Complete Physics Notes First Year

F.Sc.
Physics (1ST Year) COMPLETE BOOK

NOTES
Chapter # 1: Measurements
Chapter # 2: Vector and Equilibrium
Chapter # 3: Motion and Force
Chapter # 4: Work and Energy
Chapter # 5: Circular Motion
Chapter # 6: Fluid Dynamics
Chapter # 7: Oscillations
Chapter # 8: Waves
Chapter # 9: Physical Optics
Chapter # 10: Optical Instruments
Chapter # 11: Thermodynamics
Chapter 1 (F. Sc. Physics 1st Year) Measurements (Edition:2015-16)
MEASUREMENTS
Thousands of years ago, people in southern England built Stonehenge, which was used
as a calendar. The position of the sun and stars relative to the stones determined
seasons for planting or harvesting.
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
Q # 1.Define Physics? Describe its main areas of research.

Ans. Physics is the branch of science that deals with matter, energy and the relationship between
them. The study of physics involves laws of motion, the structure of space and time, the nature and
types of forces, the interaction between different particles, the interaction of radiation with matter etc.
Q # 2.What do you know about the natural philosophy?
Ans.Initially, the observations of man about the world around him give birth to the single discipline of
science, called natural philosophy.
Q # 3.Differentiate among the physical and biological sciences.
Ans.There was a huge increase in the volume of scientific knowledge uptill the beginning of
nineteenth century and it was found necessary to classify the natural philosophy into two branches,
the physical sciences and the biological sciences:
Physical Sciences Biological Sciences
i) Physical sciences deal with non-living things. i) Biological sciences deal with living things.
ii) Examples: Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy ii) Examples: Zoology, Botanyetc.
Q # 4.Describe the main frontiers of fundamental sciences.
Ans.The main frontiers of the fundamental sciences are as follows:
 The world of extremelylarge, that includes the study universe itself, the information from the far
side of the universe and the big bang.
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 The world of extremely small, that of the particles such as electrons, protons, neutrons etc.
 The world of complex matter and it is also the world of middle sized things, from molecule at one
extreme to the earth at the other. This is all fundamental physics, which is the heart of science.
Q # 5.Describe the birth of modern Physics. Also define the following branches of modern
physics:
(i) Nuclear Physics (ii) Particle Physics (iii) Relativistic Mechanics (iv) Solid State Physics
Ans.By the end of the 19th century, many physicists started believing that everything about physics
has been discovered. However, about the beginning of 20th century, many new experimental facts
revealed that the laws formulated by the earlier scientists need modifications. Further researches gave
birth to many new disciplines which are known as modern Physics. Some braches of modern Physics
are as follows:
(i) Nuclear Physics: The nuclear physics deals with the atomic nuclei.
(ii) Particle Physics: It deals with the ultimate particles with which the matter is
composed.
(iii) Relativistic Mechanics: It deals with motion of bodies which moves with very large
velocities (approaching that of light).
(iv) Solid State Physics:The solid state physics deals with structure and properties of matter.
Q # 6.Write down the significance of science and technology. Also describe the role of physics in
the development of science and technology?
Ans. Modern tools of science and technology have brought all parts of world in close contact. The
information media and fast means of communications have made the world a global village. The
computer networks play pivotal role in the development of science and technology. The computer
networks are the products of chips developed from basic ideas of physics.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. The branch of physics which deals with the ultimate particles of which the matter is composed is:
a) Plasma physics
b) Atomic physics
c) Nuclear physics
d) Particle physics
2. The sciences which deals with non-living

things are called:
a) Natural Philosophy
b) Biological Sciences
c) Physical Sciences
d) None of these
3. Silicon is abundantly obtained from:
a) Water
b) Metal
c) Sand
d) Stones
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1.2 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Q # 7.What do you know about physical quantities? Also describe their significance.
Ans.The quantities that can be measured and are used to describe the properties of matter are called
physical quantities.
Significance:The foundation of physics rest upon physical quantities in terms of which the laws of
physics are expressed.
Q # 8.Differentiate among the base and derived quantities.

Base Quantities Derived Quantities
(i) The base quantities are those physical (i) The quantities that are derived from the base
quantities in terms of which other physical quantities are called derived quantities.
quantities are defined. (ii) Examples: Velocity, acceleration, force
(ii) Examples: Mass, length, time
Q # 9.How the base quantities are measured?

Ans.The measurement of base quantity involves two steps:
(i) The choice of a standard.
(ii) The establishment of a procedure for comparing the quantity to be measure with standard.
Q # 10.What are the characteristics of an ideal standard?
Ans.An ideal standard has two principle characteristics.
(i) It is accessible
(ii) It is invariable
Q # 11.Name several repetitive phenomenons occurring in nature which can serve as reasonable
time standards.
Ans.Any natural phenomenon that repeats itself after exactly same time interval can be used as time
standard. The following natural phenomenon can be used as time standard.
(i) The rotation of earth around the sun and about its own axis
(ii) The rotation of moon around earth
(iii) Atomic vibrations in solids
Q # 12.Give the drawbacks to use the time period of a pendulum as a time standard.
Ans.The drawbacks to use the time period of a pendulum as a time standard are
(i) The value of „g‟ changes at different places
(ii) The variation in the length of simple pendulum due to change in temperature in different
seasons
(iii) Air resistance may affect the time period of simple pendulum
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1.3 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
Q # 13.What do you know about international system of units?

Describe its significance.
Ans.In 1960, an international committee agreed on a set of definitions

and standards to describe the physical quantities. The system that was
established is called System International of units.
Significance: Due to simplicity and convenience with which the units
in this system are amenable to arithmetic manipulation, it is in
universal use by the world‟s scientific community.
Q # 14. Define following?
(i) Base Units (ii) Supplementary Units (iii) Derived Units (iv)
Radian (v) Steradian
Ans. (i) Base Units: The units associated with the base quantities
are called base units. The names of base units together with symbols are listed in following table:
Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Thermodynamic Temperature kelvin K
Intensity of Light candela cd
Amount of Substance mole mol
(ii) Supplementary Units: The General Conference on Weights and Measures has not yet classified
certain unit of SI under either base or derived units. These SI units are called derived
supplementary units. Radian and steradian are supplementary units.
Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol

Plane Angle radian rad
Solid Angle steradian sr
(iii) Derived Units: SI units derived from base and supplementary units are called derived units.
Some of the derived units are given in the following table:
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(iv) Radian: The 2D angle between two radii of a circle corresponding to the arc
length of one radius on its circumference is called radian.
(v) Steradian: It is the 3D angle subtended at the center of the sphere

corresponding to its surface area equal to the square of radius of sphere.
Q # 15.Why we use it useful to have two units for the amount of substance, the kilogram and the
mole?
Ans.Both units,the kilogram and mole, are useful in different cases describe below
 The unit kilogram is useful when we want to describe the macroscopic behavior of an object
without considering the number of atoms, molecules or ions present in it.
 The unit mole is useful when we want to consider a particular number of atoms of a system. It
is used to determine the microscopic behavior of any object.
Q # 16.A light year is the distance light travels in one year. How many meters are there in one
light year?
Given Data: Time
Speed of Light
To Determine:
Calculations: ( )( )
Q # 17.
(i) How many seconds are there in 1 year?
(ii) How many nanoseconds in 1 year?
(iii) How many years in 1 second?
As
Therefore
As
Therefore
As
Q # 18.What do you mean by scientific notation?

Ans.The standard form to represent numbers using power of ten is called scientific notation. It
scientific notation, a measurement is expressed as a decimal number between 1 and 10 followed by an
integer power of 10.
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Q # 19.Describe the following numbers in scientific notation.

(ii) (iii)
Ans. The measurements expressed in scientific notation are as
follows:
(i) The scientific notation of measurement is
(ii) The scientific notation of measurement is
(iii) The scientific notation of measurement is

4. The number of base units are: 10. The solid angle subtended at the center
a) Three of sphere by an area of its surface equal
b) Five to the square of radius of the sphere is
c) Seven called:
d) Nine a) Degree
b) Radian
5. Which of the following is a derived c) Minute
quantity: d) Steradian
a) Force
b) Mass 11. The unit of force is________ and its
c) Length symbol is _______ which is the correct
d) Time pair?
a) Newton, n
6. Which of the following is SI base unit? b) Newton, N
a) gram c) newton, n
b) slug d) newton, N
c) newton
d) kilogram 12. Which of the following is least multiple:
7. Which one of the following is not a unit a) Pico
of length: b) Femto
a) Angstrom c) Nano
b) Micron d) Atto
c) Radian
d) Light year 13. The prefix pico is equal to
a)
8. The SI units of pressure in terms of b)
base units are: c)
a) d)
b)
c) 14. 0.0023 can be expressed in scientific
d) notation as:
9. The SI unit of plane angle is a)
a) Steradian b)
b) Radian c)
c) Degree d) None
d) Candela
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1.4 ERROR AND UNCERTAINITIES
Q # 20. Define error. Also describe possible causes of error.

Ans.The difference between the observedand true value of a physical quantity is called error. The
errors may occur due to following reasons.
(i) Negligence or inexperience of a person
(ii) The faulty apparatus
(iii) Inappropriate method or technique
Q # 21.Define the term Uncertainty. Also describe its main causes.
Ans. Uncertainty is the range of values within which the true value of
measured quantity is asserted to lie. The uncertainty in a measurement
may occur due to following reason:
(i) Inadequacy or limitation of an instrument
(ii) Natural vibrations of the object being measured
(iii) Natural imperfections of a person‟s senses
Q # 22.Differentiate among the random and systematic error.
Random Error Systematic Error
(i) If the repeated measurements of a quantity (i) Systematic error refers to the effect that
give different values under same influences all measurement of a particular
conditions, then the error is called random quantity equally.
error. (ii) It may occur due to zero error of the
(ii) The random error occurs due to some instrument, poor calibration or incorrect
unknown causes marking etc.
(iii) Repeating the measurement several times (iii) The systematic error can be reduced by
and taking an average can reduce the effect comparing the instrument with another which
of random error. is known to be more accurate.
Q # 23.The time period of the simple pendulum is measured by a stop watch. What types of
errors are possible in the time period?
Ans.The possible errors that might occur are the personal errors and systematic errors. The personal
error occurs due to negligence or inexperience of a person, while the systematic may be due to the
poor calibration of equipment or incorrect marking etc.
15. Error occurs due to negligence and 16. Error in measurement may occur due to
inexperience of a person is: a) Inexperience of a person
a) Systematic Error b) The faulty apparatus
b) Random Error c) Inappropriate method
c) Personal Error d) Due to all reasons in a, b and c
d) None of these
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1.5 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Q # 24. What are the significant figures? Describe their significance.
Ans.In any measurement, the accurately known digits and the first
doubtful digit are called the significant figures. The uncertainty or
accuracy in the value of a measured quantity is indicated by significant
figures.
Q # 25. How many significant figures are there in following measurements?
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(v) (vi) (vii) with least count of
(viii) with least count of
(i) The number of significant figures in the measurement are .
(ii) The number of significant figures in the measurement are .
(iii)The number of significant figures in the measurement are .
(iv) The number of significant figures in the measurement are .
(v) The number of significant figures in the measurement are .
(vi) The number of significant figures in the measurement are .
(vii) The number of significant figures in the measurement , with least count of , are 3
(viii) The number of significant figures in the measurement , with least count of , is 1
Q # 26. An old saying is that “A chain is only as strong as its weakest link”. What analogous
statement can you make regarding experimental data used in computation?
Ans. The analogous statement for experimental data used in computation will be
“The result obtained by computation of experimental data is only as much accurate as its least
accurate reading in measurements”.
Q # 27.Three students measured the length of a needle with a scale on which minimum division
is 1 mm and recorded as (i) 0.2145 m (ii) 0.21 m (iii) 0.214m. Which record is correct and why?
Ans.The record (iii) is correct.
Reason: As the scale used for measurement has the least count of 1 mm = 0.001 m. So the reading
must be taken up to three decimal places when it is written in meters. Therefore, the reading 0.214 m
is correct.
Q # 28. Write down the final result of following computation up to appropriate precision.
(i)
The final result up to appropriate precision is . It is because of the reason that the
factor , is the least accurate measurement which has three significant figures.
Therefore the answer should be written to the three significant figures.
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The final result up to appropriate precision is . It is because of the reason

(ii) that the factor has smallest number of decimal places. Thus, the answer
should be rounded off to one decimal place.
The final result up to appropriate precision is . It is because of the reason

(iii) that the factor has smallest number of decimal places. Thus, the answer
should be rounded off to two decimal places.
Q # 29. The length and width of a rectangular plate are measure to be 15.3 cm and 12.80 cm ,
respectively. Find the area of the plate.
Given Data: Length of plate , Width of plate
To Determine:
Calculations: ( )( )
( )
Q # 30. Add the following masses given in kg upto appropriate precision. 2.189, 0.089, 11.8 and 5.32.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations:
( )
Q # 31. The mass of a metal box measured by a lever balance is 2.2 kg. Two silver coins of masses 10.01 g
and 10.02 g measured by a beam balance are added to it. What is now the total mass of the box correct up
to the appropriate precision.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations:
( )
Q # 32. The length, breath and thickness of a sheet are 3.233 m, 2.105 m and 1.05 cm respectively.
Calculate the volume of the sheet correct up to appropriate significant digits.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations:
( )
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1.6 PRECISION AND ACCURACY
Q # 33. Differentiate among precision and accuracy.

Precision Accuracy
(i) The precise measurement is one which has (i) An accurate measurement is one which has less
least absolute uncertainty. fractional or percentage uncertainty.
(ii) The precision of measurement depends on (ii) The accuracy in any measurement not only
the instrument or device being used. depends on instrument being used, but also on
the total measurement taken.
Q # 34.Which of the following measurement is more precise and which of them is more
accurate.
(i) Length of object is recorded as 25.5 cm using meter rod.
(ii) The length of object is measured as 0.45cm using vernier calipers.
Solution.
(i) Length of object is recorded as 25.5 cm using meter rod.


(ii) The length of object is measured as 0.45 cm using vernier calipers.



Result: The measurement (ii) is more precise because it has less absolute uncertainty. The
measurement (i) is more accurate as it has less percentage uncertainty.
17. In any measurement the significant figures 19. What is the number of significant figures in
are the measurement recorded as
a) All accurately known and all doubtful digits
b) Only accurately known digits a) 1
c) Only doubtful digits b) 3
d) All accurately know digits and the first
doubtful digit
c) 4
d) 7
18. If the reading is taken with measuring scale
whose minimum division is 1mm, then the 20. Zero is not significant only if it
correct reading is: a) Lies to the left of a significant digit
a) m b) is between two digits
b) m c) is to the right of a significant digit
c) m d) is before the decimal point
d) None
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1.7 ASSESMENT OF TOTAL UNCERTAINTY IN THE FINAL RESULT
1.7.1 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION: For assessment of total uncertainty in final result of addition
and subtraction, the absolute uncertainties are added.
Q # 35. Find out displacement between points and .
Given Data: ,
To Determine:
Calculations: ( ) ( )
1.7.2 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION: Percentage uncertainties are added for assessment of total
uncertainty in the final result of multiplication and division.
Q # 36. If the potential difference of applied across the ends of conductor, and as
the result the current pass through conductor. Determine the resistance.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations:By Ohm‟s law:
Uncertainty:
Therefore with uncertainty OR
1.7.3 POWER FACTOR: In order to assess the total uncertainty for the case of power factor, we
multiply the percentage uncertainty by the power.
Q # 37. Find out volume of sphere whose radius
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations:Volume of sphere ( )
Uncertainty:
Therefore OR
Q # 38.The diameter and length of a metal cylinder measured with the help of vernier calipers of
least count 0.01 cm are 1.22 cm and 5.35 cm. Calculate the volume of cylinder and uncertainty in it.
Given Data:
To Determine:
( ) ( )
Calculations:Volume of cylinder
Uncertainty:
( ) ( )
Therefore OR
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1.7.4 UNCERTAINTY IN AVERAGE VALUE OF MANY MEASUREMENTS
The uncertainty in average value of many measurements is equal to the mean deviation.
Q # 39. The six measurements were taken of the diameter of wire using screw gauge which are 1.20,
1.22, 1.23, 1.19, 1.22, 1.21. Determine the uncertainty in final result.
Given Data: Measurements of diameter of wire (in mm) are
Calculations:Average diameter of wire =
Deviation of each measurement from average value are

Mean Deviation =
Thus uncertainty in mean value of diameter

Hence Diameter of wire =
1.7.5 UNCERTAINTY IN TIMING EXPERIMENT

The uncertainty in the time period of a vibrating body is found by dividing the least count of the timing
device by the number of vibrations.
Q # 40.The simple pendulum completes 30 vibrations 54.6 s. the least count of the stop watch is 0.1 s.
Find out uncertainty in the time period of simple pendulum.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations:Time Period = Time for 1 Vibration s

Uncertainty
Therefore:
Q # 41.Find the value of g and its uncertainty using √ from the following measurements.
Length of simple pendulum , Time for 20 vibrations . Length was measured

by the meter scale of accuracy 1 mm and time by the stop watch of accuracy up to 0.1 s.
Given Data:
To Determine: Gravitational Acceleration
Calculations:Time Period
( ) ( )
As √ () ( )
Uncertainty:
Uncertainty in time Period =
( ) ( )
Therefore OR
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1.8 DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Q # 42.What do you know about the dimension analysis?
Ans. To express any physical quantity in terms of specific symbols of corresponding base quantities,
written within square brackets, is called the dimension of that
physical quantity.The scientific symbols used to express the
dimensions of different physical quantities are as follows:
Q # 43.Write down the dimensions of velocity, acceleration and force?
( )( )
Q # 44.What are the dimensions of (i) Pressure (ii) Density
(i) By definition,
(ii) By definition,
Q # 45.Determine the dimension of following physical quantities?Nuclear Energy, Angle (θ)

(i)
(ii) We know that
Therefore, angle is a dimensionless quantity.
Q # 46.What are the dimensions and units of gravitational constant G in the formula
Given Data: Formula
To Determine:
[ ]
Calculation(i) * +
(ii) As So Unit of G:
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Q # 47.Find the dimensions and hence the SI units of coefficient of viscosity in the relation of
Stoke’s law for the drag force F for a spherical object of radius r moving with velocity v given as
.
Given Data: Formula
To Determine: (i)
(ii)
[ ]
Calculation(i) * + [ ]
(ii) As [ ] So Unit of :
Q # 48.What are the advantages of dimension analysis?

Ans.The dimension analysis may be used for
(i) Checking the correctness of a physical equation
(ii) Deriving a possible formula of a physical quantity
Q # 49.The wavelength of a wave depends on the speed of the wave and its frequency .
Decide which of the following is correct, or (ii)
(i) (ii)
* +
As
As Hence, the equation is dimensionally

Hence, the equation is not correct.
dimensionally correct.
Q # 50.Suppose we are told that the acceleration of a particle moving in a circle of radius with
uniform speed is proportional to some power of , say , and some power of , say ,
determine the powers of and v.
Given:
To Determine:
Calculations:
Writing dimensions on both sides:
Equating powers of T:
Equating powers of L:
14
Q # 51.The speed v of sound waves through a medium may be assumed to depend upon (a) the
density of the medium and (b) its modulus of elasticity E which is the ratio of stress to strain.
Deduce by method of dimensions, the formula for speed of sound.
Given:
We have to find:
[ ⁄ ] [ ]
Solution:
Let ( )
[ ]
Equating powers of M:
Putting values in (1): √
Q # 52.Derive a relation for the time period T of a simple pendulum using dimensional analysis.
The various possible factors on which the time period may depend are (i) length of the
pendulum (b) mass of the bob (c) angle which the thread makes with vertical (iv)
acceleration due to gravity (g).
Given:
We have to find:
Solution:
Let ( )
( )
[ ]
As , so its power
Equating powers of M:
Equating powers of L:
Putting values in (1): √
15
Q # 53.What is homogeneity principle?

Ans.According to homogeneity principle “If the dimensions of a physical quantity on both sides of
equation are the same, then the equation will be dimensionally correct”.
Show that the famous “Einstein’s Equation” is dimensionally consistent.
* + * +
[ ]
Conclusion:As
Hence, the equation is dimensionally correct.
Q # 54.Show that the expression is dimensionally correct, where is the velocity at

, is the acceleration and is the velocity at time t.
Conclusion: As
Hence, the equation is dimensionally correct.
Q # 55.Check the correctness of the relation √ where v is the speed of transverse wave on
a stretched string of tension F, length l and mass m.
( ) ( )
Conclusion: As
Hence, the equation √ is dimensionally correct.
Q # 56.Write down any two drawbacks of dimensional

analysis?
Ans.The major drawbacks of dimensional analysis are:
(i) The dimension analysis is unable to find the values of
any constant of proportionality in physical equations.
(ii) The dimensional analysis cannot be applied to the
physical quantities involving trigonometric and
logarithmic functions.
16
Q # 57.Does the dimensional analysis gives any information on constant of proportionality that
may appear in an algebraic expression. Explain?
Ans. Dimensional analysis does not give any information about constant of proportionality in any
expression. This constant can be determined experimentally.
Example: In the expression of time period of simple pendulum, the constant of proportionality cannot
be determined from dimension analysis.

21. An accurate measurement is one which 26. refers to quantity
has less:
a) Precision a) Velocity
b) Absolute uncertainty b) Time period
c) Fractional uncertainty c) Frequency
d) None d) Force
22. Absolute uncertainties are added in 27. The dimension of the following pair is not
the same
following operations:
a) work & energy
a) Multiplication b) work and torque
b) Division c) Momentum & impulse
c) Subtraction d) Mass & moment of inertia
d) None
28. Unit of G is ?
23. If and
, then is given
a) Nm2 kg2
as: b) N m2 kg
a) c) N m2 kg-2
b) d) None
c) 29. The dimensional formula for the quantity
d)
light year is:
24. Which one of the following is not
regarded as a fundamental quantity in a)
Physics? b)
a) Length c)
b) Mass d)
c) Time
30. The dimensions of strain are
d) Weight
a) [MLT2]
25. Dimensions for acceleration due to
b) [ML-2T]
gravity is
c) [Mo Lo To]
a)
d) [M-1L-1T-1]
b) [ ]
c)
d)
17
18
Chapter 2 (1st Year Physics) Vectors and Equilibrium (Edition: 2015-16)
VECTORS AND EQUILIBRIUM
2.1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF VECTORS
Q # 1. What do you know about vectors? How a vector is represented graphically?

