fire tests, codes and methods are based on it.
Hence, it is often just better to use the standard fire as you
then at least have a benchmark you are working from, even
if the benchmark is arbitrary. Fire officials understand
standard fire ratings, not real fire designs. The parametric
curves shown below will provide you as the student with an
understanding of fire dynamics and fire behaviour, although
they are not accepted like the standard fire is.
Eurocode Parametric Fires
Fuel controlled
Heating phase Cooling phase
tmax
Ventilation
controlled
Eurocode Parametric Fires
Heating Phase:
𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 = 20 + 1325 1 − 0.324𝑒𝑒 −0.2𝑡𝑡∗ − 0.204𝑒𝑒 −1.7𝑡𝑡∗ − 0.472𝑒𝑒 −19𝑡𝑡∗ [°C]
Γ𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 only used with heating the phase, not the cooling phase.
𝑂𝑂𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 is for the case of large openings where not all the air
entering through an opening is used for combustion.
Eurocode Parametric Fires
Modifying Γ𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
When O > 0.04, and qt,d < 75, and b < 1160, then Γlim is
modified by:
t* = t.Γ [h]
∗
𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = (0.2 × 10−3 × 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡,𝑑𝑑 /𝑂𝑂). Γ [h]
𝑥𝑥 = 1.0 if 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 > 𝑡𝑡lim , or 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 . Γ/t ∗max , if 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑡𝑡lim
Eurocode Parametric Fires
Fire Load Densities
Storage buildings * * * * * *
Transport (public
square) 30 100 122 0.04273 Slow 25
Eurocode Parametric Fires
Risk of Fire Ignition
Danger of
Compartment
Danger of fire fire
floor area Af Example of occupancies
activation, 𝛾𝛾𝑞𝑞𝑞 activation,
[m2]
𝛾𝛾𝑞𝑞𝑞
Artgallery, museum, swimming
25 1.10 0.78
pool
Offices, residence, hotel,
250 1.50 1.00
paper industry
Manufacturer of machinery
2500 1.90 1.22
and engines
Chemical laboratory, painting
5000 2.00 1.44
workshop
Manufacturer of fireworks or
10000 2.13 1.66
paints
Eurocode Parametric Fires
Active Protection
Eurocode Parametric Fires
Thermal Inertia
λ – Thermal b – Thermal
ρ – Density cp – Specific
Material: Conductivity inertia
[kg/m3]: Heat [J/kg.k]:
[W/m.K]: [J/m2s0.5K]:
𝑏𝑏 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 [J/m2s0.5K]
∑ 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖
𝑏𝑏 = ∑ 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖
[J/m2s0.5K]
?
Eurocode Parametric Fires
Time Equivalence – Eurocode Formula
𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓
Ventilation factor: 𝑤𝑤𝑓𝑓 = 0.5
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 𝐻𝐻𝑣𝑣 0.5
C. Ventilation factor
Since there are multiple openings, determine the equivalent
opening height:
∑𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ℎ𝑖𝑖 2 × 2 × 1 × 2 + 12 × (1.5 × 1.5) × 1.5
ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = =
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 2 × 2 × 1 + 12 × (1.5 × 1.5)
= 1.565𝑚𝑚
𝑶𝑶 = 𝑨𝑨𝒗𝒗 𝒉𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 /𝑨𝑨𝒕𝒕 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 / 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓
Eurocode Example
D. Heating Phase
∗
𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0.2 × 10−3 × 𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡,𝑑𝑑 /𝑂𝑂 = 0.619ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
Since: 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 > 𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙, 𝑥𝑥 = 1.0
∗
0.5 < 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≤ 2.0.
Therefore:𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 = 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 250(3 − t ∗max ) 𝑡𝑡 ∗ − 𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
∗
. 𝑥𝑥
x = 1.0
Temperature will return to ambient (20°C) at:
t ∗ = 2.048ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, or 𝑡𝑡 = 1.39ℎ𝑟𝑟 = 83𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (from substituting 𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 =
20°𝐶𝐶 and 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 in the equation above)
Eurocode Example
θg (degC): Std Fire
1200
1000
Temperature (°C)
800
600
400
200
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min)
Eurocode Example
ANSWER 3a: Eurocode Equation
𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 150
𝑤𝑤𝑓𝑓 = = = 1.077𝑚𝑚0.25
0.5 0.5 31 × 500 × 1.5650.5 0.5
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 𝐻𝐻𝑣𝑣
𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒆 = 𝒌𝒌𝒄𝒄 𝒘𝒘𝒇𝒇 𝒆𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓. 𝟓𝟓 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
LECTURE 3
Behaviour of Steelwork at Elevated
Temperatures
Thermal Elongation
∆𝑙𝑙/𝑙𝑙 = 14 × 10−6 𝜃𝜃𝑎𝑎 .
20
18
Δl/l - Steel Elongation (x10-3)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
θa - Steel temperature (°C)
Specific Heat
ca = 600 J/kgK.
3000
ca - Specific Heat (J/kgK)
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
θa - Steel temperature (°C)
Thermal Conductivity
𝝀𝝀𝒂𝒂 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 W/mK
60
λa - Thermal conductivity (W/mK)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
θa - Steel temperature (°C)
Reduction factors - Steelwork
Reduction factors - Steelwork
Reduction factors at temperature θsteel (Tsteel) relative to the value of fy or Ea at 20°C
Steel temp.
θsteel
ky,θ – Yield kE,θ – Young’s ku,θ – Ultimate k0.2p,θ – Class 4
(Tsteel) kp,θ – Prop. limit
Strength Modulus Strength Sections
NOTE: For intermediate values of the steel temperature linear interpolation may be used
Reduction factors – Bolts & Welds
Section Factor - Ap/V
𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹:
𝑉𝑉
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
=
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
Section Factor - Ap/V
Heat Transfer – Unprotected Steelwork
𝑎𝑎
∆𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∆𝑡𝑡
𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚 /𝑉𝑉
𝑀𝑀 𝜌𝜌 7850𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
= = = 38.3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2 (useful conversion
𝐷𝐷 𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 / 𝑉𝑉 205𝑚𝑚−1
equation)
The remainder of the calculations have been carried out as shown in the
graph below.
Maximum temperatures
– Unprotected: 837.6°C
- Protected: 582.4°C
Heat Transfer – Protected Steelwork
1000 EN 1-1-2 Fire
900
Unprotected
800
Protected
700
Temperature (°C)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min)
LECTURE 4
- Member Design
Member Design
- Prescriptive Design
- Euro-Nomogram
300
250 500°C
200
800°C
150
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200
𝜔𝜔2 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑇𝑇) 2
𝑀𝑀𝑢𝑢 𝑇𝑇 = 𝐸𝐸 𝑇𝑇 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐺𝐺 𝑇𝑇 𝐽𝐽 + 𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
𝑇𝑇 + 800
𝜁𝜁 𝑇𝑇 = ≤ 2.4
500
Member Design to SANS 10162-1
Bending Resistance
450
20°C
400 500°C
Mr - Bending resistance (kNm)
350 800°C
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
KL - Effective length (m)
Member Design to SANS 10162-1
Combined Axial Force and Flexure
Protected –
582.4°C 0.525 0.361 186.4MPa 72.2GPa
12mm gypsum
The slab -> Secondary beams -> primary beams -> columns.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gmPOIriMiyU
Tutorials to be handed in
1200
1000
Temperature (ºC)
Steel.
800
O=0.02
Fire.
600 O=0.02
Steel.
400 O=0.10
Fire.
200 O=0.10
Steel.
0 O=0.20
0 20 40 60
Time (min)