Ans. The physical quantities that are completely described by magnitude with proper unit and
direction are called vectors. Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force and momentum are
examples of vectors.
A vector is represented graphically by a directed line segment with an arrowhead. The length
of the segment, according to a chosen scale, corresponds to the magnitude of the vector.
Q # 2. What do you know about rectangular coordinates system? Describe its significance.
Ans. The lines which are drawn perpendicular to each other are called coordinate axis and a system of
coordinate axis is called the rectangular or Cartesian coordinate system. A coordinate system is used
to describe the location of a body with respect to a reference point, called origin.
Two Dimensional (2D) Coordinate System:
The 2D coordinate system consists of two reference lines drawn at the right
angle to each other. One of the lines is named as x-axis and the other the y-axis.
 A point P, in xy-plane, is represented by the coordinates .
This notation means that if we start at the origin, we can reach
point P by moving ‘a’ units along positive x-axis and ‘b’ units
along positive y-axis.
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 The direction of position vector of point P in a plane is

described by the angle which the representative line of
the vector makes with positive x-axis in anti-clockwise
direction.
Three Dimensional (3D) Coordinate System:
The 3D coordinate system consists of three mutually perpendicular
lines. The lines are named as x-axis, y-axis and z-axis.
 A point P, in space, is represented by the coordinates .
This notation means that if we start at the origin, we can reach
point P by moving ‘a’ units along positive x-axis, ‘b’ units
along positive y-axis and ‘c’ units along positive z-axis.
 The direction of position vector of point P in space is specified
by the three angles which the representative line
of the vector makes with x, y and z-axis respectively.
Q # 3. Describe the Head to Tail rule.

Ans. The vectors can be added graphically by head to tail rule.
According to this rule, the addition of two vectors ⃗ and ⃗
consists of following steps:
(i) Place the tail of vector ⃗ on the head of vector ⃗ .
(ii) Draw a vector from the tail of vector ⃗ to the head of vector
⃗ , called the resultant vector ⃗⃗ .
Important Note:
The vector sum ⃗ ⃗ and ⃗ ⃗ has the same resultant

⃗⃗ , as shown in the figure. Therefore we can write:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
So vector addition is commutative.
2
Q # 4. Is it possible to add a vector quantity to a scalar quantity?

Ans. No it is not possible to add a vector quantity to a scalar quantity
because only the physical quantities of same nature can be added.
Vectors and scalars are different physical quantities.
Q # 5. Can you add zero to a null vector?

Ans. No, zero can’t be added to a null vector because zero is a scalar and scalars can’t be added to
vectors. Only the physical quantities of same nature can be added.
Q # 6. What do you know about the Resultant Vector?

Ans. The resultant of two or more vectors is a single vector which would
have same effect as if all the original vectors are taken together.
The vector ⃗⃗ has the same effect as the combined effect of vectors
⃗ ,⃗ , and ⃗ . So ⃗⃗ is the resultant vector of the vectors ⃗ , ⃗ , and ⃗ .
Q # 7. Two vectors have unequal magnitudes. Can their sum be zero? Explain.
Ans. No, the sum of two vectors having unequal magnitudes can’t be zero. The sum of two vectors
will be zero only when their magnitudes are equal and they act in opposite direction.
Q # 8. The vector sum of three vectors gives a zero resultant. What can be
the orientation of the vectors?
Ans. If the three vectors are represented by the sides of a triangle taken in
cyclic order, then the vector sum of three vectors will be zero.
Let three vectors ⃗ ⃗ and are the three vectors acting along the
sides of triangle as shown in the figure. As the head of coincides with
the tail of ⃗ , so by head to tail rule, the resultant of these three vectors will be zero.
Q # 9. Suppose the sides of a closed polygon represent vector arranged

head to tail. What is the sum of these vectors?
Ans. If there are five vectors ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ and ⃗ which are acting along the
sides of close polygon as shown in the figure:
As the tail of the first vector meets with the head of last vector, so
by head to tail rule:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Hence the sum of vectors arranged along the sides of polygon will be zero.
3
Q # 10. The two vectors to be combined have magnitude 60 N and 35 N. Pick the correct answer
from those given below and tell why is it the only one of the three that is correct.
(i) 100 N (ii) 70 N (iii) 20 N
Ans. The correct answer is 70 N.
(i) The resultant of two vectors has maximum magnitude when they act in same direction. Thus if
both vectors are parallel, then the magnitude of resultant will be: .
(ii) The resultant of two vectors has minimum magnitude when they act in opposite direction. Thus if
both vectors are anti-parallel, then the magnitude of resultant is .
Hence the sum can’t be less than and more than . Therefore, the only possible value for
correct answer is .
Q # 11. Define following

(i) Vector Subtraction
Subtraction of a vector is equivalent to the addition of one vector
into negative of second vector. Consider two vectors ⃗ and ⃗ . In order
to subtract ⃗ from ⃗ , the negative of vector ⃗ is added to vector A by
head to tail rule.
The resultant is given by:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
(ii) Equal Vector
The vectors are said to be equal if they have same magnitude and
direction, regardless of the position of their initial points.
This means that parallel vectors of the same magnitude are equal to each other.
(iii) Null Vector

A vector of zero magnitude and arbitrary direction is called null vector. For example, the sum of a
vector and its negative vector is a null vector.
⃗ ( ⃗)
4
(iv) Component of a Vector

A component of a vector is its effective value in a specific direction.
(v) Rectangular Component
The components of a vector which are perpendicular to each other
are called rectangular components.
(vi) Position Vector
The position vector describes the location of a point with respect to origin. In two dimensions, the
position vector ‘ ’ of point is described as:
̂ ̂
The magnitude of this position vector will be
| | √
In three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the position vector ‘ ’ of
point is described as
̂ ̂ ̂
The magnitude of this position vector will be
| | √
Q # 12. Suppose, in rectangular coordinate system, a vector ⃗ has its tail

at the point and its tip at . Determine the distance
between these points.
Given Data:
To Determine: | |
Calculations: ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂, ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
| | √ √ √
Q # 13. A certain corner of a room is selected as the origin of a rectangular coordinate system. If
an insect is sitting on an adjacent wall at a point having coordinates , where the units are
in meters, what is the distance of the insect from this corner of the room.
Given Data:
To Determine: | |
Calculations: ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂, ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
| | √ √ √
5
Q # 14. The positions of two aeroplanes at any instant are represented by two points
and from origin in km. (i) what are their position vectors? (ii) Calculate the distance
between two aeroplanes.
Given Data:
To Determine: | |
Calculations: ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂,
⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ̂ ̂ ̂
| | √ √ √
Q # 15. Discuss the different cases of multiplication of a vector by a scalar (number).
Case -1: If any scalar is multiplied by a vector ‘ ⃗ ’, then the
magnitude of the resultant ‘ ⃗ ’ will become n times (| |) but the
direction remains same as that of ⃗ .
Case-2: If any scalar is multiplied by vector, then the magnitude of
the resultant vector will become n times and the direction will reverse.
If n represents a scalar quantity, then the product ⃗ corresponds
to a new physical quantity and the dimension of the resulting vector will be the product of the
dimensions of two quantities which were multiplied together. For example, when velocity is
multiplied by a scalar mass m, the product is a new vector called momentum having the dimensions as
that of mass and velocity.
Q # 16. What do you know about Unit Vector? Describe its significance.
Ans. A vector having the unit magnitude is called the unit vector. It is used to indicate the direction
of a vector. The unit vector in the direction of vector ⃗ is expressed as:
⃗
̂
| |
̂
where is the unit vector in the direction of vector ⃗ and | | is its magnitude. In
space, the direction of x, y and z-axis are represented by unit vectors ,̂ ̂ and ̂ ,
respectively.
Q # 17. What is the unit vector in the direction of the vector ⃗ ̂ ̂?
Given Data: ⃗ ̂ ̂
To Determine: ̂
Calculations: ⃗ | | √ √ √
⃗ ̂ ̂
̂
| |
6
Q # 18. Find out the rectangular component of a vector.

Ans. Consider a vector ⃗ , represented by a line ̅̅̅̅ which makes an angle
with the x-axis.
We want to find out rectangular components of vector ⃗ . For this, we
draw a perpendicular from point ‘ ’ on . Projection ̅̅̅̅̅ being along
is represented by ̂ and projection ̅̅̅̅̅ along
represented by ̂ . Thus ̂ and ,̂ being perpendicular to each other,
are called rectangular components of ⃗ .

| |
For x component | |
| |
For y component | |
Q # 19. Under what circumstances would a vector have components

that are equal in magnitude?
Ans. If & are rectangular components of vector ⃗ , then according to
given condition:
So the components of a vector will have equal magnitude when vector makes an angle of 45˚ with
horizontal.
Q # 20. Can a vector have a component greater than the vector‟s magnitude?
Ans. No, the component of a vector can never be greater than the vector’s magnitude because the
component of a vector is its effective value in a specific direction.
If and are the rectangular components of vector ⃗ , then magnitude of vector is described by
formula: | ⃗ | √
It is clear from the expression that maximum magnitude of component can be equal to the
magnitude of the vector.
Q # 21. Determine a vector from its rectangular component.
Ans. Let and are the rectangular components of vector ⃗ which is
represented by a line ̅̅̅̅ as shown in the figure below:
Magnitude: The magnitude of vector ⃗ can be find out by using
Pythagorean Theorem. In triangle :
| | | | | |
7
√
This expression gives the magnitude of resultant
Direction: In right angle triangle :
| |
| |
( )
This expression gives the direction of the vector ⃗ with respect to x-axis.
Q # 22. Vector lies in xy plane. For what orientation will both of its rectangular components
be negative? For what orientation will its components have opposite signs?
Ans. Figure shows sign with rectangular components of an arbitrary vector ⃗ in different quadrants. It
is clear from figure:
i) When the vector lies in 3rd quadrant, then both of its
rectangular components of vector will negative.
ii) The components of a vector have opposite sign when the
vector lies in 2nd or 4th quadrant.
Q # 23. If one of the rectangular components of a vector is not
zero, can its magnitude be zero? Explain.
Ans. If and are the rectangular components of vector ⃗ , then
magnitude of vector is described by formula:
|⃗ | √
It is clear from the expression that the magnitude of a vector

will be zero only if all of its rectangular components are zero.
Therefore if one of the components is not zero, then the
magnitude of vector can’t be zero.
Q # 24. Can the magnitude of a vector have a negative value?
Ans. No, the magnitude of a vector cannot be negative, because the magnitude of vector ⃗ can be
described by the formula:
Magnitude of ⃗ |⃗ | √
Where and are the rectangular components of ⃗ . As the squares of real quantities always gives
the positive values. Therefore, the magnitude of a vector will always be positive.
8
2.2 VECTOR ADDITION IN TERMS OF RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS

Q # 25. Describe the vector addition in terms of rectangular components.
Ans. Consider two vectors ⃗ and ⃗ represented by lines ̅̅̅̅̅ and ̅̅̅̅, respectively . The vector ⃗ is
added to ⃗ by the head to tail rule of vector addition as shown in the figure. Thus the resultant vector
⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ is represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
Let and are the x-components of the vectors ⃗ ⃗

and ⃗⃗ and there magnitudes are given by the lines | || | and
| | respectively. From figure:
| | | | | |
or | | | | | |
or
which means that the sum of the magnitudes of
x-components of two vectors is equal to the x-component of the
resultant.
Similarly, the sum of the magnitudes of y components of two vectors is equal to the
magnitude of y-component of resultant:
Since and are the rectangular components of resultant vector ⃗⃗ along x and y-axis
respectively, then we can write
⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
or ⃗⃗ ̂ ( ) ̂
Magnitude of Resultant
The magnitude of resultant can be expressed as
| | √
Putting the values of and ,
| | √ ( )
Direction
The direction of resultant can be find out using expression,
( )
( )
9
GENERALIZATION: If ⃗⃗ is the resultant vector of a large number of coplanar vectors represented

by ⃗ ⃗ , then the expression for the magnitude of resultant will become:
| | √ ( )
The direction of resultant vector ⃗⃗ with x-axis can be find out by using expression:
( )
Q # 26. If ⃗ ⃗ , what can you say about the components of the two vectors.
Ans. Given that: ⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗
These vectors can be expressed in terms of rectangular components,
̂ ̂ ( ̂ )̂
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
Comparing the coefficients of unit vectors ̂ and ,̂ we get:
and
Hence the components of both vectors are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
Q # 27. Two forces of magnitude 10 N and 20 N act on a body in directions making angles
and respectively with x-axis. Find the resultant force.
Given Data: |⃗⃗⃗ | , , |⃗ | ,
To Determine: Magnitude of Resultant ⃗ |⃗ | , Direction of Resultant

Calculations:
Magnitude of Resultant ⃗ |⃗ | √ √
Direction of Resultant ( ) ( )
Q # 28. Two particles are located at ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ and ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ respectively. Find both the
magnitude of vector ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ and its orientation with respect to the x-axis.
Given Data: ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ,̂ ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
To Determine: |⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ | , Orientation of ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
Calculations: ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
|⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ | √ √ √
( ) ( )
10
Q # 29. Given that ⃗ ̂ ̂ and ⃗ ̂ ̂, find the magnitude and angle of (a) ⃗ ⃗,
and (b) ⃗ ⃗ ⃗.
Given Data: ⃗ ̂ ,̂ ⃗ ̂ ̂
To Determine: (i) |⃗ | , Orientation of ⃗
(ii) |⃗ | , Orientation of ⃗
Calculations: (i) ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
|⃗ | √ √ √
( ) ( )
(ii) ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
|⃗ | √ √ √
( )
Q # 30. If a vector ⃗ is added to vector ⃗ , the result is ̂ ̂. If ⃗ is subtracted from ⃗ , the

result is ̂ ̂. What is magnitude of vector ⃗ ?
Given Data: ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ , ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂
To Determine: Magnitude of ⃗ |⃗ |
Calculations: Adding (1) & (2) ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

⃗ ̂ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ̂
Magnitude of ⃗ |⃗ | √ √ √
Q # 31. Find the angle between two forces of equal magnitude when the magnitude of their
resultant is also equal to the magnitude of either of these forces.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: Let Force A is along x-axis and Force B makes an angle with horizontal
Magnitude of Resultant ⃗ √ √
( )
11
Q # 32. How would the two vectors of same magnitude have to be oriented, if they were to be
combined to give a resultant equal to a vector of same magnitude?
Ans. The two vectors of equal magnitudes are combined to give a resultant vector of same magnitude
when they act along the sides of equilateral triangle.
Consider two vectors ⃗ and ⃗ of equal magnitude which
act along the sides of equilateral triangle such that they make an
angle of with each other. Both vectors are added by head to
tail rule to give resultant ⃗⃗ , which is along the third side of
equilateral triangle as shown in the figure below:
From figure it is clear that ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ and |⃗⃗ | |⃗ | |⃗ | , as all the sides of equilateral
triangle have equal lengths.
1. The direction of a vector in space is 5. If ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ , this shows that

specified by:
addition of vectors is
a) One angle a) Associative
b) Two angle b) Commutative
c) Three angle c) Additive
d) No angle d) Additive inverse
2. A single vector having the same effect
as all the original vectors taken
6. The unit vector along y-axis is
together, is called a) ̂
a) Resultant vector b) ̂
b) Equal vector c) ̂
c) Position vector d) None
d) Unit vector 7. The unit vector in the direction of vector
3. The resultant of two forces 30 N and 40 ̂ ̂ ̂ is:
N acting at an angle of with each a) ̂ ̂ ̂
other is b) ( ̂ ̂ ̂ )/9
a) 30 N c) ( ̂ ̂ ̂ )/3
b) 40 N d) ( ̂ ̂ ̂ )/5
c) 50 N
d) 70 N 8. The magnitude of a vector ̂ ̂
̂ is:
a)
4. The magnitude of ̂ ̂
b)
a) Zero
b) One c) √
c) Three
d) d) √
12
2.3 PRODUCTS OF VECTORS

Q # 33. What do you know about scalar or dot product?
Ans. When two vectors are multiplied to give a scalar quantity, then the product of vectors is called
the scalar or dot product. The scalar product of two vectors ⃗ and ⃗ is written as ⃗ ⃗ and is defined
as
⃗ ⃗ | ⃗ ||⃗ |
where and are the magnitudes of vector ⃗ and ⃗ and is the angle between them.
Example: The work done is the dot product of force and displacement is an example of scalar
product. Mathematically, it is written as
Q # 34. Show that the scalar product is commutative.

Consider two vectors ⃗ and ⃗ . Place both vectors tail to tail. From fig.
⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗) ⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗ ------------- (1)
Similarly, from Fig. (c)
⃗ ⃗ ---------- (2)
Thus, from eq. (1) and (2)
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗
Hence, the scalar product is commutative.
Q # 35. Describe the properties of scalar product.
(i) Scalar product is commutative.
That is, for vectors ⃗ and ⃗ , ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
]
(ii) Scalar product of two mutually perpendicular vectors is zero.

 If the two vectors are ⃗ and ⃗ mutually
perpendicular to each other, then
⃗ ⃗
(iii) The scalar product of two parallel vectors is equal to the

product of their magnitudes.
 If the two vectors are ⃗ and ⃗ parallel to each other,
then ⃗ ⃗
 If the two vectors are ⃗ and ⃗ anti-parallel to each
other, then ⃗ ⃗
13
(iv) The scalar product of vector ⃗ with itself is equal to the square of its magnitudes.
⃗ ⃗
(v) Scalar product of vectors ⃗ and ⃗ in terms of their rectangular components will be
⃗ ⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ⃗
(vi) The angle between these vector can be find out by putting the value of ⃗ ⃗ in above equation
⃗ ⃗
Q # 36. Find the work done when the point of application of force ̂ ̂ moves in a straight
line from point to the point .
Given Data: ⃗ ̂ ,̂ Initial Point , Final Point
To Determine: Work Done
Calculations: Position Vector of Point A ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ,̂ Position Vector of Point B ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
Displacement ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
Work Done ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
Q # 37. A force ̂ ̂ units, has its point of application moved from point to point
. Find the work done.
Given Data: ⃗ ̂ ,̂ Initial Point , Final Point
To Determine: Work Done
Calculations: Position Vector of Point A ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ,̂ Position Vector of Point B ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
Displacement ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
Work Done ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
Q # 38. Show that the three vectors ̂ ̂ ̂, ̂ ̂ ̂ and ̂ ̂ ̂ are mutually

perpendicular.
Given Data: Let ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂, ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂, ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
To Show: ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Calculations: ⃗ ⃗ (̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ⃗ ⃗
14
Q # 39. Given that ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ and ⃗ ̂ ̂ , find the projection of ⃗ on ⃗ .
Given Data: ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
To Determine: Projection of ⃗ on ⃗
Calculations: ⃗ ⃗ (̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂)
|⃗ | √ √ √
⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗
Q # 40. Find the projection of vector ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ in the direction of the vector

⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂.
Given Data: ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
To Determine: Projection of ⃗ on ⃗
Calculations: ⃗ ⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
|⃗ | √ √ √
⃗ ⃗
Q # 41. Find the angle between two vectors, ⃗ ̂ ̂ and ⃗ ̂ ̂.

Given Data: ⃗ ̂ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ̂
⃗ ⃗
To Determine: ( )
Calculations: ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
|⃗ | √ √ √ |⃗ | √ √ √
⃗ ⃗
( ) ( )
√ √
Q # 42. Show that the sum and the difference of two perpendicular vectors of equal lengths are
also perpendicular and of same length.
Ans. Consider two vectors ⃗ and ⃗ of equal magnitude which are
perpendicular to each other. The sum and the difference of both vectors
gives the resultant ⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗ , respectively, and are described below:
⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂
Magnitude of ⃗⃗ √ -------------- (1)
15
Magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗ √ -------------- (2)

From (1) and (2), it is clear that the sum and the difference of two perpendicular vectors of equal
magnitude have the same lengths. Now taking dot product of and , we get:
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ |⃗ | |⃗ |
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
As ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ , therefore, the sum and the difference of two perpendicular vectors of equal magnitude
are perpendicular to each other.

12. Two vectors ⃗ and ⃗ are making angle θ
9. Dot product of two non-zero vectors is
with each other. The projection of vector
zero, when angle between them is:
⃗ on vector ⃗ is written as.
a)
a) ⃗ ⃗
b)
b) ⃗ ⃗
c)
d) c)cos θ
9. d)Both a and b are correct.
10. The dot product ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ is equal 13. The projection of a vector ⃗ over ⃗ is:
to a)
a) 1 b)
b) -1 c)
c) Zero d)
d) None
14. If ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ and
11. The scalar product of two vectors is ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ then:
maximum when they are:
a) ⃗ ⃗
a) Parallel
b) ⃗ ⃗
b) Perpendicular
c) Anti-parallel c) ⃗ ⃗
d) None of these d) ⃗ ⃗
16
Q # 43. What do you know about Vector Product?

Ans. When two vectors are multiplied to give a vector quantity, then the product of vectors is
called the vector or cross product. The vector product of two
vectors ⃗ and ⃗⃗ is written as ⃗ ⃗ and is defined as
⃗ ⃗⃗ | ⃗ ||⃗ | ̂ ̂
where and are the magnitudes of vector ⃗ and ⃗ and is

the angle between them and ̂ is the unit vector perpendicular
to the plane containing ⃗ and ⃗⃗ .
Example: The turning effect of force is called the torque and
is determined from the vector product of force and position vector . Mathematically, it is
described as:
Torque ⃗
Q # 44. Show that the vector product is non-commutative.

Ans. Consider two vectors ⃗ and ⃗ . Place the both
vector ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ tail to tail to define the plane of ⃗ and ⃗ .
⃗ ⃗ ̂
Similarly
⃗ ⃗ ̂
It is clear from figure that product vectors ⃗ ⃗ and ⃗ ⃗ are anti-
parallel to each other i.e., ̂ ̂
⃗ ⃗ ̂
⃗ ⃗ ̂
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Therefore,
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Hence, the vector product is not commutative.
Q # 45. Describe the right hand rule.
Ans. According to right hand rule for the cross product of two vectors, the right hand is placed on the
first vector and fingers are curled towards the second vector by keeping the thumb erect. The erected
thumb will give the direction of vector product.
17
Q # 46. Describe the properties of vector product.

(i) Vector product is non-commutative.
That is, for vectors ⃗ and ⃗ , ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
(ii) Vector product of two mutually perpendicular
vectors has maximum magnitude.
 If the two vectors are ⃗ and ⃗ mutually
perpendicular to each other, then
⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂
(iii) The vector product of two parallel and anti-parallel
vectors is the null vector.
 If the two vectors are ⃗ and ⃗ parallel to each
other, then ⃗ ⃗ ̂
 If the two vectors are ⃗ and ⃗ anti-parallel to each
other, then ⃗ ⃗ ̂
(iv) The vector product of vector ⃗ with itself is the null vector. As ⃗ ⃗ ̂
(v) Vector product of vectors ⃗ and ⃗ in terms of their rectangular components will be:
⃗ ⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ⃗ ( ) ̂ ̂ ( )̂
̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ⃗ | |
(vi) The magnitude of ⃗ ⃗ is equal to the area of parallelogram formed with ⃗ and ⃗ as two
adjacent sides.
Q # 47. If all the components of the vectors, ⃗ and ⃗ were reversed, how would this alter
⃗ ⃗ .
Ans. If all the components of the vectors ⃗ and ⃗ are reversed, then both vectors will be
represented as ⃗ and ⃗ , respectively.
As ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
So the vector product of two vectors will remain unchanged even when the components of the
vectors are reversed.
Q # 48. Name the three different conditions that could makes ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗
Ans. The conditions that could make the ⃗ ⃗ are as follows:

 If ⃗ or ⃗ is the null vector
 If both ⃗ and ⃗ are the null vectors
 If the vectors ⃗⃗ and ⃗ are parallel or anti-parallel with each other.
18
Q # 49. Vector ⃗ , ⃗ and are 4 units north, 3 units west and 8 units east, respectively. Describe
carefully ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ .
In coordinate plane, we consider (by convention) directions of east, west, north and south along
respectively. Hence,
Given Data: ⃗ ̂ ⃗ ̂ ⃗ ̂
To Determine: ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Calculations: ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ( ̂) ̂
⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ( ̂) ̂
⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

19. The direction of torque is
15. The cross product ̂ ̂ is equal to
a) Along position vector ̅
a) zero
b) one b) Parallel to the plane containing ̅ and ̅
c) – ̂ c) Along force ̅
d) ̂ d) Perpendicular to the plane containing ̅
and ̅
16. If the line of action of force passes
through axis of rotation or the origin, 20. ⃗ ⃗ is
then its torque is: a) A
a) Maximum b)
b) Unity c) 2A
c) Zero d) Null Vector
d) None of these
21. The magnitude of dot and cross product
17. ̂ ( ̂ ̂ ) is equal to of two vectors are √ and
a) respectively. The angle between them
b) will be
c) a)
d) b)
c)
18. The cross product of vectors will be d)
minimum when the angle between
vectors is 22. The cross product ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
is equal to
a) a) 1
b) b) -1
c) c) Null Vector
d) d) None
19
2.4 TORQUE
Q # 50. Define the term „torque‟.
Ans. The turning effect of a force is called torque. The torque ‘⃗ ’
acting on a body under the action of force ‘ ’ is described as
⃗
where is the position vector of point of application of force with
respect to pivot point ‘O’.
Anticlockwise torque is taken as positive, while the clockwise
torque is considered as negative.
Q # 51. Derive the expression for torque produce in a rigid body under action of any force.
Ans. Let the force ‘ ’ acts on rigid body at point P whose position
vector relative to pivot ‘O’ is .
We want to find out the expression torque about point ‘O’
acting on the rigid body due to force ‘ ’.
The force ‘ ’ makes an angle ‘ ’ with horizontal,
therefore, it can be resolved in two rectangular components i.e.,
‘ ’ and ‘ ’. The torque due to ‘ ’ about point ‘O’ is zero as its line of action passes
through this point. Therefore, the ‘ ’ component of forces is responsible for producing torque in
the body about point ‘O’.
Now the torque,
In vector form:
⃗
This is the required expression of torque.
Q # 52. Can a body rotate about its center of gravity under the action of its weight?
Ans. No a body can’t rotate about the center of gravity under the action of its weight.
The whole weight of the body acts on the center of gravity. Therefore, the perpendicular
distance between line of action of weight and axis of rotation, called moment arm, is zero.
As
So the torque due to weight will be zero because the moment arm is zero. Hence, a body
cannot rotate about center of gravity under the action of its weight.
20
Q # 53. Consider a force ̂ ̂ ̂ (newton) acting on the point ̂ ̂ ̂ (m). What is the
torque in N m about the origin?
Given Data: ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
To Determine: ⃗
̂ ̂ ̂
Calculations: ⃗ ⃗ | | ̂| | ̂| | ̂| | ̂ ̂ ̂
Q # 54. The line of action of force F passes through a point P of a body whose position vector in
meters is ̂ ̂ ̂ . If ̂ ̂ ̂ (in newton), determine the torque about the point A whose
position vector (in meter) is ̂ ̂ ̂.
Given Data: ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
To Determine: ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
Calculations: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ | | ̂| | ̂| | ̂| | ̂ ̂ ̂
Q # 55. The line of action of force ̂ ̂, passes through a point whose position vector is ̂ ̂.
Find (a) the moment of about the origin, (b) the moment of about the point of which the position
vector is ̂ ̂.
Given Data: ⃗ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂
To Determine: ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
̂ ̂ ̂
Calculations: (i) ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ | | ̂| | ̂| | ̂| | ̂ ̂ ̂
(ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ (̂ ̂) ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ | | ̂| | ̂| | ̂| | ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
Q # 56. The magnitude of dot and cross products of two vectors are √ and 6 respectively. Find the
angle between vectors.
Given Data: For two vectors ⃗ & ⃗ , |⃗ ⃗ | √ |⃗ ⃗|
To Determine: ⃗ ⃗
Calculations: |⃗ ⃗ | √ √
|⃗ ⃗|
Dividing (1) and (2): ( )

√ √ √
21
2.5 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES

Q # 57. Define the term “equilibrium”. Write down different types of equilibrium.
Ans. A body is said to be in state of equilibrium if it is at rest or
moving with uniform velocity. There are two types of equilibrium.
(i) Static Equilibrium
If a body is at rest, then it is said to be in static equilibrium.
(ii) Dynamic Equilibrium
If the body is moving with uniform velocity, then it is said to
be in dynamic equilibrium.
Q # 58. Write down different conditions of equilibrium.
Ans. There are two conditions of equilibrium.
First Condition of Equilibrium
The vector sum of all forces acting on any object must be zero. Mathematically,
∑
In case of coplanar forces, this conditions is expressed usually in terms of x and y components
of forces. Hence, the 1st condition of equilibrium for coplanar forces will be
∑ ,∑
When the first condition of equilibrium is satisfied, there will be no linear acceleration and
body will be in translational equilibrium.
Second Condition of Equilibrium
The vector sum of all torque acting on any object must be zero. Mathematically,
∑⃗
When the second condition of equilibrium is satisfied, there is no angular acceleration and
body will be in rotational equilibrium.
Q # 59. State the complete requirement for a body to be in equilibrium?
Ans. A body will be in the state of complete equilibrium, when the sum of all the forces and torques
acting on the body will be equal to zero. Mathematically, it is described as
(i) ∑ i.e. ∑ ,∑
(ii) ∑ ⃗
Q # 60. Identify true or false statements and explain the reason.
(a) A body in equilibrium implies that it is neither moving nor rotating.
(b) If the coplanar forces acting on a body form a close polygon, then the body is said to be
in equilibrium.
Ans. i) Statement (a) is false. Because a body may be in equilibrium if it is moving or rotating with
uniform velocity.
22
ii) Statement (b) is correct. Since the vector sum of all the forces acting on the body along close
polygon is zero, then the first condition of equilibrium will be satisfied and the body will be in
state of equilibrium.
Q # 61. A picture is suspended from a wall by two strings. Show by diagram the configuration of
the strings for which the tension in the string is minimum.
Ans. Consider a picture of weight is suspended by two strings as shown in
the figure.
From figure,
It is clear from the expression that the tension in the string will be minimum
when the factor will be maximum (equal to 1). This condition can be
obtained for .
Q # 62. A load of 10 N is suspended from a clothes line. This distorts the line so that it makes an
angle of with horizontal at each end. Find the tension in the clothes line.
Given Data: Load
To Determine:
Calculations: As ∑
As ∑
Q # 63. A load is suspended by two cords as shown in the figure. Determine the
maximum load that can be suspended at P, if the maximum breaking tension of
the cord used is 50 N.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: ∑
As So for
23
Q # 64. A uniform beam of 200 N is supported horizontally as shown. If

the breaking tension of the rope is 400 N, how far can the man of weight
400 N walk from point A?
Ans. Let the limiting equilibrium occur at a distance d from point A. The force
diagram of the situation is shown in the figure.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: ∑
Q # 65. A boy weighing 300 N is standing at the edge of a uniform diving

board 4 m in length. The weight of the board is 200 N. Find the force
exerted by pedestals on the board.
Ans. Let and are the reaction forces exerted by pedestals separated by a
distance of 1 m, as shown in the force diagram.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: ∑
Putting values in (1)
Q # 66. A tractor of weight 15000 N crosses a single span bridge of weight 8000 N and of length
21 m. The bridge is supported half a meter from
either end. The tractor‟s front wheels takes 1/3 of the
total weight of the tractor, and the rear wheels are 3
m behinds the front wheels. Calculate the force on the
bridge supports when the rear wheels are at the
middle of the bridge span.
24
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: ∑
Q # 67. A spherical ball of weight 50 N is to be lifted over the step as shown in the
figure. Calculate the minimum force needed just to lift it above the floor.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: ∑
| | | |
From Fig. | | | | | |
In Triangle OAB: | | | | | |
| | √
Q # 68. A uniform sphere of weight 10 N held by a string attached to a frictionless wall so that
the string makes an angle of with the wall as shown in the figure. Find the tension in the
string and the force exerted on sphere by the wall.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations:
Q # 69. Identify the correct answer.

25
(i) Two ships X and Y are travelling in different directions at equal speeds. The actual
direction of X is due to north but to an observer on Y, the apparent direction of motion X is
north-east. The actual direction of motion of Y as observed from the shore will be
(A) East (B) West (C) South-east (D) South-West
Ans. The correct answer is (B) West
(ii) The horizontal force F is applied to a small object P of mass m at rest on a smooth plane
inclined at an angle to the horizontal as shown in the figure below. The magnitude of the
resultant force acting up and along the surface of the plane, on the object is
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Ans. The forces acting up and along the surface of plane is
, therefore the correct option is (a)
23. If a body is at rest, then it will be in 24. For a body to be in complete

equilibrium,
a) Static equilibrium
b) Dynamic equilibrium a)
c) Translational equilibrium b) ∑
d) Unstable equilibrium c) ∑
d) None
Answers of MCQs of Chapter # 2

Q. No. Ans Q. No. Ans Q. No. Ans
1 c 9 d 17 a
2 a 10 a 18 c
3 c 11 a 19 d
4 b 12 a 20 d
5 b 13 b 21 b
6 b 14 a 22 c
7 c 15 d 23 a
8 c 16 c 24 a
26
Chapter 3 (1st Year Physics) Motion and Force (Edition: 2015-16)
MOTION AND FORCE
3.1 DISPLACEMENT
Q # 1. What do you know about the term displacement?
Ans. Whenever a body moves from one position to another, the change in position of the body from
its initial to final position is called displacement.
It is a vector quantity and its direction is from initial point to the
final point. The SI unit of displacement is meter.
The displacement can be represented as a vector that describes
how far and in what direction the body has displaced from its original
position. For example, if a body is moving along a curve from point A to
point B, then the displacement ⃗ of the body is represented by arrow ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
Note that although the body is moving along curve, the displament is
different from the path of motion.
If ⃗⃗⃗ is position vector of point A and ⃗⃗⃗ is the position vectors of
point B, then by head to tail rule, it can be seen from figure that:
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
Important Note:
When a body moves along a straight line, the displacement
coincides with the path of motion as shown in the figure:
1
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3.2 VELOCITY
Q # 2. Define the term velocity. Also describe its different types.
Ans. The time rate of change of displacement is called the velocity. It is a vector quantity and its
direction is along the direction of displacement. The SI unit of velocity is ms-1.
Average Velocity
The ratio between the total displacement and the total time taken by the body during motion is
called average velocity. If ⃗ is the total displacement of the body in time , then the average
velocity ⃗ is described as:
⃗
⃗
Average velocity doesn’t give the detailed description of motion between two points. The path may be
straight or curved and the motion may be steady or variable. The detailed analysis of motion is
described by the instantaneous velocity.
Instantaneous Velocity
The velocity of the object at any instant of time is called instantaneous velocity. Or
The limiting value of average velocity as the time interval approaches to zero is called
instantaneous velocity.
If ⃗ is the displacement covered by the object in time interval , then instantaneous
velocity ⃗ is expressed as:
⃗
⃗
⃗
read as limiting value of as approaches zero.
Explanation: Consider a body is moving along the path ABC in xy-

plane. At any time t, let the body be at point A. Its position is given by
the position vector ⃗⃗⃗ . After a short time following the instant , the
body reaches the point B which is described by position vector ⃗⃗⃗ . The displacement ⃗ of the body
during this time interval will be ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
The instantaneous velocity at point A, can be found by making smaller and smaller. In this
case ⃗ will also becomes smaller and point B will approach A. If we continue this process, letting B
⃗
approach A, thus, allowing and ⃗ to decrease but never disappear completely, then the ratio
approaches a definite limiting value which is called instantaneous velocity.
Uniform Velocity
A body is said to have a uniform velocity if it covers equal displacement in equal intervals of time.
Variable Velocity
A body is said to have a variable velocity if it covers unequal displacements in equal intervals of time.
2
3.3 ACCELERATION
Q # 3. Define the term acceleration. Also describe its different types.
Ans. The time rate of change of velocity of the body is called acceleration. As velocity is a vector so
any change in velocity may be due to change in its magnitude or a change in its direction or both.
Acceleration is a vector quantity and its SI unit is ms-2.
Average Acceleration
The ratio between the total change in velocity and the total time taken by the body during
motion is called average acceleration.
Consider a body whose velocity ⃗ at any instant changes to
⃗ in further small time interval . The average acceleration ⃗
during time interval is given by:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗
Instantaneous Acceleration
The acceleration of the object at any instant of time is called instantaneous acceleration. Or
The limiting value of average acceleration as the time interval approaches to zero is called
instantaneous acceleration.
If ⃗ is the change in velocity of the object in time interval , then instantaneous
acceleration ⃗ is expressed as:
⃗
⃗
Positive Acceleration: A body is said to have positive

acceleration if its velocity increases.
Negative Acceleration: A body is said to have negative
acceleration if its velocity decreases.
Uniform Acceleration
If the velocity of the body changes by equal amount in equal intervals of time, then the body
is said to have uniform acceleration
Important Note: If a body moving with uniform acceleration, then its average acceleration and
instantaneous acceleration will be equal.
1. A body covering equal displacement in 2. Instantaneous and average velocities
equal interval of time possesses: become equal when body:
a) Variable velocity a) Has uniform velocity
b) Uniform acceleration b) Has variable velocity
c) Uniform velocity c) Moves along straight line
d) None of above d) Moves in a circle
3
3.4 VELOCITY-TIME GRAPH

Q # 4. How motion of the object along straight line is represented using velocity-time graph?
Ans. The velocity-time graph representation for the motion along straight line is as follows:
 When the velocity of an object is constant, its velocity-time

graph is horizontal straight line.
 When the object moves with constant acceleration, the velocity-

time graph is a straight line with positive or negative slope.
 When the object moves with increasing acceleration, the

velocity-time graph is a curve.
Q # 5. Write down the applications of velocity-time graph.

Ans. The applications of velocity time graph are as follow:
 The average acceleration of object can be determined from the slope of velocity-time graph.
 The area between the velocity time graph and time axis is numerically equal to the distance
covered by the object.
Q # 6. The velocity-time graph of a car moving on a straight road is shown in the figure.
Describe the motion of the car and find the distance covered.
Ans. The graph tells us that the car starts from rest, and its velocity increases uniformly to 20 in
5 seconds. Its average acceleration is:
The graph further tells that the velocity of the car remains
constant from 5th to 15th second and it then decreases uniformly to zero
from 15th to 19th seconds. The acceleration of the car during last 4
seconds is:
The negative sign indicates that the velocity of the car decreases during these 4 seconds.
Calculations:
4
Q # 7. Using the following data, draw a velocity-time graph for a short journey on a straight
road of a motorbike.
Velocity 0 10 20 20 20 20 0
( )
Time (s) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Use the graph to calculate
 The initial acceleration
 The final acceleration and
 The total distance travelled by the motorcyclist.
Ans. The graph tells us that the car starts from rest, and its
velocity increases uniformly to 20 in 60 seconds. Its
average acceleration is:
The graph further tells that the velocity of the car

remains constant from 60th to 150th second and it then
decreases uniformly to zero from 150th to 180th seconds. The acceleration of the car during last 30
seconds is:
The negative sign indicates that the velocity of the car decreases during these 30 seconds.
Calculations:

3. When velocity time graph is a straight5. Slope of velocity time graph is:
line parallel to time axis then: a) Acceleration
a) Acceleration is variable b) Distance
b) Acceleration is zero c) Force
c) Velocity is zero d) Momentum
d) None of these
4. If the slope of velocity-time graph
gradually increases, then the body is 6. The area between the velocity-time graph
said to be moving with: and the time axis is numerically equal to:
a) Uniform velocity a) Velocity
b) Variable velocity b) Distance
c) Positive acceleration c) Time
d) Negative acceleration d) Acceleration
5
3.5 REVIEW OF EQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

Q # 8. Describe the equations of motion for the object that is moving with uniform acceleration.
Ans. Suppose an object is moving with uniform acceleration along straight line. If its initial velocity
is and final velocity after time interval is . Let the distance covered during this interval be ,
then we have:
( )
Important Notes about Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion:

 These equations are useful only for the linear motion with uniform
acceleration.
 For straight line motion, all the vector can be manipulated like scalars.
In such problems, the direction of initial velocity is taken as positive.
A negative sign is assigned to quantities where direction is opposite to
that of initial velocity.
 These equations for uniformly accelerated motion can also be applied
to free fall motion of the objects by replacing by .
Q # 9. Motion with constant velocity is a special case of motion with
constant acceleration. Is this statement is true? Discuss.
Ans. Yes this statement is true.
When a body moves with constant velocity, its acceleration is zero. As the zero is a constant
quantity, so the acceleration of the body will always remains constant during such motion. Therefore,
the motion with constant velocity is a special case of motion with constant acceleration.
Q # 10. An object is thrown vertically upward. Discuss the sign of acceleration due to gravity,
relative to velocity, while the object is in air.
Ans. During upward motion, the object will move in the
opposite direction to the gravitational force. This results in
decrease of velocity and hence the sign of gravitational
acceleration relative to velocity will be taken as negative.
During downward motion, the object will move in the
direction of gravitational force. This results in increase of
velocity and hence the sign of gravitational acceleration
relative to velocity will be taken as positive.
6
Q # 11. Can the velocity of an object reverse the direction when the acceleration is constant? If
so, give an example.
Ans. Yes, the velocity of a body can reverse its direction with constant acceleration.
When a body is thrown vertically upward, its velocity will be in upward direction which will
decrease to zero because the object is moving in the opposite direction to the gravitational force.
At the maximum height, its velocity becomes zero. After that the object will move vertically
downward and the direction of velocity will be reversed. During the whole process, the magnitude of
the acceleration due to gravity remains constant.
Q # 12. Specify the correct statement:

a. An object can have a constant velocity even its speed is changing.
b. An object can have a constant speed even its velocity is changing.
c. An object can have a zero velocity even its acceleration is not zero.
d. An object subjected to a constant acceleration can reverse its velocity.
Ans. The statement (b) is correct:
When an object moves along a circular path with constant speed, its velocity changes due to
change in direction at every instant.
The statement (c) is correct:
When the brake is applied on a moving car, it slows down and comes to rest due to negative
acceleration in opposite direction. Thus, in the last moment, the is zero but is not zero.
The statement (d) is correct:
When a body is thrown vertically upward, its velocity will be in upward direction which will
decrease to zero because the object is moving in the opposite direction to the gravitational force.
At the maximum height, its velocity becomes zero. After that the object will move vertically
downward and the direction of velocity will be reversed. During the whole process, the magnitude of
the acceleration due to gravity remains constant.
Q # 13. A man standing on the top of a tower throws a ball straight up with initial velocity
and at the same time throws a second ball straight downward with the same speed. Which ball
will have a larger speed when it strikes the ground? Ignore the air friction.
Ans. Both balls will hit the ground with same speed.
When a ball is thrown upward with initial velocity , it will have same velocity when it
returns back to the same level. After that the ball will continue its motion in downward direction and
hits the ground with velocity .
Thus if the second ball is thrown vertically downward with initial velocity from the same
height, it will hit the ground with the same final velocity .
7
Q # 14. Explain the circumstances in which the velocity and acceleration of a car are
(i) Parallel (ii) Anti-parallel (iii) Perpendicular to one another
(iv) is zero but is not zero (v) is zero but is not zero
(i) When the velocity of the car is increasing along a straight line then and of the car will be parallel
to each other.
(ii) When the velocity of the car is decreasing along a straight line then and of the car will be anti-
parallel to each other.
(iii) When the car moves along circular path, then will be directed towards the center of the circle while
its velocity will be along the tangent. Thus and of the car will be perpendicular to each other when
it moves on a circular path.
(iv) When the brake is applied on a moving car, it slows down and comes to rest due to negative
acceleration in opposite direction. Thus, in the last moment, is zero but is not zero.
(v) When the car is moving in straight line with uniform velocity, then of the car is zero but is not
zero.
Q # 15. A helicopter is ascending vertically at the rate of 19.6 ms-1. When it is at the height of
156.8 m above the ground, a stone is dropped. How long does the stone take to reach the
ground?
Initially, the dropped particle move in upward direction, attain the maximum height in time and
then fall vertically downward under gravity and strike the ground after time .
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: Upward Motion
By first equation of motion:

( )
Distance covered during upward motion: ( ) ( )
Downward Motion
By 2nd eq. of motion: ( ) ( ) √ √
Q # 16. A proton is moving with speed of passes through a 0.020 cm thick sheet
of paper and emerges with a speed of . Assuming uniform deceleration, find
retardation and time taken to pass through the paper.
Given Data:
To Determine:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Calculations: By 3rd eq.: ( ) ( )
By first eq. of motion:
8
3.6 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Q # 17. State the Newton’s laws of motion.

Newton’s 1st laws of motion
A body at rest will remain at rest, and a body moving with
uniform velocity will continue to do so, unless acted upon by some
unbalanced external force. This is also known as the law of inertia.
Inertia: The property of an object tending to maintain the state of rest
or state of uniform motion is referred to as the object’s inertia. The more the inertia, the stronger is the
tendency in presence of force. The mass of the object is a quantitative measure of its inertia.
Inertial Frame of Reference: The frame of reference, in which Newton’s
first law of motion holds, is known as inertial frame of reference.
Newton’s 2nd laws of motion

A force applied on a body produces acceleration in its own
direction. The acceleration produced varies directly with the applied
force and inversely with the mass of the body.
Mathematically, it is described as:
⃗
where is the applied force, is the mass and ⃗ is the acceleration of the object.
Newton’s 3rd laws of motion
Action and reaction are equal and opposite.
Whenever an interaction occurs between two, each object exerts the
same force on the other, but in opposite direction and for the same interval of
time. Each force in action-reaction pair acts only on one of the two bodies, the
action and reaction forces never act on the same body.
7. The property of a body due to 8. Which of the following pair has
which it opposes its state of rest same direction always?
or uniform motion is called: a) Force, displacement
a) Momentum b) Force, velocity
b) Inertia c) Force, acceleration
c) Torque d) Force, momentum
d) Weight
9
3.7 MOMENTUM
Q # 18. Define the term linear momentum?
Ans. The product of mass and velocity of an object is called the linear momentum. It is a vector
quantity. The SI unit of momentum is kilogram meter per second (kg m s -1). It can also be expressed
as Newton-second (N s).
Important Note:
It is a well known fact that moving objects posses a quality by virtue of which it exert force
on anything that tries to stop it. The faster the object is travelling, the harder is to stop it. Similarly, if
two objects move with the same velocity, then it is more difficult to stop massive of the two. This
quality of the moving body was called QUANTITY OF MOTION of the body, by Newton. This term
is now called linear momentum of the body.
Q # 19. Find the Change in momentum for an object subjected to a given force for a given time
and state the law of motion in terms of momentum.
Ans. Consider a body of mass is moving with an initial velocity ⃗⃗⃗ . Suppose an external force
acts upon it for time after which the velocity becomes ⃗⃗⃗ . The acceleration ⃗ produced by this
force is:
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
⃗
By Newton’s second law, acceleration is given as
⃗
Equating both equations, we get
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
(⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ )
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
Where ⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗ are called the initial and final momentum of the body. The above equation can
also be written as:
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
Thus the time rate of change of linear momentum is equal to the applied force. This is another
statement of 2nd law of motion.
Q # 20. A 1500 kg car has its velocity reduced from to in 3 s. How large was
the average retarding force?
Given Data: ,
To Determine:
Calculations: By 2nd equation of motion:
The negative sign indicates that the force is retarding force.
10
Q # 21. Define the term impulse.

Ans. When a force is acted on a body for a very short time , the product of
force and time is called impulse. It is a vector quantity and its unit is N s.
( )( )
Where is the impulse of force .
Q # 22. Show that impulse of a force is equal to the change in linear
momentum.
Ans. According to the Newton’s second law of motion, the rate of change of
linear momentum is equal to the applied force. Mathematically it is described as:
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ( )
( )( ) ⃗
As Impulse ( )( )
Therefore, the equation (1) will become:
⃗
Hence proved that:
Q # 23. State and prove the law of conservation of linear momentum for an isolated system of two
balls moving in the same direction.
Statement: The total linear momentum of an isolated system remains constant.
Proof: Consider an isolated system of two balls of masses and moving in same directions with
velocities ⃗ and ⃗ , respectively. Both the balls collide and after collision, balls of mass moves with
velocity ⃗ and moves with velocity ⃗ in the same direction as shown in the figure.
The change in momentum of mass will be:
( )( ) ⃗ ⃗ ------------- (1)
Similarly, the change in momentum of mass will be:
( )( ) ⃗ ⃗ ------------- (2)
Adding equation (1) and (2), we get
( )( ) ( ⃗ ⃗ ) ( ⃗ ⃗ )
Since the action of the force is equal and opposite to the reaction force ,
we have . Therefore,
( ⃗ ⃗ ) ( ⃗ ⃗ )
Or ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
It means that the total initial momentum of the system before collision is equal to
the total momentum of the system after collision.
Hence proved that “The total linear momentum of an isolated system remains constant”.
11
Q # 24. Two masses and are initially at rest with a spring

compressed between them. What is the ratio of the magnitude of their
velocities after the spring has been released?
Given Data: ,
To Determine:
Calculations: By Law of conservation of momentum: ( )
Q # 25. Two spherical balls of 2.0 kg and 3.0 kg masses are moving towards each other with
velocities of and respectively. What must be the velocity of the smaller ball after
collision, if the velocity of the bigger ball is .
Given Data: ,
( )
To Determine:
Calculations: By Law of conservation of momentum: ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Q # 26. A truck weighing 2500 kg and moving with a velocity of collides with a stationary
car weighing 1000 kg. The truck and the car moves together after the impact. Calculate their
common velocity.
Given Data: ,
To Determine:
Calculations: By Law of conservation of momentum:
( ) ( )
Q # 27. A boy places a fire cracker of negligible mass in an empty can of 40 g mass. He plugs the end
with a wooden block of mass 200 g. After igniting the fire cracker, he throws the can straight up. It
explodes at the top of its path. If the block shoots out with a speed of , how fast will the can
be going?
Given Data: ,
( )
( )
12
To Determine: (– )
( )
( )
Q # 28. Two blocks of masses 2.0 kg and 0.50 kg are attached at the two
ends of a compressed spring. The elastic potential energy stored in the
spring is 10 J. Find the velocities of the blocks if the spring delivers its
energy to the blocks when released.
Given Data:
To Determine: If
( )
In present case:
( )
√
Put in (1): ( )
Q # 29. State the law of conservation of linear momentum, pointing out the importance of an
isolated system. Explain, why under certain conditions, the law is useful even though the system
is not completely isolated?
Ans. Statement: The total linear momentum of an isolated system remains constant.
An isolated system is a system on which no external

agency exerts any force. In an isolated system, the bodies may
interact with each other but no external force acts on them.
In ever day life, the effect of frictional forces and
gravitational force is negligible. Thus law of conservation of
momentum can be applied to the systems which are not
completely isolated e.g., firing of gun, motion of rocket etc.
13
3.8 ELASTIC AND INELASTIC COLLISIONS

Q # 30. Differentiate among the elastic and inelastic collision.
Elastic collision
A collision in which the K.E. of the system is conserved is called elastic collision
Inelastic collision
A collision in which the K.E. of the system is not conserved is called inelastic collision.
Q # 31. Describe the elastic collision of balls in one dimension for the
case of an isolated system.
Ans. Consider two smooth balls of masses and moving with
velocities and respectively in the same direction. They collide and
after collision, they move along the same straight line. Let their velocities
after the collision be and as shown in the figure below:
By applying law of conservation of momentum, we have:
( ) ( ) -------- (1)
As the collision is elastic, so the K.E. is also conserved. From the
conservation of K.E. we have:
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( ) -------- (2)
Dividing equation (1) and (2), we get:
( ) ( ) -------- (3)
-------- (4)
Putting the value from equation (4) in equation (1):
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
---------------- (5)
Putting the value from equation (5) in equation (4), we get:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
* ( )
+ *( )
+
( )
( ) ( )
---------------- (6)
The equation (5) and (6) gives the values of velocities of the balls after collision.
14
Special Cases
Case ( ): When
Putting values in equation (5) and (6), we get:
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
Thus, if the balls of same masses collides each other, they will interchange
their velocities after collision.
Case ( ): When and

Putting values and in equation (5) and (6), we get:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
Thus, the ball of mass , after collision, will come to stop and will
takes of the velocity of .
Case ( ): When a light body collides with the massive body at rest.
In this case initial velocity and . Under these
conditions can be neglected as compared to i.e., .
Putting values in equation (5) and (6), we get:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
Thus, the body of mass will bounce back with the same velocity while
will remain stationary.
Case ( ): When a massive body collides with the light stationary body.
In this case initial velocity and . Under these
conditions can be neglected as compared to i.e., .
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
Thus, there will be no change in the velocity of massive body, and the lighter
body will move in forward direction with twice the velocity of incident body.
15
Q # 32. An electron ( ) travelling at undergoes a head on

collision with a hydrogen atom ( ) which is initially at rest. Assuming the
collision to be perfectly elastic and a motion to be along a straight line, find the velocity of the
hydrogen atom.
Given Data:
To Determine: Velocity of H-atom After Collision

( )
Calculations: As ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Q # 33. A 70 g ball collides with another ball of mass 140 g. The initial velocity of the first ball is
to the right while the second ball is at rest. If the collision were perfectly elastic, what
would be the velocity of the two balls after collision?
Given Data:
To Determine: Velocity of After Collision , Velocity of After Collision

( ) ( ) ( )
Calculations: As
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
Also
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Q # 34. A 100 g golf ball is moving to the right with a velocity of It makes a head on
collision with an 8 kg steel ball initially at rest. Compute the velocities of balls after collision.
Given Data:
To Determine: Velocity of After Collision , Velocity of After Collision

( ) ( ) ( )
Calculations: As
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
Also
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Q # 35. Explain the difference between elastic and inelastic collision. Explain how would a
bouncing ball behave in each case? Give the plausible reason for the fact that K.E is conserved
in most cases?
Ans. A collision in which the K.E. of the system is conserved is called elastic collision. For the case
of Elastic Collision, a ball dropped onto a floor will rebounds with the same velocity and will attain
the same height.
A collision in which the K.E. of the system is not conserved is called inelastic collision. For
the case of Elastic Collision, a ball dropped on floor doesn’t attain the same height after the impact. It
is because of the fact that some part of K.E is converted into heat and sound energies. Thus the total
energy of the system remains conserved.
16
3.9 FORCE DUE TO WATER FLOW

Q # 36. Find out the expression of force on a wall due to water flow.
Ans. Suppose the water strikes a wall normally with velocity and comes to rest after striking the
wall. The change in velocity if .
According to the Newton’s second law of motion, the applied force is equal to the rate of
change of momentum. If mass of water strikes the wall in time , then the force on the water is:
From Newton’s third law of motion, the reaction force exerted by the water on the wall is
equal but opposite. Hence,
( )
This is the expression of force exerted by the water on the wall.
Q # 37. A hose pipe ejects water at a speed of through the hole of area . If the
water strikes a wall normally, calculate the force on the wall, assuming the velocity of the water
normal to the wall is zero after striking.
Given Data:
Density of Water
To Determine: Force exerted by water on wall
Calculations: Volume of Water per Second Striking the wall

Mas of Water per Second Striking the wall ( )
Velocity of the water changed on striking the wall
Force Due to Water Flow ( )
Q # 38. An amoeba of mass propels itself through water by blowing a jet of

water through tiny orifice. The amoeba ejects water with the speed of at the
rate of . Assume the water is being continuously replenished so that mass of
amoeba remains the same.
a. If there is no force on amoeba other than the reaction force caused by emerging jet,
what would be the acceleration of the amoeba?
b. If amoeba moves with constant velocity through water, what is the force of surrounding
water (exclusively of jet) on the amoeba?
Given Data:
( )
To Determine: (a) Acceleration of amoeba (b) Force on amoeba due to water flow
Calculations: (b) Force on amoeba due to water flow
(a) Acceleration of amoeba
17
3.10 MOMENTUM AND EXPLOSIVE FORCES

Q # 39. Explain following cases by law of conservation of momentum.
Explosion of a falling bomb
When a shell explodes in mid-air, its fragments fly off in different directions. The total
momentum of all its fragments equals the initial momentum of the shell.
Suppose a falling bomb explodes into two pieces. The momentum of the bomb fragments
combine by the vector addition equal to the original momentum of the falling bomb.
Bullet fired from a Rifle

Consider a bullet of mass fired from a rifle of
mass with velocity . initial momentum of the bullet
and the rifle is zero. From the principle of conservation of
linear momentum, when the bullet is fired, the total
momentum of bullet and the rifle still remain zero, since
no external force is acted on them.
Thus, if is the velocity of the rifle then
( ) ( )
The momentum of the rifle is thus equal and

opposite to that of the bullet. Since mass of rifle is much
greater than the bullet, it follows that the rifle recoils with
only a fraction of
velocity of bullet.
18
3.10 ROCKET PROPULSION

Q # 40. Describe the rocket propulsion as a special case of law of conservation of
momentum.
Ans. When rocket is fired, it moves in forward direction by expelling burning gases
through the engine at the rear. The rocket gains the momentum equal to the momentum
of gas expelled from the engine but in opposite direction. Thus the motion of rocket is
in accordance with law of conservation of momentum.
Q # 41. Describe the motion of rocket as a system of variable mass.
The moving rocket is considered as a system of variable mass. As the rocket
moves forward, its fuel continues to be consumed and engines have to push less mass.
Moreover, the rocket has to face less air resistance. So instead of moving at steady
speed, the rocket gets faster and faster.
If is the mass of the gas ejected per second with velocity relative to the rocket, the
change in momentum per second of ejecting gases is . This equals the thrust
produced by the engine on the body of rocket. So the acceleration of the rocket is
Where is the mass of rocket. When the fuel in the rocket is burned and ejected. This
expression shows that as the mass of the rocket decreases, its acceleration increases.
9. Change in momentum is called: 13. SI unit of impulse is:
a) Force a)
b) Impulse b)
c) Acceleration c)
d) Torque d) None of these
10. The time rate of change of momentum
is called: 14. Taking off rocket can be explained by.
a) Force a) 1st law of motion
b) Impulse b) 2nd law of motion
c) Law of conservation of momentum
c) Acceleration
d) Law of conservation of energy
d) Torque
11. Momentum depends upon.
15. A snooker ball moving with velocity V
a) Force act on the body collides head on with another snooker
b) Mass of the body ball of same mass at rest. If the collision
c) Velocity of the body is elastic, the velocity of the second
d) Both mass and velocity of the body snooker ball is:
a) Zero
12. An alternate unit to is:
b) Infinity
a) Js
c) V
b) Ns
d) 2V
c) Nm
d) N
19
3.12 PROJECTILE MOTION

Q # 42. What do you know about projectile motion? Find out the expression of horizontal and
vertical distance at any instant of time.
Projectile Motion
It is the two dimensional motion in which the object moves under constant acceleration due to
gravity. During projectile motion, the object has constant horizontal component of velocity but
changing vertical component of velocity.
Horizontal and Vertical Distance
Consider a ball is thrown horizontally from certain height. It is observed that the ball travel
forward as well as falls downward, until it strikes something. There is no
horizontal force acting on the object, so . Thus the horizontal
velocity will remain unchanged. The horizontal distance covered by
nd
the object can be find out by using the 2 equation of motion:
As the object is accelerated in downward direction under the force

of gravity, therefore . Since initial vertical velocity is zero i.e.,
. Therefore, vertical distance covered by the object is:
Q # 43. Find out the expression of instantaneous velocity for a projectile.

Ans. Consider a projectile is fired at an angle with horizontal. The motion of a projectile can be
studied easily by resolving it in horizontal and vertical components. Let and are the
horizontal and vertical component of velocity, repectively. There is no force acting on the projectle
acting on projectile in horzontal direction, therefore, . Therefore, by using the first equation of
motion, we have:
As the verticle component of velocity

of the projectile is influenced by the
force of gravity, therefore, for upward
motion . The verticle
component of velocity can be find out
by using 1st equation of motion:
20
Magnitude
The magnitude of velocity at any instant of time is
√
Direction
The angle which the resultant velocity makes with
horizontal can be found from
Q # 44. A bomber dropped a bomb at a height of 490 m when its velocity along the horizontal
was .
(i) How long was it in air?
(ii) At what distance from the point vertically below the bomber at the instant the bomb was
dropped, did it strike the ground?
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: Using Vertical Component of Motion
√ √
Q # 45. A ball thrown horizontally from a height of 10 m with velocity of . How far off
it hit the ground and with what velocity?
Given Data:
To Determine: Total Final Velocity √
Calculations: Using Vertical Component of Motion
√ √
For Projectile and
Total Final Velocity √ √( ) ( )
21
Q # 46. Derive the expressions for

(a) Height of projectile (b) Time of Flight (c) Range of Projectile
Height of Projectile
Consider a projectile is thrown upward with initial
velocity making an angle with horizontal. Initially, the
vertical component of velocity if . At maximum height,
the value of vertical component of velocity becomes zero. If t is
the time taken by the projectile to attain the maximum height
, then by using 3rd equation of motion:
This is the expression of the height attained by the projectile during its motion.
Time of Flight
The time taken by the object to cover the distance from the place of its projection to the place
where it hits the ground at the same level is called time of flight.
As the projectile goes up and comes back to the same level, thus covering no vertical distance
i.e., . Thus the time of flight can be find out by using 2nd equation of motion:
This is the expression of time of flight of a projectile.

Range of the Projectile
The distance which the projectile covers in the horizontal direction is called the range of the
projectile.
In projectile motion, the horizontal component of
velocity remains same. Therefore the range of the
projectile can be determine using formula:
where is the horizontal component of velocity and is

the time of flight of projectile.
( )
22
Thus the range of projectile depends upon the

velocity of projection and angle of projection.
Maximum Horizontal Range
The horizontal range will be maximum when
the factor will be maximum. So,
Maximum value of
( )
Hence for the maximum horizontal range, the angle of projection should be .
Q # 47. A ball is thrown with a speed of in a direction above the horizon.
Determine the height to which it rises, the time of flight and the horizontal range.
Given Data:
To Determine:
( ) ( )
Calculations:
( )
Q # 48. A ball is thrown with a speed of . Calculate the range and the height reached by
the ball if the angles of projection are (i) (ii)
Given Data: () ( )
To Determine:
( ) ( )
Calculations:
( )
( ) ( )
( )
23
Q # 49. A football is thrown upward with an angle of with respect to the horizontal. To
throw a 40 m pass what must be the initial speed of the ball?
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: √ √
Q # 50. Find the angle of projection of a projectile for which its maximum height and horizontal
range are equal.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: As
( )
Q # 51. Prove that for angles of projection, which exceed of fall short of by equal amounts,
the ranges are equal.
To Determine: ( ) ( )
Calculations: ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
: ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Hence Proved for angles of projection, which exceed of fall short of by , the ranges are equal.
Q # 52. A SLBM (submarine launched ballistic missile) is fired from a distance of 3000 km. if
the earth is considered flat and the angle of launch is with horizontal, find the velocity with
which the missile is fired and the time taken by SLBM to hit the target.
Given Data:
To Determine: ,
24
Q # 53. Describe the motion of a ballistic missile as an applications of projectile motion.

Ans. An unpowered and unguided missile is called a ballistic missile.
In ballistic flight, the projectile is given an initial push and is then
allowed to move freely due to inertia and under the action of gravity.
A ballistic missile moves in a way that is the result of superposition of
two independent motions:
 A straight line inertial motion in the direction of launch
 A vertical gravity fall
According to the law of inertia, an object should move in
straight at the constant speed. But the downward force of gravity will
change its straight path into curved path.
At high speed and for long distances, the air resistance effect both horizontal and vertical
components of velocity. Therefore, the ballistic missiles are used only for short ranges for which the
initial velocity is not large.
For long ranges, powered and remote control guided missiles are used.
Q # 54. At what point or points in its path does a projectile have its minimum speed, its
maximum speed?
Ans. The speed of the projectile is minimum at the maximum height of projectile. It is because of the
reason that, at maximum height the vertical component of velocity becomes zero.
The speed of the projectile is maximum at the point of projection and also just before it strikes
the ground because the vertical component of velocity is maximum at these points.
16. The trajectory (or path) of a projectile 19. The velocity of projectile at its maximum
is. height is:
a) Straight line a)
b) Parabola b)
c) Hyperbola c) Maximum
d) Circle d) Zero
17. A football player will throw a football 20. Motion of projectile is _____________
at maximum distance if the angle of dimensional.
projection is: a) One
a) 300 b) Two
b) 450 c) Three
c) 600 d) Four
d) 900 21. During projectile motion, the horizontal
18. The range of projectile is same for component of velocity:
angles of projection: a) Changes with time
a) and b) Becomes zero
b) and c) Remains constant
c) and d) Increases with time
d) and
25
26
Chapter 4 (1st Year Physics) Work and Energy (Edition: 2015-16)
WORK AND ENERGY
On a wind farm, the
moving air does work on
the blades of the windmills,
causing the blades and the
rotor of an electrical
generator to rotate. Energy
is transferred out of the
system of the windmill by
means of electricity.
4.1 WORK DONE BY A CONSTANT FORCE
Q # 1. Define the term work. How the work done by constant force represented graphically?
Ans. The work done by a constant force is defined as:
The product of magnitude of displacement and
the component of the force in the direction of the displacement.
Consider an object which is being pulled by a constant force ⃗ at an angle to the direction of
motion. The force displaces the object from one point to another point through displacement ⃗ . The
work done by the force is described as:
( )
⃗ ⃗
Thus the work done by a force is the dot product of force and
displacement. It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule (J = N m).
 If , work is said to be positive
 If , no work is done
 If , the work done is said to be negative
Graphical Representation of Work Done by Constant Force
When a constant force acts through a distance, then the Force-Displacement graph is a
horizontal straight line and the work done by this force is equal to the area under graph.
Explanation: Figure shows the Force-Displacement graph of a constant force.
If the constant force ⃗ ( ) acts through displacement ⃗ ( ) such
that force and displacement are in the same direction, then the work done is
( ). Clearly shaded area in the figure is also . Hence the area under
Force-Displacement graph can be taken to represent the work done by the
force.
Important Note: If the force is not in the direction of displacement, the graph
is plotted between and for the description of work done.
1
4.2 WORK DONE BY A VARIALE FORCE
Q # 2. Derive the expression of work done by variable force. How the work done by variable
force represented graphically?
Ans. Consider a variable force act on a body which displaces it from
point „a‟ to point „b‟ as shown in the figure.
We want to find out the expression of work done by the
variable force. For this we divide the path followed by the object into
n short intervals of displacements ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ and
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ are the forces acting during these intervals. If are the work
done during displacement interval ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ respectively, then the total work done
by the variable force will be:
( )
The work done during displacement interval ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

Putting value in equation (1), we get:
∑ ( )
This is the expression of work done by a variable force.

Graphical Representation of Work Done by Variable Force
The work done by variable force in moving a particle between two points is equal to the area
under verses curve.
The displacement d has been subdivided in to n equal

intervals. The ith shaded rectangle has the area which is
the work done during the ith interval. Thus the total work done by the
variable force (given by equation 2) will be the equal to the sum of
the area of all the rectangles.
It is clear from figure that total work done by variable force (given by equation 2) becomes
more accurate when we subdivide the total displacement into large number of intervals. In this
condition, ⃗ becomes very small.
2
If we let each ⃗ to approach zero then we obtain exact
result of work done. In such condition, eqution (2) takes the form:
Thus, in the limit approaches zero, the total area of

rectangles approaches exact area between verses curve.
Q # 3. A person holds a bag of groceries while standing still, talking to a friend. A car is
stationary with the engine running. From the stand point of work, how are these two situations
similar?
Ans. In both the above two cases, since there is no displacement, therefore the work done
will be zero. The two situations are similar in the sense that work done in both cases is zero.
Q # 4. A force F acts through a distance L. The force is then increased

to 3F, and then acts through a further distance of 2L. Draw the work
diagram to scale.
Ans. The force-displacement graph is shown in the figure.
As the work done is equal to the area under the force-displacement
curve. Hence
Work Done W  ( F  L)  (3F  2 L)
 FL  6 FL
 7 FL
Q # 5. A force F acting on an object varies with distance x as shown in

the figure. Calculate the work done by the force as the object moves
from to .
To Determine:
Calculations: As
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Q # 6. A man pushes a lawn mover with a 40 N force directed at an angle of downward

from the horizontal. Find the work done by the man as he cuts a strip of grass 20 m long.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: As
3
4.3 WORK DONE BY GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
Q # 7. Show that the work done in earth’s gravitational field is independent of path followed.
Ans. Consider an object of mass m being displaced with constant velocity from point A to point B
along various paths in the presence of a gravitational force. In this case the gravitational force is equal
to the equal to weight mg of the object.
Work done along path 1
The work done by the gravitational force along the
path ADB can be split into two parts i.e., and .
------------- (1)
The work is zero because weight is perpendicular to this
path. The work , the negative sign is due to the fact that is opposite to that of
displacement.
Thus the equation (1) will become:
( ) ------------- (2)
If we consider the path ACB, the work done along path AC is . Since the work
done along path CB is , therefore:
------------- (3)
To find out the work done along this curved path, we divide it
into series of horizontal and vertical steps as shown in the figure. There is
no work done along horizontal steps, because is perpendicular to the
displacement for these steps. The work done by the force of gravity along
vertical displacements will be:
( )
As
Therefore ------------- (4)
Conclusion: Thus from equation (2), (3) and (4), it is proved that work done in the earth‟s
gravitational field is independent of the path followed.
Gravitational Field: The space around the earth in which its gravitational force acts on a body is
called gravitational field.
Conservative Field: The field in which “Work done be independent of path followed” Or
“Work done in a closed path be zero”, is called a conservative field.
Important Note: The frictional force is a non-conservative force, because if the object is moved over
a rough surface between two points along different paths, the work done against the frictional force
certainly depends on the path followed.
4
Q # 8. Calculate the work done in kilo joules in lifting a mass of 10 kg (at steady velocity)
through a vertical height of 10 m.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: As W ( )( )( )
Q # 9. In which case is more work done? When a 50 kg bag of books is lifted through 50 cm, or
when a 50 kg crate is pushed through 2m across the floor with a force of 50 N.
Case-1: When a 50 kg bag of books is lifted Case-2: When a 50 kg crate is pushed through 2m
through 50 cm across the floor with a force of 50 N
( )( )
Conclusion: More work in done in case-1
Q # 10. A rain drop ( ) falls vertically at a constant speed under the

influence of forces of gravity and friction. In falling through 100 m, how much work is done by
(a) gravity and (b) friction.
Given Data:
Calculations: ( ) ⃗ ⃗ |⃗ || | ⃗ ⃗ |⃗ |
( )
Q # 11. Ten bricks, each 6.0 cm thick and mass 1.5 kg, lie flat on table. How much work is
required to stack them one on the top of another?
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: Ten bricks lifted to the height
respectively. Total Work Done
( )
( )
5
4.4 POWER
Q # 12. Define the term power. Show that power is the dot product of force and velocity.
Ans. The rate at which the work is being done is called power. It
is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is watt (W).
Average Power: If the work is done in time interval , then
the average power during this time interval is described as:
Instantaneous Power: If the work is expressed as function of

time, then the instantaneous power at any instant is defined as:
Relationship between Power and Velocity

If the work is done in time interval , then the
instantaneous power at any instant is defined as:
⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗
⃗
As ⃗
⃗ ⃗
Hence proved that the power is the dot product of force and velocity.
Q # 13. Show that 1 kWh = 3.6 MJ

In electrical measurements, the unit of work is
expressed as watt second. However the commercial unit
of electrical energy is kilowatt-hour.
Hence proved.
Q # 14. A 70 kg man runs up a long flight of stairs in 4.0 s. The vertical height of the stairs is 4.5
m. Calculate his power output in watts.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations:
6
Q # 15. A force (thrust) of 400 N is required to overcome road friction and air resistance in
propelling an automobile at . What power (kW) must the engine developed?
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Q # 16. of water is pumped from a reservoir into a tank, 10 m higher than reservoir, in
20 minutes. If density of water is , find
(a) The increase in P.E.
(b) The power delivered by the pump.
Given Data:
Calculations: ( ) ( )( )( )( )
( )

1. Area under the curve of force-displacement 5. Work has the dimension as that of same
graph is equal to: as that of.
a) Displacement a) Torque
b) Work b) Angular momentum
c) Power c) Linear momentum
d) Energy d) Power
2. Slope of work time graph is equal to.
a) Displacement 6. The consumption of energy by 60 watt
b) Acceleration bulb in 2 seconds is:
c) Power a) 20 J
d) Energy b) 120 J
c) 30 J
3. A field in which the work done in a moving a d) 0.02 J
body along closed path is zero is called.
a) Electric field 7. Power is also defined as dot product of
b) Conservative field a) Force and displacement
c) Electromagnetic field b) Force and mass
d) Maximum c) Force and velocity
d) Force and time
4. When a force is parallel to the direction of
motion of the body, then work done on the 8. One kilowatt hour of work is equal to
body is: a) 0.36 MJ
a) zero b) 3.6 MJ
b) minimum c) 36 MJ
c) infinity d) 360 MJ
d) Maximum
7
4.5 ENERGY
Q # 17. Define the term energy. Describe the different types mechanical energy.
Ans. Energy of the body is its capacity to do work. It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule (J).
There are two basic forms of energy are the kinetic energy and potential energy.
Kinetic Energy
The kinetic energy ( ) is possessed by a body due to its motion and is given by the formula:
Where is the mass of the body moving with velocity .

Potential Energy
The potential energy ( ) is possessed by a body because of its position in a force field e.g.
gravitational field or because of its constrained state.
 Gravitational P.E.
The potential energy due to gravitational field near the surface of the earth at height h
is given by the formula:
This is called gravitational P.E. The gravitational P.E. is always determined relative to some
arbitrary position which is assigned the value of zero P.E. In the present case, this reference
level is the surface of the Earth as position of zero P.E.
 Elastic P.E.
The elastic potential energy is the energy stored in the spring due to its compressed or
stretched state.
Q # 18. An object has 1 J of potential energy. Explain what does it mean?
Ans. It means that work has been done on the body by the force of 1 N which has lifted the body
through a distance of 1 m. This work has been stored in the body in the form of P.E. which is 1J.
Q # 19. A ball of mass m is held at a height h1 above a table. The table top is at a height h2 above
the floor. One student says that the ball has potential energy mgh1 but another says that it is
mg(h1 + h2). Who is correct?
Ans. The 1st student has taken the table as the point of reference for calculating the P.E. While the 2 nd
student has taken the floor as the point of reference. So both are correct according to their own points
of references.
Q # 20. What sort of energy is in the following:

(a) Compressed spring, (b) Water in a high dam, (c) A moving car
Ans.
a) Elastic Potential Energy
b) Gravitational Potential Energy
c) Kinetic Energy
8
Q # 21. State the work energy principle. Also derive its mathematical form.
Statement: Work done on the body equals the change in its kinetic energy
Proof. Consider a body of mass is moving with velocity . A force acting through a distance
increases the velocity to , then from the 3rd equation of motion:
( ) -------- (1)
From the second law of motion:

-------- (2)
Multiplying equation (1) and (2), we have:
( )
-------- (3)
Where the left hand side of the above equation gives the work done on the body and the right
hand side gives the change in kinetic energy of the body.
The equation (3) is the mathematical form of work energy principle.
Q # 22. A car of mass 800 kg travelling is brought to rest in 60 m. find the average
retarding force on the car. What happened to original kinetic energy?
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: ( )
( ) ( )
Q # 23. How large a force is required to accelerate an electron ( ) from rest to a

speed of through a distance of ?
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: ( )
[( ) ]
9
Q # 24. What do you know about absolute potential energy? Also derive its expression.
Absolute Potential Energy
The absolute potential energy of an object at a certain
point is the work done by the gravitational force in displacing the
object from that position to infinity (where the force of gravity
becomes zero).
The relation for the calculation for the potential energy
, is true only near the surface of the earth where the
gravitational force is nearly constant. But if the object is
displaced through the large distances, then the gravitational force
will not remains constant, since it varies inversely to the square of
the distance.
In order to overcome this difficulty, we divide the whole
distance into small steps each of length so that the value of the force remains constant for each
small step. Hence the total work done can be calculated by adding all the work done during all these
steps.
The gravitational force at the center of this step is
-------------------- (1)
Where G is the gravitational constant, m is the mass of the object and M is the mass of the
earth.
If and are the distances of points 1 and 2 respectively,
from the center O of earth. The distance between the center of
1st step and center of the earth will be:
If
Hence
Squaring above equation we get:
( ) ( )
As , so we can neglect the term ( )
Hence ( )
Thus the equation (1) will become:
10
As the force is assumed to be constant during the interval , so the work done in displacing
the object from point 1 to point 2 will be:
( ) ( )
( )
Similarly the work done during the second step in which the body is displaced from point 2 to point 3
is
( )
The work done during the last step is
( ) ( )
Hence, the total work done in displacing the body form point 1 to point N is calculated by
adding up the work done during all these steps.
( )
[( ) ( ) ( )]
On simplification, we get:
( )
If the point N is situated at infinite distance from the earth, so
( ) ( )
Therefore the general expression for the

gravitational potential energy of a body situated
at distance form the center of the earth is
The negative sign shows that the earth

gravitational field is attractive.
11
Q # 25. Define the term escape velocity. Also derive its expression.
Escape Velocity
The velocity given to the object on the surface of the earth so that it escapes the earth
gravitational field and reaches at an infinite distance from the surface of the earth is called the escape
velocity.
Derivation of Mathematical Expression for Escape Velocity
Consider a object of mass m which is given the initial velocity to escape the earth‟s
gravitational field. The K.E corresponding to the initial velocity is will be
We know that the work done in lifting a body from the earth surface to infinite distance is equal to
increase in its potential energy.
( )
Where M and R are the mass and radius of the earth,

The body will escape out of gravitational field if the initial K.E. of the body is equal to the
increase in P.E. of the body in lifting it up to infinity. Then
As
Hence √
The value of comes out to be approximately 11 kms-1.

9. If mass of a moving object is doubled, 11. Work-energy equation can be expressed as:
its K.E becomes: a)
a) 2 times b) ( ) ( )
b) 4 times c)
c) 5 times d)
d) 16 times
12. The escape velocity form the earth surface
10. The energy stored in the spring of a in km s-1 is.
watch is: a) 4.2 km s-1
a) K.E b) 7.5 km s-1
b) Electrical Energy c) 9.5 km s-1
c) Elastic P.E d) 11 km s-1
d) Solar Energy
12
4.6 INTERCONVERSION OF POTENTIAL ENERGY AND KINETIC ENERGY
Q # 26. Describe the inter-conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy for a free falling
object.
Ans. Consider a body of mass m a rest, at a height h above the
surface of earth as shown in the figure. We want to discuss the
inter-conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy for a free
falling object under the action of gravity.
Energy of the body at point A
The potential energy of the body at point A is
and the kinetic energy at this point is . Thus the
total energy of the object at this position will be:
Energy of the body at point B

During downward motion, the object passes through point B. When the object is at point B,
the body has fallen through a distance x.
( )
And
The velocity at point B can be calculated using 3rd equation of motion.
Here , , ,
√
( )
The total energy at point B is
( )
Energy of the body at point C
At point C, just before the body strikes the earth, the potential energy and the kinetic energy will be:
The velocity at point C can be calculated using 3rd equation of motion.
Here , , ,
√
( )
13
The total energy at point is
Conclusion
From calculations of energies of falling objects on different points, it is clear that potential
energy can be transformed into kinetic energy and vice versa, but the total energy of the system
remains the same.
Actually when a body falls, its velocity increases i.e., the body is being accelerated under the
action of gravity. The increase in velocity results in increase of K.E. On the other
hand, as the body falls, its height decreases and hence, its potential energy also
decreases. This can be described as:
Loss of P.E. = Gain in K.E.
( ) ( )
This is true only when frictional force is not considered. If we assume that a
frictional force f is present during downward motion, then a part of P.E. is used in
doing work against friction. The remaining P.E. is converted into K.E. It is
described as:
where h is the vertical distance covered, v is velocity gained by the object and f is the force of friction.
Q # 27. A brick of mass 2.0 kg is dropped from a rest position 5.0 m above the ground. What is
its velocity at a height of 3.0 m above the ground?
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Q # 28. A diver weighing 750 N dives from a board 10 m above the surface of a pool water. Use
the principle of mechanical energy to find his speed at a point above the water surface,
neglecting the air friction.
Given Data:
To Determine:
14
Calculations:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Q # 29. A 1000 kg automobile at the tip of an incline 10 m high and 100 m long is released and
rolls down the hill. What is its speed at the bottom of the incline if the average retarding force
due to friction is 480 N?
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Q # 30. A child starts from rest at the top of a slide of height 4.0 m. (a) What is his speed at the
bottom if the slide is frictionless? (b) If he reaches the bottom, with a speed of , what
percentage of his total energy at the top of the slide is lost as a result of friction?
Given Data:
Calculations: ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
Q # 31. When a rocket re-enters the atmosphere, its nose cone become very hot. Where does this
heat energy come from?
Ans. The atmosphere of earth contains a large number of gas molecules, dust particles and water
vapors. So when a rocket enters into the atmosphere and passes through these particles, due to the
force of friction, the kinetic energy of the rocket is lost in the form of heat. That‟s why its nose cone
becomes very hot.
15
4.7 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Q # 32. State and explain the law of conservation of energy.
Statement
Explanation: For free falling object, the potential energy may change into kinetic energy, but the
total energy remains constant. Mathematically,
Q # 33. Why there is a need to develop new sources of useful energy?

Ans. We daily observe many energy transformations from one kind to another. Most common among
these are the conversion of mechanical, electrical and chemical energy in to heat energy. For example,
the P.E. of the falling object changes to K.E., but on striking the ground, the K.E. changes into heat
and sound.
Ultimately all energy transfers result in heating of the environment and energy is wasted. This
appears to be the fate of all available energies and is one reason why new sources of useful energy
have to be developed.
Q # 34. A girl drops a cup from a certain height, which breaks into pieces. What energy changes
are involved?
Ans. When the cup was in the hands of girl, it had gravitational P.E. When the cup is dropped, its P.E.
is converted into the K.E. On striking the ground, this energy is converted into sound energy, heat
energy and work done in breaking the cup into pieces.
Q # 35. A boy uses a catapult to throw a stone which accidentally smashes a green house
window. List the possible energy changes.
Ans. Initially, the catapult had elastic P.E. when the stone is thrown, its P.E. is converted into K.E. On
striking the window, this energy is converted into sound energy, heat energy and work done in
breaking the window into pieces.
13. The original source of tidal energy is: 15. The source of geothermal energy is.
a) Moon a) Decay of radioactive element in the
b) Earth earth
c) Sun b) Compression of material in the earth
d) Sea c) Residual lost of the earth
d) All as said in a, b and c
14. The tides raise the water in the sea 16. Which of the following types of force can
roughly in a day: do no work on the particle on which it
a) Once acts?
b) Twice a) Frictional force
c) Four times b) Gravitational force
d) Eight times c) Elastic force
d) Centripetal force
16
Chapter 4 (1st Year Physics) Work and Energy
4.8 NON CONSERVATIONAL ENERGY SOURCES
Q # 36. How can we make use of the energy from tides for useful purposes?
Ans. Gravitational force of the moon give rise to the tides in the sea. If the water at
the high tide is trapped in a basin by constructing a dam. Then the water is released
in a controlled way at the low tide to run turbines to generate electricity.
Q # 37. How can the energy from waves be used to generate electricity?
Ans. In order to generate electricity from energy of waves, we make use of large
floats which move up and down with the
waves. One such device is Salter‟s Duck,
which consist of two parts (i) Duck Float
and (ii) Balance Float.
The wave energy makes Duck
Float move relative to the Balance Float.
The relative motion of Duck Float is
then used to run electricity generators.
Q # 38. Describe different ways by which solar energy is converted
into electrical energy.
Ans. The earth receives huge amounts of energy directly from sun,
which is converted into electrical energy by the processes described
below:
 Much higher temperature can be achieved by concentrating solar
radiation on to a small surface area by using huge reflectors (mirror) or
lenses to produce stream for running turbines.
 For direct conversion of sunlight into electricity, semi-

conductor devices called solar cells (also known as photo
voltaic cell) are used. Electrons in silicon gain energy from
sunlight to create a voltage. The voltage produced by a single
cell is very low. In order to get sufficient high voltage for
practical use, a large number of cells are connected in series
forming solar cell panel.
Q # 39. How is the energy obtained by Direct Combustion of
biomass and waste product used as fuel?
Ans. Waste products like wood waste, crop residue and particularly the municipal solid waste can be
used to get energy by direct combustion. In this process, the waste material is burnt in confined
container. Heat produced in this way is directly used in boiler to produce stream that can run turbine
generator.
17
Author: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik, aliphy2008@outlook.com, www.facebook.com/HomeOfPhysics
Chapter 4 (1st Year Physics) Work and Energy
Q # 40. How can the bio-fuel obtained by the fermentation of
Biomass?
Ans. Bio-fuel is obtained by the fermentation of biomass using enzyme
and by decomposition through bacterial action in the absence of air.
 The rotting of biomass in a closed tank called digester produced
Bio-gas which can be piped to use the cooking and heating.
 The waste material of this process is a good fertilizer.
Q # 41. Describe different sources of Geothermal energy.
Ans. Geothermal energy is the heat energy extracted from inside the
Earth in the form of hot water or stream. Heat within the Earth is
generated by following processes:
 The energy, heating the rocks, is constantly being released by the decay of radioactive elements
 Igneous rocks, within 10 km of the earth surface, are in molten or partly molten state. They
conduct heat energy from earth interior (Temperature of these rocks is
about )
 Compression of material deep inside the earth also causes generation
of heat energy.
Q # 42. How the Geothermal energy be used to produce electricity.
Ans. In some places water beneath the ground is in contact with hot rocks
and is raised to high temperature and pressure. It comes to the surface as
hot springs, geyser, or stream vents. The turbine can be directed to turn
turbines of electric generators.
At places water is not present and hot rocks are not very deep, the
water is pumped down through them to get stream. The stream is then can
be used to drive turbines.
18
Author: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik, aliphy2008@outlook.com, www.facebook.com/HomeOfPhysics
Chapter 5 (1st Year Physics) Circular Motion (Edition: 2015-16)
CIRCULAR MOTION
The London Eye, a ride on the River Thames in downtown London. Riders travel in a
large vertical circle for a breathtaking view of the city. In this chapter, we will study the
factors involved in circular motion.
5.1 ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT

Q # 1. Define and explain the term angular displacement.
Ans. The angle subtended at the center of circle by an arc along which it
moves in a given time is known as angular displacement. The SI unit of
angular displacement is radian. The other units of angular displacement are
degrees and revolution.
Explanation
Consider the motion of a particle P in a circular path of radius .
Suppose this motion is taking place by attaching a particle P at the end of a
massless rigid rod of length r whose other end is pivoted at the center O of the
circular path as shown in Fig. (a).
As the particle is moving on the circular path, the rod OP rotates in
plane of the circle. The axis of rotation passes through pivot O and is normal
to the plane of rotation. In Fig. (b), the z-axis is taken as axis of rotation.
When OP is rotating, suppose at any instant t, its position is OP 1 ,
making an angle with x-axis. At later time , let its position be OP2
making an angle with x-axis.
Angle defines the angular displacement of OP during the time interval .
For very small values of , the angular displacement is a vector quantity.
1
Whatsapp # +923016775811, aliphy2008@gmail.com , www.facebook.com/HomeOfPhysics
Q # 2. What is the relationship between arc length and corresponding angular

displacement for an object moving in a circle?
Ans. If a body moves in a circle of radius , then the angular displacement
covered by the object is described as:
Q # 3. How can we determine the direction of angular displacement?

Ans. The direction of angular displacement is along the axis of rotation and is given by
right hand rule.
“Grasp the axis of rotation in right hand with figure curling in the direction of rotation,
then the erected thumb points in the direction of angular displacement”.
Q # 4. Derive the relationship between and radian and degrees.
Ans. If the object complete its one revolution, then the total distance covered by the object is .
Thus the eq. (1) will become:
-------------- (2)
Thus a body covers the angular displacement of during one complete revolution. Also
-------------- (3)
Comparing (2) and (3), we get
Hence
Q # 5. A tiny laser beam is directed from the Earth to the Moon. If the beam is to have a
diameter of 2.50 m at the Moon, how small must divergence angle be for the beam? The
distance of Moon from the Earth is .
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: As

1. 1 revolution is equal to: 2. One radian is equal to.
a) a) 67.3o
b) b) 57.3o
c) c) 87.3o
d) d) 60o
2
5.2 ANGULAR VELOCITY

Q # 6. Define the following terms corresponding to the circular motion
 Angular Velocity
 Average Angular Velocity
 Instantaneous Angular Velocity
Ans. Angular Velocity
The rate of change of angular displacement is called the angular velocity. It determines how
fast or slow a body is rotating. It is denoted by . The angular velocity is a vector quantity and its SI
unit is . The other units of angular velocity are revolution per second and degree per second.
Average Angular Velocity
The ratio of total angular displacement of the total interval of time during circular motion is
called average angular velocity.
Let is the angular displacement during the time
interval , the average angular velocity during this interval is:
Instantaneous Angular Velocity

The angular velocity of the object at any instant of time is called instantaneous anguar
velocity. Or
The limiting value of angular average velocity as the time interval approaches to zero is called
instantaneous angular velocity.
If is the angular displacement during the time interval , then its instantaneous angular
velocity is described by the relation:
In the limit when approaches zero, the angular displacement will be infinitesimally small. So it
would be a vector quantity. Its direction will be along axis of rotation and is given by right hand rule.
Q # 7. When mud flies off the tyre of a moving bicycle, in what direction does it fly? Explain.
Ans. The mud particles on the tyre have linear velocity directed to the tangent to the tyre. The
adhesion force between the mud and the tyre try to keep the mud particles in circular motion with
tyre. But this force is not enough to provide necessary centripetal force to the mud. That‟s why the
mud will fly in the direction of tangent to the tyre.
3. Revolution/minute is the unit for 4. The direction of angular velocity of body
a) Angular displacement moving in a circle is.
b) Angular acceleration a) Along the axis of rotation
c) Angular velocity b) Along the tangent
d) Time c) Directed towards the center
d) Directed away from the center
3
5.3 ANGULAR ACCELERATION

Q # 8. Define the following terms corresponding to the circular motion
 Angular Acceleration
 Average Angular Acceleration
 Instantaneous Angular Acceleration
Angular Acceleration
The time rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration. It is denoted by „ ‟.
It is a vector quantity and its direction is along the axis of rotation. The SI unit of angular acceleration
is .
Average Angular Acceleration
The ratio of the total change in angular velocity to the total interval of time is called average
angular acceleration.
Let and are the angular velocities at instants and , respectively. The average angular
acceleration during interval is described as:
Instantaneous Angular Acceleration

The angular acceleration of the body at any instant of time is called instantaneous angular
acceleration. Or
The limiting value of angular average acceleration as the time interval approaches to zero is
called instantaneous angular acceleration.
If is the angular velocity during the time interval , as approaches to zero, then the
instantaneous angular acceleration is described by the relation:

5. Time rate of change of angular velocity 7. The angular acceleration is produced by:
is called: a) Momentum
a) Angular momentum b) Torque
b) Angular displacement c) Pressure
c) Angular acceleration d) Power
d) None of these
8. The angular acceleration of a body is
6. The dimension of angular acceleration directed
is: a) Towards the center of the circle
a) b) Away from the center of the circle
b) c) Along the tangent to the circle
c) d) Along the axis of rotation
d)
4
5.4 RELATION BETWEEN ANGULAR AND LINEAR VELOCITIES

Q # 9. Derive the relationship between the angular velocity and linear velocity.
Ans. Consider a object is moving in a circle of radius . If the object covers
the distance time during which the angular displacement has
the angular displacement . and are related as:
Dividing both sides of equation by , we get:
In the limit when , the above equation becomes:
As (Instantaneous linear velocity)
And (Instantaneous angular velocity)

Therefore
In vector form, the relationship between the linear and angular velocity is described as:
⃗ ⃗⃗
Q # 10. Explain the difference between tangential velocity and the angular velocity. If one of
these is given for a wheel of known radius, how will you find the other?
Ans. Tangential velocity is the linear velocity of a particle moving along a curve or circle. As the
direction of the linear velocity is always along the tangent to the circle, that is why it is called
tangential velocity.
The rate of change of angular displacement is called angular velocity. The direction of
angular velocity is along the axis of rotation of the body.
If one of these two quantities are given for a wheel of known radius , then we can find the
other by using the relation:
Where and are the tangential and angular velocity, respectively.

Q # 11. Derive the relationship between the angular acceleration and linear acceleration.
Consider a object is moving in a circle of radius . If the change in the linear velocity of object is
in time , then the relationship between angular velocity and linear velocity is described as:
Dividing both sides of equation by , we get:
Applying the limit when
5
As (Instantaneous linear acceleration)

And (Instantaneous angular acceleration)
Therefore
In vector form, the relationship between the linear and angular acceleration is described as:
⃗ ⃗⃗
Q # 12. Describe the equations of motions for the object executing circular motion.
The equations of angular motion are exactly analogous to those in linear motion except that , and
have replaced , and respectively. Given below are the angular equations together with their
linear counterparts:
Linear Angular
Q # 13. A gramophone record turntable accelerates from rest to an angular velocity of 45.0
rev/min in 1.60 s. What is average angular acceleration?
Given Data: ,
To Determine:
Calculations: As
Q # 14. An electric fan rotating at 3 is switched off. It comes to rest in 18 s. Assuming

deceleration to be uniform, find its value. How many revolutions did it turn before coming to
rest?
Given Data: ,
,
To Determine: ,
Calculations: As
As

9. The relation between linear and angular 10. The relation between linear and angular
velocity is: acceleration is.
a) ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ a) ⃗⃗
b) ⃗⃗ b) ⃗ ⃗⃗
c) ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ c) ⃗ ⃗⃗
d) ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ d) ⃗⃗ ⃗
6
5.5 CENTRIPETAL FORCE

Q # 15. Explain what is meant by centripetal force and why it must be furnished to an object if
the object is to follow a circular path?
Ans. The centripetal force is a force that makes a body follow a circular path. The centripetal force is
always directed towards the center of the circle.
The direction of a body moving in a circular path is always changing. To bend the normally
straight path into circular path, a perpendicular force is needed, called centripetal force.
Q # 16. Derive the expression of centripetal force.
Consider a particle is moving in a circle of radius from point
to point . The velocity of the object changes its direction but its
magnitude remains the same.
Let and are the velocities of the body executing circular
motion at point A and B, respectively. If is the change in velocity in
time , then the acceleration of the particle will be:
-------------- (1)
Since the speed of the object remains the same during circular motion, so the time taken to
cover the distance S will be:
So by putting the values in equation (1), we get:
-------------- (2)
Let us now draw a triangle PQR such that PQ is parallel and equal to
and PR is parallel and equal to . Since the tangent to the circle at point A and B ( and ) are
perpendicular to the radii OA and OB. Therefore the angle AOB equals the angle QPR. Therefore the
triangles OAB and PQR are similar. Hence we can write:
-------------- (3)
If the point B is close to the point A on the circle , the arc AB is of nearly same length as the
line . Since the line . Now by putting the values in equation (3), we get:
Now by putting the value of in equation (2), we get:
This is the expression of centripetal acceleration.

Now by using the Newton‟s 2nd law of motion,
7
This equation gives the magnitude of centripetal force. In angular measure, the expression of the
centripetal force will be:
Q # 17. A 1000 kg car travelling with a speed of round the curve of radius 100 m.
Find the necessary centripetal force.
Given Data: ,
To Determine:
Calculations: As
Q # 18. A 1000 kg car is turning round a corner at 10 as it travels along an arc of the
circle. If the radius of the circular path is 10 m, how large a force must be exerted by the
pavement on the tyres to hold the car in the circular path?
Given Data: ,
To Determine:
Calculations: As
Q # 19. A ball tied to the end of a string is swung in a vertical circle of radius
r under the action of gravity as shown in the figure. What will be the tension
in the string when the ball is at the point A of the path and its speed is v at
this point?
Ans. At point A, T and w acting on the object along radius, which will provide
the necessary centripetal force to the object. Therefore
To Determine:
Calculations: From Fig.
( )

11. The magnitude of the centripetal force 12. Centripetal force performs:
on a mass m moving with angular speed
in a circle of radius r is a) Maximum work
a) b) Minimum work
b) ⁄ c) Negative work
c) d) No work
d)
8
5.6 MOMENT OF INERTIA

Q # 20. What is meant by moment of inertia? Explain its significance.
Ans. The product of mass of the particle and square of its perpendicular distance from the axis of
rotation is called the moment of inertia. Mathematically, the moment of inertia is described as:
Where m is the mass of the particle and r is the perpendicular distance

from the axis of rotation.
The moment of inertia plays the same role in angular motion as the mass in
linear motion.
Q # 21. Derive the relationship between moment of inertia and torque.
Consider a mass attached to a light rod, which can rotate about a
point. The mass of the rod is negligible.
Let a force F is acting on the mass perpendicular to the rod which
can be find out by the expression:
--------------- (1)
Since tangential acceleration is related to angular acceleration by the
equation:
By putting the value of tangential acceleration in equation (1):

--------------- (2)
Multiplying both sides of the equation by r, we get:
--------------- (3)
Here
And
Thus equation (3) will become:
This is the expression that related the torque with the moment of
inertia. The moment of inertia plays the same role in angular motion as the
mass in linear motion.
Q # 22. Derive the relationship between torque and moment of inertia for a rigid body.
Most rigid bodies have different mass concentrations at different distances from the axis of rotation,
which means that the mass distribution is not uniform.
Consider a rigid body which is made up of n small pieces of masses
at distances from axis of rotation O. Let the
body is rotating with angular acceleration , then
The magnitude of torque acting on mass
9

Now the total torque acting on the rigid body is described as:
Since the body is rigid, so all the masses will rotate with same angular acceleration ,
(∑ )
Here ∑ is the moment of inertia of the rigid body. Thus equation (1) becomes:
This is the expression that relates moment of inertia of rigid body and torque acting on a rigid body
moving with angular acceleration .
Q # 23. Consider a rotating cylinder . Suppose that and .

Calculate (a) the torque acting on the cylinder, (b) angular acceleration of the cylinder.
(moment of inertia of cylinder )
Given Data: ,
To Determine:
Calculations: As
(b) As
( )

13. Moment of inertia is equal to: 15. A gymnast sitting on stool with his arms
a) out stretched lowers his arms:
b) a) The angular speed decreases
c) b) The angular speed increases
d) c) Neither increases nor decrease
d) Both increases and decreases
16. When torque acting on a system is zero,
14. Moment of inertia is measured in: which of the following will be constant:
a) a) Linear momentum
b) b) Force
c) c) Angular momentum
d) d) Impulse
10
5.7 ANGULAR MOMENTUM

Q # 24. What do you know about the angular momentum?
Ans. The cross product of position vector and linear momentum of an
object is known as angular momentum.
The angular momentum ⃗ of a particle of mass moving with
velocity ⃗ and momentum ⃗ relative to the origin is defined as:
⃗ ⃗
where r is the position vector of the particle at that instant relative to the
origin . Angular momentum is a vector quantity and its magnitude is
where is the angle between and .

Q # 25. Show that orbital angular momentum .
Ans. The angular momentum of a particle of mass moving with velocity and momentum
relative to the origin is defined as:
̂
The magnitude of angular momentum will be:
Since the angle between radius and tangential velocity is , so
Hence proved.
Q # 26. Describe the relationship between the angular momentum and moment of inertia.
The magnitude of angular momentum will be:
Since the angle between radius and tangential velocity is , so
Q # 27. State the direction of following vectors in simple situations; angular momentum and
angular velocity.
Ans. The directions of angular momentum and angular velocity are used to described by right hand rule:
Grasp the axis of rotation in right hand with the figures curling in the direction of rotation, then the
erected thumb will give the direction of angular velocity and angular momentum.
Q # 28. Derive the relationship between of angular momentum for a rigid body and its moment
of inertia.
Consider a symmetric rigid body which is made up of small pieces of masses
at distances from axis of rotation .
11
We want to find out the expression of angular momentum for this rigid body, then
The magnitude of angular momentum for particle of mass

Now the total angular momentum acting on the rigid body is described as:
Since the body is rigid, so all the masses will rotate with same angular velocity ,
(∑ )
Where ∑ is the moment of inertia of the rigid body.

Important Note:
The spin angular momentum is the angular
momentum of a spinning body [Fig. (a)], while the
orbital angular momentum is associated with the
motion of the body along a circular path [Fig. (b)].
Q # 29. The mass of the Earth is . The distance of Earth to the Sun is
. As seen from the direction of the north star, the Earth revolves counter-clockwise
around the sun. Determine the orbital counter-clockwise around the Sun. Determine the orbital
angular momentum of the Earth around the sun, assuming that it traverses a circular orbit
around the Sun once a year (
Given Data: ,
To Determine:
Calculations: As ( )( ) [ ]( )
Q # 30. A body of moment of inertia about a fixed axis, rotates with a constant
angular velocity of . Calculate its angular momentum L and the torque to sustain
this motion.
Given Data: ,
As the object rotates with constant angular velocity, therefore
To Determine:
Calculations:
12
5.8 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

Q # 31. State and explain the law of conservation of angular momentum.
Ans. If no external torque acts on a system, the total angular momentum of the system remains constant.
Explanation: If a system consist of n particles, which have the angular momentum ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ,
then according to the law of conservation of angular momentum:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ , where ⃗ is the total angular momentum of the system.
Q # 32. Why a diver does changes its body position before and after diving in the pool?
When the diver jumps from the diving board, his legs and arm are fully extended. The
diver has large moment of inertia but the angular velocity is small. When the diver
curls his body, the moment of inertia reduces to In order to conserve the angular
momentum, the value to angular velocity increases to .
.
In this way, the diver can make more somersaults before entering the water.
Q # 33 A student holds two dumb-bells with stretched arms while sitting on a turn
table. He is given a push until he is rotating at certain angular velocity. The student then pulll the
dumb bells towards his chest. What will be the effect on rate of rotation?
Ans. Initially, the arms of the students are fully extended, so he has large moment of inertia but angular
velocity is small. When the student curls his body, the moment of inertia reduces to . In order to
conserve the angular momentum, the value of angular velocity increases to .
. Thus the rate of rotation will increase.
Q # 34. Describe the conservation principle of direction of angular momentum.
The angular momentum is a vector quantity with direction along the axis of rotation. The axis of
rotation of an object will not change its orientation unless an external torque causes it to do so.
Q # 35. The Moon orbits the Earth so that the same side always faces the Earth. Determine the ratio
of its spin angular momentum (about its own axis) and its orbital angular momentum . (In this case
treat the Moon as the particle orbiting the Earth). Distance between the Earth and the Moon
is . Radius of the Moon is .
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations:
Q # 36. The earth rotates on its axis once a day. Suppose by some process the Earth contracts so that
its radius is only half as large as at present. How fast will it be rotating then?
Given Data: Let
To Determine:
Calculations: By Law of Conservation of Momentum: ( )( ) ( )( )
( ⁄ )
13
5.9 ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY

Q # 37. What do you know about the rotational kinetic energy for an object executing circular
motion? Derive the relationship between moment of inertia and rotational kinetic energy. Ans.
Rotational Kinetic Energy
The energy due to spinning of a body about an axis is called rotational kinetic energy.
Relationship between Moment of Inertia and Rotational Kinetic Energy
If a body is spinning about an axis with constant angular velocity , each point of the body is
moving in a circular path and, therefore, has some K.E. The kinetic energy of an object moving with
certain velocity v is described as:
As
Therefore
As
This expression relates the rotational kinetic energy with the moment of inertia.
Q # 38. Derive the relationship between rotational kinetic energy of a rigid body and its moment
of inertia.
Consider a rigid body is spinning along the axis of rotation with uniform angular velocity .
Let the object consist of n particles having masses , which are at distances
from axis of rotation.
The rotational kinetic energy for particle of mass
Now the total rotational kinetic energy acting on the rigid body is described as:
Since the body is rigid, so all the masses will rotate with same angular velocity ,
14
(∑ )
Where ∑ is the moment of inertia of the rigid body.

Q # 39. Derive the expression of Rotational Kinetic Energy of a (a) Disc and (b) Hoop
Rotational Kinetic Energy of Disc
The rotational kinetic energy of a rotating body can be find out by using the expression:
--------------- (1)
For a disc the moment of inertia
The equation (1) will become:
( )
As
This is the expression of rotational kinetic energy of a rotating disc.

Rotational Kinetic Energy of Hoop
The rotational kinetic energy of a rotating body can be find
out by using the expression:
--------------- (1)
For a hoop the moment of

inertia
As
This is the expression of rotational kinetic energy of a rotating hoop.

Q # 40. Derive the expression of velocity of a disc and a hoop at the bottom of an inclined plane.
Velocity of the Disc at the Bottom of Inclined Plane
When a disc starts moving down an inclined plane of height h, their motion consists of both
rotational and translational motions. If no energy is lost against friction, the total kinetic energy of the
disc on reaching the bottom of inclined plane must be equal to its potential energy at the top.
15
This is the expression of the disc at the bottom of inclined plane.

Velocity of the Hoop at the Bottom of Inclined Plane
When a hoop starts moving down an inclined plane of height h, their motion consists of both
rotational and translational motions. If no energy is lost against friction, the total kinetic energy of the
disc on reaching the bottom of inclined plane must be equal to its potential energy at the top.
√
This is the expression of the hoop at the bottom of inclined plane.
Q # 41. A disc and a hoop start moving down from the top of an inclined plane at the same time.
Which one will have greater speed on reaching the bottom?
Ans. The formulae for the velocity of the disc and the hoop are given by:
√ and √
So it is clear from the above relations that the disc will be moving with greater speed on reaching the
bottom.
Q # 42. Calculate the angular momentum of a star of mass and radius .
If it makes one complete rotation about its axis once in 20 days, what is its kinetic energy?
Given Data: ,
To Determine:
Calculations: (a) ( )( ) [ ]( )
( )( ) ( )
Q # 43. A disc without slipping rolls down a hill of height 10.0 m. If the disc starts from rest at
the top of the hill, what is its speed at the bottom?
Given Data: Height
To Determine:
Calculations: As √ √
16
5.10 ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES

Q # 44. What do you know about satellite?
Ans. Satellites are the objects that orbit around the earth. They are
put into orbit by rockets and are held in orbits by the gravitational
pull of the earth.
Q # 45. Describe what should be the minimum velocity, for a
satellite, to orbit close to earth around it.
Consider a satellite of mass is moving in a circle of
radius around the earth. In circular orbit for a low flying
satellite, the centripetal acceleration is provided by the gravity.
---------------- (1)
where it the tangential velocity of the satellite. Solving equation

(1), we have:
√
Near the surface of the earth, the gravitational acceleration
and .
√
This is the minimum velocity necessary to put a satellite into the orbit
and is called critical velocity.
Q # 46. Find out the expression of time period for a low flying
satellite orbiting in an orbit.
The time period T of the satellite orbiting with critical velocity is
given by the expression
Q # 47. What is the least speed at which an aero plane can execute a vertical loop of 1.0 km
radius so that there will be no tendency for the pilot to fall down at the highest point?
Given Data: Radius

To Determine:
17
5.11 REAL AND APPARENT WEIGHT

Q # 48. Distinguish among the real and apparent weight.
Real Weight: The real weight of the object is the gravitational pull of the earth on the object.
Apparent Weight: The reading of weight on the scale of a spring balance is called apparent weight.
Generally the weight of the object is measured by spring balance. The force exerted by the
object on the scale is equal to weight of the object. This is not always true, so we call the reading of
the scale as apparent weight.
Q # 49. Discuss the relationship between the real and apparent weight for the following cases:
The object is at rest (
(i) )
Accelerating in upward direction
(ii)
Accelerating in downward direction
(iii)
Falling under the action of gravity
(iv)
Ans. Consider the apparent weight of the object of mass suspended by a spring balance inside a lift.
The lift is capable of moving in upward and downward.
Case 1: When the lift is at rest
When the lift is at rest, then according to the Newton‟s 2nd law of motion, the acceleration of
the object will be equal to zero. If is the weight of the object and is the tension in the string then
we have
Hence when the lift is at rest, then the apparent weight of the object is equal to its real weight.
Case 2: When the lift is moving upward with acceleration
When the lift is moving upwards with an acceleration a, then
The object will then weight more than its real weight by an amount .
Case 3: When the lift is moving downward with acceleration
If the lift is moving downward with acceleration a, then we have
Thus the tension in the string, which is the measure of apparent weight, is less
than the real weight w by an amount .
Case 4: When the lift falls freely under gravity
When the lift falls under the action of gravity, then the acceleration . Hence
As the weight w of the body is equal to so
The apparent weight of the object will be shown by the scale to be zero.
18
5.12 WEIGHTLESSNESS IN SATELLITE AND GRAVITY FREE SYSTEM

Q # 50. Explain why an object, orbiting the earth, is said to be
freely falling. Use your explanation to point out why objects
appear weightless under certain circumstances.
Ans. An object orbiting the earth is a freely falling object. It is
because of the reason that an object orbiting the earth is projected fast
enough parallel to earth‟s surface such that the curvature of its path
will match the curvature of the earth.
A spaceship orbiting earth, in fact, is falling towards the
center of the earth all the times but due to spherical shape of the earth,
it never strikes the surface of the earth. Since the spaceship is in free
fall, all the objects within it appear to be weightless.
5.13 ORBITAL VELOCITY
Q # 51. What will be the expression of orbital velocity for an object revolving in a circular orbit?
Ans. Consider a satellite of mass going round the earth in a circular path of radius with orbital
velocity . Let the mass of the earth. The centripetal force required to hold the satellite in orbit can
be described as:
This centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force of

attraction between the earth and satellite. Thus we can write:
This is the expression of orbital velocity of a satellite for a circular orbit of

radius r.
Q # 52. What should be the orbiting speed to launch a satellite in a circular orbit 900 km above the
surface of the Earth? (Take mass of the Earth as and its radius as 6400 km).
Given Data: Height of Satellite above surface of earth
Radius of earth , Mass of Earth
To Determine:
Calculations: As √ √ √ √
Q # 53. An Earth satellite is in circular orbit at a distance of from the Earth’s surface.
What is the period of one revolution in days? Take mass of the Earth and its
radius as .
Given Data: Height of Satellite above surface of earth
Radius of earth , Mass of Earth
To Determine:
Calculations: As √ √ √ √
19
5.14 ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY

Q # 54. Find out the expression of frequency for producing the artificial gravity in a satellite
equal to that of earth.
Ans. The weightlessness in satellite may affect the performance of astronaut in it. To overcome this
difficulty, an artificial gravity is created in the satellite. For
this, the satellite is set into rotation around its own axis.
Consider a satellite having outer radius R rotates
around its own central axis with angular speed , then the
angular acceleration is
But where T is the period of the revolution of
spaceship
( )
As the frequency , therefore
The frequency is increased to such an extent that equals to . Therefore,
This is the expression of frequency for producing the artificial gravity in satellite equal to that of
earth.
17. The rotational K.E of a body is given 19. The apparent weight of a man in an ascending
by: lift moving with acceleration “a”:
a) a) Increases
b) Decreases
b) c) Remains constant
d) Becomes zero
c)
d)
20. The apparent weight of a man in a lift moving
18. The minimum velocity necessary to put down with an acceleration of is:
a satellite into orbit is: a) Zero
a) b) 9.8 N
b) c) 19.6 N
c) d) Infinity
d)
20
5.15 GEOSTATIONARY ORBITS

Q # 55. What is a geostationary satellite? Write down the expression for radius of a
geostationary orbit.
Ans. A geostationary satellite is the one whose orbital motion
is synchronized with the rotation of the earth. We want to find
out the expression of a geostationary orbit of a satellite.
The orbital speed necessary for the circular orbit, is
given by the expression:
For a geostationary orbit, the orbital speed must be

equal to the average speed of the satellite in one day, i.e.,
Where is the period of revolution of the satellite, that is equal to one day. Thus
( )
This is the expression of a geostationary orbit of a satellite.

Q # 56. Radio and TV signals bounce from a synchronous satellite. This satellite circles the
Earth once in 24 hours. So if the satellite circles eastward above the equator, it stays over the
same spot on the Earth because the Earth is rotating at the same rate. (a) What s the orbital
radius for a synchronous satellite? (b) What is its speed?
Given Data: Time period

To Determine:
Calculations: (a) ( ) ( ) * +
(b) √ √
21
5.16 COMMUNICATION SATELLITES

Q # 57. How a communication system is developed?
Ans. A satellite communication system can be set up by
placing several geostationary satellites in orbit over
different points on the surface of the earth. One such
satellite covers 120 of longitude. Since these
geostationary satellites seem to hover over one place on
the earth, continuous communication with any place on
the earth‟s surface can be made.
Microwaves are used because they travel in a narrow beam, in a straight line and pass easily
through the atmosphere of the earth. The energy needed to amplify and retransmit the signals is
provided by large solar cell panels fitted on the satellites.
Q # 58. What do you know about INTELSAT’s

communication system?
Ans. The world‟s largest satellite system is manage by
International Telecommunication Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT). An INTELSAT VI satellite operate at
microwave frequencies of 4, 6, 11 and 14 GHz and has a
capacity of 30000 two way telephone circuits plus three TV
channels.
Q # 59. Explain how many minimum number of geo-stationary satellites are required for global
coverage of TV transmission.
Ans. The total longitude of earth is 3600 and a geostationary satellite covers 1200 of longitude. So
the whole earth can be covered by three correctly positioned geostationary satellites.
21. The necessary force to a satellite is 23. Pull of earth on a mass of 20 kg on the surface
provided by: of the earth is
a) Gravitational force a) 20 N
b) Frictional force b) 196 N
c) Coulomb force c) 19.6 N
d) Centripetal force d) 1960 N
22. Geo-stationary satellite completes one 24. Angular speed of daily rotation of earth is:
rotation around earth in. a)
a) 3 hours b)
b) 6 hours c)
c) 12 hours d)
d) 24 hours
22
5.17 NEWTON’S AND EINSTEIN’S VIEWS ABOUT GRAVITATION

Q # 60. Describe the Newton’s and Einstein’s view of gravitation.
Newton’s View about Gravitation
According to Newton, the gravitation is the intrinsic property of matter. It means that every
particle of matter attracts every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Einstein’s View about Gravitation
According to Einstein‟s theory, space time is curved. In Einstein‟s theory, we don't speak the
force of gravity acting on the bodies, instead we say that bodies and the light rays moves along
geodesics in curved space time.
Q # 61. Why Einstein’s theory is better than the Newton’s theory.
Ans. Newton discovered the inverse square law of gravity but he offered no explanation of why
gravity should follow an inverse square law.
On the other hand, Einstein‟s theory gives the physical picture of how gravity works.
Einstein‟s theory also says that gravity follows an inverse square law, but it tells us why this should be
so. That is why Einstein‟s theory is better than the Newton‟s theory.
Q # 62. Describe the Newton’s and Einstein’s idea about bending of light due to gravity.
Newton’s idea about bending of light
Newton considered the light as a stream of tiny particles. Thus the tiny particles of light
would be deflected by gravity.
Einstein’s idea about bending of light
Einstein inferred that if gravitational acceleration and inertial acceleration are precisely
equivalent, gravity must bend light, by a precise amount that can be calculated precisely.
In Einstein‟s theory, the deflection of light is predicted to be exactly twice as it was predicted
by Newton‟s theory. When the bending of starlight caused by the gravity of Sun was measured during
the solar eclipse in 1919, and it was found to match the Einstein‟s prediction rather than the Newton‟s.
25. The minimum number of 26. Which electromagnetic wave are used as
communication satellites required to medium in satellite communication system:
cover the whole earth is: a) Microwaves
a) 4 b) Radio waves
b) 3 c) Infrared waves
c) 2 d) Ultraviolet waves
d) 5
23
Chapter 6 (Physics 1st Year) Fluid Dynamics
FLUID DYNAMICS
These hot-air balloons float because they are filled with air at high temperature and
are surrounded by denser air at a lower temperature.
6.1 VISCOUS DRAG AND STOKE‟S LAW
Q # 1. Explain what do you know about the term „Viscosity‟?

Ans. The amount of force required to slide one layer of liquid over another layer is called as viscosity.
It is denoted by the Greek word .
Substances that do not flow easily, such as honey, has large coefficient of viscosity and the
substances which flow easily, like water, have small coefficient of viscosity.
Q # 2. What is meant by drag force? What are the factors upon which the drag force acting
upon a small sphere of radius r, moving down through a liquid, depends?
Ans. An object moving through a fluid experience a retarding force called the drag force. The drag
force depends upon the velocity of object in a fluid, i.e., the drag force increases as the speed of the
particle increases. The other factors upon which the drag force drag force depends are the shape and
size of material.
Q # 3. State the Stoke‟s law.
Ans. The drag force on a sphere of radius moving with speed through a fluid of viscosity is
described as:
1
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6.2 TERMINAL VELOCITY
Q # 4. Write a note on terminal velocity of the object when it moves

through an fluid.
Ans. When an object moves through a fluid, the force pulls the object
downward. As the result the velocity of the object during its motion
through fluid increases.
During downward motion of the object, a drag force acts on the
body in upward direction that will tend to stop the motion of object. Thus
the net force acting on the droplet is
The drag force depends upon the velocity of object in a fluid, i.e., the drag force increases as
the speed of the particle increases. As the speed of the droplet continues to increase, the drag force
eventually approaches weight in magnitude. Finally, when the magnitude of the drag force becomes
equal to the weight, the net force acting on the droplet becomes zero. Then the droplet will fall with
constant speed called terminal velocity.
Q # 5. Derive the expression of terminal velocity for an object moving in a fluid.
Ans. Consider a spherical object of mass m moving a fluid of viscosity with terminal velocity .
We know that the object will move with terminal velocity when its weight will equate the drag force
i.e.,
-------------- (1)
As ( ) ( ) ( )
Also ( )
Substituting the values in equation (1), we get:
( )
This is the expression of terminal velocity of the object.

Q # 6. Why fog droplets appear to be suspended in air?
Ans. When the magnitude of the drag force on the fog droplet becomes equal to its weight, the net
force acting on the droplet is zero. In such a case, the droplet starts falling with a constant speed and
appears to be suspended in air.
2
Q # 7. A tiny water droplet of radius 0.010 cm descends through air from a high building.
Calculate its terminal velocity. Given that for air = and density of the
water .
Given Data:
To Determine:
( )
Calculations:
Q # 8. Certain globular protein particle has a density of . It fall through pure

water ( ) with a terminal speed of . Find the radius of the particle.
Given Data:
To Determine:

1. The SI unit of coefficient of viscosity is: 5. Stokes law is applicable if body has
a) __________ shape.
b) a) Rough
c) b) Square
d) c) Circular
d) Spherical
2. An object moving through a fluid
experience a retarding force called 6. When weight of an object falling freely
becomes equal to the drag force, then the
a) Gravitational force body will move with
b) Terminating force a) Increasing speed
c) Frictional force b) Decreasing speed
d) Drag force c) Constant speed
3. The drag force increases as the speed of the d) None of these
object 7. The maximum constant velocity of an object
a) Decreases falling vertically downward is called:
b) Increases a) Final velocity
c) Remain constant b) Terminal velocity
d) None of these c) Initial velocity
d) None of these
4. The drag force F on a sphere of radius r
moving slowly with speed v through a fluid 8. If radius of droplet becomes half then its
of viscosity is terminal velocity will be
a) 6 a) Half
b) 6 b) Double
c) 6 c) One forth
d) 6 d) Four times
3
6.3 FLUID FLOW

Q # 9. Differentiate among the laminar and turbulent flow.
Laminar Flow
The flow is said to be streamline or laminar, if every particle that passes a particular point
moves along exactly the same path, as followed by particles which passed through that points earlier.
The direction of streamlines is same as the direction of the velocity of the fluid.
Turbulent Flow
The irregular or unsteady flow of the fluid is called turbulent flow. In case of turbulent flow,
the exact path of the particles of fluid can’t be predicted.
Q # 10. Describe the condition of an ideal fluid.

Ans. The conditions of an ideal fluid are:
1. The fluid is non-viscous i.e., there is no internal
frictional force between adjacent layers of fluid.
2. The fluid is incompressible i.e., its density is
constant.
3. The fluid motion is steady

9. The flow of ideal fluid is 10. Turbulent flow is:
always: a) Unsteady and regular
a) Turbulent b) Steady and regular
b) Streamline c) Unsteady and irregular
c) Irregular d) Steady and regular
d) Straight line
4
6.4 EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

Q # 11. Derive the equation of continuity.
Ans. Consider a fluid flowing through a pipe of non-uniform
size. Let the particles in fluid move along the streamlines as
shown in the figure:
In a small time , the fluid at the lower end of the
tube moves a distance , with a velocity . If is the area
of cross-section of this end, the mass of the fluid passing
through fluid in particular interval can be find out by the
expression:
As ( ) ( ) ( )
Similarly the fluid move with velocity through

the upper end of the pipe (area of cross-section ) in the
same time has the mass:
The mass that flows into the bottom of the pipe

through in time must be equal to the mass of the
liquid that flows out through in the same time.
Therefore,
As the density is constant for the steady flow of incompressible fluid, the equation becomes:
This is known as the equation of continuity. This equation describes that

The product of the cross-sectional area of the pipe
and the fluid speed at any point along the pipe is a constant i.e.,
This constant equals to the volume flow per second of the fluid or simply flow rate
Important Note: The equation of continuity is the statement of law of conservation of mass for the
case of fluid motion.
5
Q # 12. Water flows through a hose, whose internal diameter is 1 cm at a speed of . What
should be the diameter of the nozzle if the water is to emerge at ?
Given Data:
To Determine:
( ) ( ) ( )
Calculations:
( )
Q # 13. The radius of the aorta is about 1 cm and blood flowing and blood flowing through it
has a speed of about . Calculate the average speed of the blood in the capillaries using
the fact that although each capillary has diameter of about , there are literally
millions of them so that their total cross section is about 2000
Given Data:
To Determine:
( )
Calculations: ( )
( ) ( )
Q # 14. How large must a heating duct be if air moving along it can replenish the air in
a room of 300 volume every 15 min? Assume the air‟s density remains constant.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Q # 15. A water hose with an internal diameter of 20 mm at the outlet discharges 30 kg of water
in 60 s. calculate the water speed at the outlet. Assume the density of water is and
it flows steady.
Given Data: ,
To Determine:
Calculations:
( )
6
6.5 BERNOULLI‟S EQUATION

Q # 16. State Bernoulli‟s relation for a liquid in motion and describe some of its applications?
Ans. The principle states that the sum of pressure, the kinetic and potential energy per unit volume for
an ideal fluid remains constant at every point of its path.
Where P is the pressure, v is the velocity and is density of the fluid.

The Bernoulli relation is important in nozzle design and in flow measurements.
Q # 17. Derive the expression of Bernoulli‟s equation for the case of an ideal fluid.
Ans. Consider a fluid that is incompressible, non viscous and flows in a steady state manner through a
pipe of non-uniform size as shown in the figure:
The force on the upper end of the fluid is , where
is the pressure and is the cross-sectional area at the
upper end. The work done on the fluid in moving through a
distance , will be:
Similarly the work done on the fluid at the lower end is:
Where is the pressure, is the area of cross-section of lower end and is the distance moved
by the fluid in the same time interval . The work done is taken to be negative as this work is done
against the fluid force.
The net work done is
If and are the velocities at the upper and lower ends respectively, then
-------------- (1)
From the equation of continuity,
( )
( ) -------------- (2)
If is the mass and is the density of fluid, then . So the equation (2) will become:
( )
7
Part of this work is utilized by the fluid in changing its K.E. and a part is used in changing its
gravitational P.E.
Where and are the heights of the upper and lower ends respectively.
Applying the law of conservation of energy to this
volume of fluid, we get
( )
( ) [ ]
( )
Rearranging the above equation:
This is Bernoulli’s equation and is often expressed as:
Q # 18. Water is flowing smoothly through a closed pipe system. At one point the speed of water
is , while at another point 3 m higher, the speed is . If the pressure is 80 kPa at
the lower point, what is pressure at the upper point?
Given Data: Velocity Let Height Pressure

Velocity Height
To Determine:
Calculations:
( ) ( )
Q # 19. What gauge pressure is required in the city mains for a stream from a fire hose
connected to the mains to reach a vertical height of 15 m?
Given Data: Height , Consider
To Determine: ( )
Calculations:
( )
8
6.6 APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI‟S EQUATION

Q # 20. State and prove the Torricelli‟s theorem.
Statement
The speed of efflux is equal to the velocity gained by the fluid
in falling through a distance ( ) under the action of gravity.
Proof
Suppose a large tank of fluid has a small orifice on it. Since the
orifice is so small, the efflux speed is much larger than of the top
surface of water. We can therefore, take approximately equal to
zero. Hence the Bernoulli’s equation can be written as:
√ ( )
This is the expression of speed of efflux from the orifice. It is important to note that the speed
of the efflux of liquid is the same as the speed of ball that falls through a height ( ).
This is the Torricelli’s theorem which states that:
The speed of efflux is equal to the velocity gained by the fluid in
falling through a distance ( ) under the action of gravity.
Q # 21. The pipe near the lower end of a large water storage tank develops a small leak and a
stream of water shoots from it. The top of water in the tank is 15 m above the point of leak.
i) With what speed does the water rush from the hole?
ii) If the hole has an area of , how much water flows out in one second?
Given Data: Height of the top of water , Area of hole
To Determine:
Calculations: √ ( ) √
Thus
9
Q # 22. Describe the relationship between speed and pressure of the fluid.
Ans. A result of Bernoulli’s equation is that
“ Where the speed is high, the pressure will be low”
Explanation
Suppose that water flows through a pipe system as shown in
the figure. Clearly, the water flows faster at point 2 than it does at
point 1.
Consider the flow speed at point 1 is and at point
2 it is . Applying the Bernoulli’s equation and noting that the average P.E. is the same at both
places, we have:
Substituting , and , we get:
This shows that the pressure in the narrow pipe where the streamline are closer together is much
smaller than in the wider pipe.
Q # 23. Explain the relationship between velocity and pressure for the following cases.
i) Lift on an Aero plane
ii) Swing of the tennis ball in air
Ans.
Lift on an Aero plane
The lift on an aero plane is explained on the basis of
relationship between pressure and velocity. The wing of the aero
plane is designed to deflect the air so that the streamlines are closer
together above the wing than below it. Thus, air is travelling faster
on the upper side of the wing than on the lower. As the result, the
pressure will be lower at the top of the wing, and the wing will be
forced upward.
Swing of the tennis ball in air
When a tennis ball is hit by the racket in such a way that it

spins as well as moves forward, the velocity of air on one side of the
ball increases due to spin and hence the pressure decreases. This gives
an extra curvature to the ball known as swing which deceives an
opponent player.
10
Q # 24. An airplane wing is designed so that when the speed of the air across the top of the wing
is 450 , the speed of air below the wing is 410 . What is pressure difference between
the top and bottom of the wing? (Density of air = 1.29 )
Given Data: Speed of air above the wing Speed of air above the wing
Density of Air , For Present Case:
To Determine:
Calculations:
( ) ( )
Q # 25. An airplane design call for a “lift” due to the net force of the moving air on the wing of
about 1000 of wing area. Assume that air flows past the wing of an aircraft with
streamline flow. If the speed of flow past the lower wing surface is 160 , what is the
required speed over the upper surface to give a “lift” of 1000 ? The density of air is 1.29
and assume maximum thickness of wing to be one meter.
Given Data: Pressure Difference between wings , Speed below wing =160
Density of Air , Thickness of Wings
To Determine:
Calculations:
( ) √ ( ( ))
√ ( ( ) ) √
Q # 26. A person is standing near a fast moving train. Is there any danger that he will fall
towards it?
Ans. When a person is standing near a fast moving train, then the air between the person and train is
also fast. According to consequence of Bernoulli
Equation, “where the speed is high, the pressure will
be low”, the pressure between the person and train
will be low as compared to the pressure of side way.
So there will be a chance of force acting on the
person from high pressure region to the low pressure
region and the person may fall towards the train.
11
Q # 27. Identify the correct answer. What do you infer from Bernoulli‟s theorem?
i) Where the speed of the fluid is high the pressure will be low .
ii) Where the speed of the fluid is high the pressure is also high.
iii) This theorem is valid only for turbulent flow of the liquid.
Ans. The correct answer is (i) “where the speed of the fluid is high, the pressure will be low”.
This is in accordance with the Bernoulli’s equation, which states for a horizontal pipe,
Q # 28. Two row boats moving parallel in the same direction are pulled towards each other.
Explain?
Ans. When two boats are moving parallel in the same direction, then the water between them is also
flowing fast. According to consequence of Bernoulli Equation, “where the speed is high, the pressure
will be low”, the pressure between the two boats decreases as compared to the pressure of side way.
So the side way high pressure pushes the two boats towards each other.
Q # 29. Explain, how the swing is produced in a fast moving cricket ball?
Ans. When the cricket ball is thrown in such a way that is spins as well as moves forward, the
velocity of the air on one side of the ball increases due to the spins and hence the pressure decreases.
So the cricket ball will experience push from high pressure region to low pressure region. This gives
an extra curvature to the ball known as swing which deceives opponent player.
Q # 30. Derive the Venturi relation for an ideal fluid.
Ans. If one part of a horizontal pipe has a much smaller diameter than the other, we write Bernoulli
equation in more convenient form. For horizontal position of pipe, terms become equal. Thus the
Bernoulli equation is expressed as:
( )
As the cross-sectional area is small as compared to the area
, then from equation of continuity ( ) , will be small
as compared to . Thus we can neglect on the right hand side

of the equation. Hence
This is known as Venturi relation, which is used in Venturi meter,

a device used to measure speed of liquid flow.
12
Q # 31. Explain the working of a carburetor of a motor car using Bernoulli‟s principle.
Ans. The carburetor of a motor car uses a Venturi duct to give correct mixture of air and petrol to the
engine. The petrol tank is attached with a pipe through a very small inlet. Air moves very fast through
this pipe. As a result, pressure in the pipe decreases as compared to the pressure in the petrol tank
which is at the atmospheric pressure. So the petrol moves from the tank to the air pipe (i.e., from high
pressure to low pressure), and a correct mixture of petrol and air reaches the engine.
Q # 32. How the blood pressure of a person is measured?
Ans. The blood pressure of a person is measured using a device called sphygmomanometer. It
consists of an inflatable bag, that is wound around the arm of a patient and external pressure on the
arm is increased by inflating the bag. Blood pressure is measured in torr or in mm of Hg.
When the external pressure applied becomes larger than the systolic pressure, the vessels
collapse, cutting off the flow of the blood. Opening the release valve on the ball gradually decrease
the external pressure.
A stethoscope detects the instant at which the external pressure becomes equal to the systolic
pressure. At this point, the blood flow through the vessel with very high speed. As a result the flow is
initially turbulent.
As the pressure drops, the external pressure eventually equals the diastolic pressure. The flow
of the blood switches from turbulent to laminar, and gurgle in the stethoscope disappears. This is the
signal to record the diastolic pressure.
Q # 33. For what position will the maximum blood pressure in the body have the smallest value.
(a) Standing up right (b) Sitting (c) Lying Horizontally (d) Standing on one‟s head?
Ans. The option (c) is correct. The blood pressure will have the smallest value when a person lying
horizontally.
Q # 34. In orbiting space station, would the blood pressure in the major arteries in the leg ever
be greater than the blood pressure in major arteries in the neck.
Ans. In an orbiting space station, due to weightlessness, the blood pressure in the major arteries in the
leg will be equal to the blood pressure in major arteries in the neck.
13

11. According to equation of continuity, 16. Speed of fluid increases where the pressure
A1V1 = A2V2 = constant. The constant is is:
equal to: a) Low
a) Flow rate b) High
b) Volume of fluid c) Constant
c) Mass of fluid d) Changes continuously
d) Density of fluid
17. Venturi meter is a device used to measure:
12. Equation of continuity is obtained by
a) Pressure of the fluid
applying law of conservation of
b) Speed of fluid
a) Energy
c) Density of fluid
b) Mass
d) Viscosity of the fluid
c) Momentum
d) All of these
18. A man standing near a fast moving train may
fall.
13. If cross-sectional area of pipe decreases, the
a) Away from the train
speed of fluid must increase according to:
b) Towards the train
a) Venturi relation
c) On himself
b) Bernoulli’s equation
d) None of these
c) Equation of continuity
d) Torricelli’s theorem
19. One Torr is expressed in as:
14. In equation of continuity, the units of Av is a) 133.3
given as: b) 13.33
a) Cubic meter c) 1333
b) Square meter per second d) 1.333
c) Square meter
d) Cubic meter per second 20. Instrument used to measure blood pressure is
called
15. Bernoulli’s theorem applies to: a) Venturi meter
a) Solids b) Blood pressure
b) Plasma state c) Sphygmomanometer
c) Fluids d) Sonometer
d) Liquids
14
Chapter 7 (Physics 1st Year) Oscillations (Edition 2015-16)
OSCILLATIONS
Simple harmonic motion for a block–spring system and its analogy to the motion of a
simple pendulum. The parameters in the table at the right refer to the block–spring
system, assuming that at t = 0, x = A so that x = A cos ωt.
OSCILLATORY MOTION
To and fro motion of a body about a fixed point is called the vibratory
or oscillatory motion. Some examples of oscillating objects are as follows:
 A mass, suspended from a spring, when pulled down and then released,
start oscillating.
 A bob of simple pendulum when displaced from rest position and
released, vibrates
 A steel ruler clamped at one end to a bench oscillates when the free end
is displaced sideways
 A steel ball rolling in a curved dish, oscillates about its rest position
The body oscillates due to a restoring force. Under the action of restoring
force, the body accelerates and it overshoots the rest position due to inertia. The
restoring force then pulls it back. The restoring force is always directed towards
the mean position so the acceleration is also directed towards mean position.
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7.1 SIMPLE HARNOMIC MOTION
Q # 1. State the Hook’s law.
Ans. For an object attached to an elastic spring, the displacement of the object from mean position is
directly proportional to the applied force.
If an object is attached to an elastic spring of spring constant k, then the applied force to
produce the displacement is described as:
Q # 2. What do you know about Restoring Force.

Ans. The force that brings back the oscillatory object towards its mean position is called the restoring
force.
For an object attached to horizontal mass spring system, the restoring force is equal and
opposite to the applied force within the elastic limit of the spring. Therefore, the restoring force
acting on the object, having displacement x from mean position, is described mathematically as:
where is the spring constant.

Q # 3. Define the term “Simple Harmonic Motion”.
Ans. It is a type of vibratory motion in which the acceleration of the body is proportional to
displacement and is directed towards its mean position. Mathematically it is described as:
where is the acceleration and is the displacement of the oscillatory object from mean position. The
negative sign indicates that acceleration of the object is directed towards the mean position.
Q # 4. Show that an object attached to a horizontal mass spring system executes simple
harmonic motion.
Ans. Consider a body of mass is attached to a spring of spring constant is executing the
oscillatory motion. The restoring force acting on the object can
be find out by using expression:
--------------- (1)
The acceleration produced in the body of mass due
to restoring force can be calculated using second law of motion.
--------------- (2)
Comparing equation (1) and (2), we get:
or
This expression shows that the acceleration of the oscillating object is directly proportional to
displacement and is directed towards the mean position. Thus the object attached to horizontal mass
spring system executes simple harmonic motion.
2
Q # 5. How can we obtain the waveform of SHM?
Ans. When a body is vibrating, its displacement from the mean
position changes with time. The arrangement shown in the
figure can be used to record the variation in displacement with
time for a mass spring system. The strip of paper is moving at
the constant speed from right to left, thus provide a time scale
on strip. The pen attached the vibrating mass record its
displacement against time. The displacement-time curve
obtained is known as waveform of SHM. The waveform of
SHM is a sine curve.
Q # 6. Define the terms for an object executing
simple harmonic motion.
 Instantaneous Displacement
 Amplitude
 Vibration
 Time Period
 Frequency
 Angular Frequency
Ans. Instantaneous Displacement: The value of its distance from mean position at any instant of
time is known as instantaneous displacement.
Amplitude: The maximum value of displacement of vibratory body from its mean position is known
as amplitude.
Vibration: A vibration means one completer round trip of the body in oscillatory motion.
Time Period: It is the time required to complete one vibration. It is measured in seconds (s).
Frequency: The number of vibrations executed by a body in one second is called frequency. It is
measured in Hertz. The frequency and the time period of a vibrating body are related by the
expression:
Angular Frequency: If T is the period of a body executing SHM, its angular frequency will be:
Angular frequency is basically a characteristic of circular motion. Here it has been

introduced in SHM because it provides an easy method by which the value of instantaneous
displacement and instantaneous velocity of the body executing SHM can be compared.
Q # 7. Name the two characteristics of simple harmonic motion?
Ans. The characteristics of SHM are
i. Acceleration of the body is directly proportional to the displacement and is always directed
towards mean position:
ii. Total energy of the particle executing SHM remains conserve.
3
7.2 SHM AND UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
Q # 8. Derive the expression of displacement, velocity and acceleration for an object executing
SHM by considering uniform circular motion.
Ans. Consider a point P moves in a circle of radius , with uniform angular frequency . It can
be visualized that when the point P moves along the circle of radius , its projection (point N)
execute simple harmonic motion on the diameter DE of the circle.
Thus the expression of displacement, velocity and acceleration for the object executing SHM
can be derived using the analogy between the uniform circular motion of point P and SHM of point N
on the diameter of the circle.
Displacement
It is the distance of projection of point N from the mean position O at any instant.
As from figure, it can be seen that
If is the amplitude and is the displacement of point N at any instant, then

from triangle OPN, we have
̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅
------------- (1)
This is the expression of instantaneous displacement for the object executing SHM.
Velocity
If the point P is moving in a circle of radius with uniform angular
velocity , then the tangential velocity of point P will be:
We want to find out the expression of velocity for point N, which is

executing SHM.
The velocity of N is actually the component of velocity in the
4
direction parallel to the diameter DE. Thus we can write the
velocity of point N as:
( )
------------ (2)
As from equation (1), we have:
√
√ √ √
Putting this value in equation (2), we get:
√
( ) √
This is the expression of velocity of the object executing simple harmonic motion.
Acceleration
When the point P moves in a circle of radius , then it will have an acceleration
that will be directed towards the center of the circle.
We want to find out the expression of acceleration of point N that is executing SHM at the
diameter of the circle.
It can be seen from the figure that the acceleration of point N is the vertical component of
acceleration along the diameter DE.
--------- (3)
As from equation (1):
Therefore the equation (3) will become:
( )
Comparing the case of displacement and acceleration, it can be seen that the direction of
displacement and acceleration are opposite to each
other. Considering the direction of as reference, the
acceleration will be represented by:
------- (4)
This expression shows that acceleration of SHO is
proportional to displacement is directed towards the
mean position.
5
7.3 PHASE
Q # 9. What do know about the term phase?
Ans. The angle which specifies the displacement as well as the direction of motion of the point
executing SHM is known as phase.
Explanation
The displacement and velocity of the body executing SHM
can be determined by using equations: and ,
respectively. These equations indicates the displacement and velocity of
simple harmonic oscillator are determine by the angle . This angle is
obtained when the SHM is related with circular motion. It is the angle
which the rotating radius OP makes with axis at any instant, called
phase.
Initial Phase Concept
In general at , the rotating radius can make any angle with axis as shown in the
figure. In time t, the radius would rotate by . The displacement at instant t would be
given by:
( )
Now the phase angle is . At , . So is
the initial phase. If the body starts its motion from mean position, its
initial phase would be 0.
Special Case
If initial phase , the expression of displacement will become:
( )
This equation describes the SHM for the object which starts its motion from extreme position.
Q # 10. What is meant by phase angle? Does it define angle between maximum displacement
and the driving force?
Ans. The angle which specifies the displacement as well as the direction of motion of the point
executing SHM is known as phase.
Phase is not the angle between maximum displacement and driving force. Actually the
instantaneous displacement of SHO is determined by visualizing the resemblance between uniform
circular motion and SHM. Phase is the angle that the rotating radius makes with the reference
direction.
Q # 11. In relation to SHM, explain the equation:( ) ( ) (ii)
Ans (i) In this expression ( ), is instantaneous displacement, is amplitude, is
initial phase and is the angle subtended in time t
(ii) In this expression , is acceleration, is angular frequency and is instantaneous
displacement
6
7.4 HORIZONTAL MASS SPRING SYSTEM
Q # 12. Derive the expressions for angular frequency, time period, displacement and velocity for
the case of horizontal mass spring system.
Ans. Consider a body of mass m is attached to a spring as shown in the
figure. The acceleration of the object is described by the formula:
----------- (1)
The acceleration of the object executing SHM is described as:
----------- (2)
Comparing equation (1) and (2), we have:
Time Period
The time period of simple harmonic oscillator (SHO) is
described as:
√
(√ )
Instantaneous Displacement
The instantaneous displacement of SHO is described by the formula:
( ) (√ )
Instantaneous Velocity
The instantaneous velocity of SHO is described by the formula:
√ ( )
√ ( ) ----------- (3)
The velocity of SHO become maximum at mean position
. If is the velocity of SHO at mean position, then:
Thus, equation (3) will become:
7
Q # 13. Show that in SHM, the accleration is zero when the velocity is greatest and the velocity
is zero when the acceleration is greatest?
Ans. The expressions of velocity and acceleration of the body executing SHM are as follow:
√
At Mean Position ( ) Acceleration of SHO: ( )
Velocity of SHO: √ ( )
So at mean position, the acceleration of SHO is zero but velocity is greatest
At Extreme Position ( ) Acceleration of SHO:
Velocity of SHO: √
So at extreme position, the velocity of SHO is zero but acceleration is greatest
Q # 14. Does frequency depend on the amplitude for harmonic oscillator?
Ans. No, frequency of harmonic oscillator does not depend upon its amplitude. The frequency of the
oscillator is describe by the relation:
1 k
f 
2 m
The above expression shows that the frequency of harmonic oscillator does not depend upon
its amplitude. It only depend on its mass and spring constant.
Q # 15. What is total distance travelled by an object moving with SHM in a time equal to its
period, if its amplitude is A?
Ans. The total distance travelled by ab object moving with SHM in its time period is 4A, where A is
amplitude of viberation.
Q # 16. Does the acceleration of simple harmonic oscillator remains constant during its motion?
Is the acceleration ever zero? Explain.
Ans. No, the acceleration does not remain constant. The acceration a of simple harmonic oscillator is
given by
This means that acceleration is proportional to the displacement and is always directed
towards mean position. The acccleration becomes zero at mean position ( ) and acceleration
becomes maximum at extreme position.
Q # 17. A block weighing 4.0 kg extends a spring by 0.16 m from its unstretched position. The
block is removed and a 0.50 kg body is hung from the same spring. If the spring is now
stretched and then released, what is the period of vibration?
Given Data:
To Determine: For time period, we have to find the Spring Constant
8
Calculations: By Hook’s Law
As √ √
Q # 18. A 100.0 g body hung on the spring elongates the spring by 4.0 cm. When a certain object
is hung on the spring and set vibrating, its period is 0.568 s. What is the mass of the object
pulling the spring?
Given Data:
To Determine: , For , we have to find the Spring Constant
Calculations: By Hook’s Law
( )
As √ ( ) ( )
Q # 19. A load of 15.0 g elongates a spring by 2.0 cm. If body of mass 294 g is attached to the
spring and is set into vibration with an amplitude of 10.0 cm, what will be the (i) period (ii)
Spring Constant (iii) maximum speed of its vibration.
Given Data:
To Determine: ( ) ( ) ( )
Calculations: By Hook’s Law ( )
( ) As √ √
( ) As √ √
Q # 20. A spring, whose spring constant is vertically supports a mass of 1.0 kg in the
rest position. Find the distance by which the mass must be pulled down, so that on being
released, it may pass the mean position with a velocity of .
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculation: √ √ √
(√ )
Q # 21. A block of mass 1.6 kg is attached to a spring with spring constant . The
spring is compressed through a distance of 2.0 cm and the block is released from rest. Calculate
the velocity of the block as it passes through equilibrium position, , if the surface is
frictionless.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculation: √ √
9
7.5 SIMPLE PENDULUM
Q # 22. Find out the expression of time period of simple pendulum.
Ans. Consider a simple pendulum which consists of bob of mass m is
suspended from a rigid support by a string of length L as shown in the
figure.
We want to find out the expression of time period for this simple
pendulum.
When the bob is displaced from its mean position through a
small angle and released, it starts to and fro motion about mean
position. The weight mg of the object can be resolved in two rectangular components; and
. It is clear from the figure that the component of the weight will balance the
tension in the string. The restoring force acting on the object will be:
when the is very small, then . Thus,

----------- (1)
According to Newton’s 2nd law of motion,
----------- (2)
Comparing (1) and (2), we get:
----------- (3)
The relationship between the arc length and angular displacement is described by the formula:
where is the length of string.
Putting value of in eqation (3), we get:

----------- (4)
The acceleration of the object executing SHM is described as:

----------- (5)
Comparing equation (4) and (5), we have:
Time Period
The time period of simple harmonic oscillator (SHO) is described as:
√
√
This expression shows that the time period of simple pendulum depends only on the length of
the pendulum and the acceleration due to gravity. It is independent of mass.
10
Q # 23. Can we realize an ideal simple pendulum?
Ans. No, we can’t realize an ideal simple pendulum. An ideal simple pendulum should consist of a
heavy but small metallic bob suspended from a frictionless rigid support by means of long, weighless
and inextensible string. These conditions are impossible to attain in nature. So ideal simple pendulum
can’t be realized.
Q # 24. What happens to period of simple pendulum if its length is doubled? What happens if
the suspended mass is doubled?
Ans. The time period of the simple pendulum is
Where is length of simple pendulum and is gravitational

constant.
Case 1: If Length is Doubled If the length of simple pendulum
is doubled, then the time period T ' will be:
√ √ ( √ )
So if the length of the simple pendulum is doubled, then its time period increase by 1.41 times
of initial time period.
Case 2: If Mass is Doubled If the mass of bob of simple pendulum is doubled, then there is no effect
on time period, because the period is independent of the mass of simple pendulum.
Q # 25. What should be the length of a simple pendulum whose period is 1 s at a place where
? What is the frequency of such pendulum?
Given Data:
To Determine: ,
( )
Calculations: √ ( )
As
Q # 26. A simple pendulum is 50.0 cm long. What will be its frequency of vibration at the place
where ?
Given Data:
To Determine:
( √ )
11
7.6 ENERGY CONSERVATION IN SHM
Q # 27. Prove that the law of conservation of energy is satisfied for an object executing SHM.
Statement: The total energy of the object executing SHM remains constant.
Proof: Consider a vibrating mass spring system. When the mass m is pulled slowly, the spring is
stretched by an amount against the elastic restoring force.
Derivation of Expression for P.E.
According to Hook’s law:
 When displacement = 0 Applied Force
 When displacement = Applied Force
Average force
The work done in displacing the mass m through is:
( )( )
This work appears as elastic potential energy of spring. Hence
This equation gives the maximum P.E at the extreme position. Thus
At any instant t, if the displacement is x, then

P.E. at that instant is given by:
Derivation of Expression for P.E.

The velocity at any instant t is described as:
√ ( )
Hence the K.E. at that instant is
[ ( )]
( )
Total Energy ( ) of Horizontal Mass Spring System at Mean Position

At mean position, . Therefore
( )
( ) ( )
----------- (1)
12
Total Energy ( ) of Horizontal Mass Spring System at Extreme Position
At mean position, . Therefore
( ) ( )
----------- (2)
Total Energy ( ) of Horizontal Mass Spring System at any instant

The total energy of the mass spring system at any instant of time is described as the sum of potential
energy and kinetic energy at that instant. The P.E and K.E of SHO at any instant of time is:
( )
Thus
( )
----------- (3)
Hence from equations (1), (2) and (3), the total energy of the
vibrating mass-spring system is constant. When the kinetic energy of the
mass is maximum, the potential energy of mass-spring system will be
zero, and vice versa. The variation of P.E and K.E with displacement is
essential for maintaining oscillations. This periodic exchange of energy is
a basic property of all oscillatory systems.
Q # 28. Explain the relation between the total energy, Potential energy and kinetic energy for a
body oscillating with SHM.
Ans. The total energy of the mass spring system at any instant of time is described as the sum of
potential energy and kinetic energy at that instant. The instantaneous P.E and K.E of SHO is:
& ( )
Thus ( )
Thus total energy of the object executing SHM remains constant.

Q # 29. A block of mass 4.0 kg is dropped from a height of 0.80 m on to a spring of spring
constant . Find the maximum distance through which the spring will be
compressed.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculation:
13
Q # 30. An 8.0 kg body executes SHM with amplitude 30 cm. The restoring force is 60 N when
the displacement is 30 cm. Find (i) Period (ii) Acceleration, speed, kinetic energy and potential
energy when the displacement is 12 cm.
Given Data: | |
To Determine: ( )
( )
| |
Calculations: ( ) As Restoring Force | |
 √ √
 ( )
 √ ( ) √ [( ) ( ) ]
 ( ) [( ) ( ) ]
 ( )
Q # 31. A car of mass 1300 kg is constructed using a frame supported by four springs. Each
spring has a spring constant . If two people are riding in the car have a combined
mass of 160 kg, find the frequency of vibration of the car, when it is driven over a pot hole in the
road. Assume the weight is evenly distributed.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculation: √ √
( √ )
Q # 32. Find the amplitude, frequency and period of an object vibrating at the end of a spring, if
the equation from its position, as a function of time is ( ) . What is the
displacement of the object after 2.0 s?
Given Data: ( ) ( )
To Determine:
Calculation: ( )
(i) Comparing (1) and (2):
( ⁄ )
(ii) Putting t=2s in equation (1): *( ) +
14
7.7 FREE AND FORCED OSCILLATIONS
Q # 33. Differentiate among free and forced oscillations.
Free Oscillations
A body is said to be executing free vibrations when it oscillates without the interference of an
external force. For example, a simple pendulum when slightly displaced from its mean position
vibrates freely with its natural frequency that depends only upon the length of pendulum.
Forced Oscillations
If an oscillating system is subjected to an external periodic force, then forced vibrations will
take place. For example, the mass of a vibrating pendulum is struck repeatedly, the forced vibrations
are produced.
Q # 34. What do you know about driven harmonic oscillator.
Ans. A physical system undergoing forced vibrations is known as driven harmonic oscillator.

1. The S.I units of spring constant are: 7. Angular velocity of vibrating body attached with
a) horizontal mass spring system is given by:
b) a)
c) √
d) b)
2. The force which opposes the applied force c) √
producing the displacement in the spring is
called d)
√
a) Restoring force 8. Frequency of the second pendulum is:
b) Periodic force a) 2.5 Hz
c) Centripetal force b) 0.5 Hz
d) Resistive force c) 1.5 Hz
3. If f is the frequency of a body executing d) 2 Hz
SHM, its angular frequency is: 9. Which expression is correct for the time period of a
a) simple pendulum:
b) a)
c) b)
d) None of these c) √
4. The product of time period and frequency is: d) √
a) Zero 10. In simple harmonic motion:
b) 1 a) P.E remains constant
b) K.E remain constant
c)
d) None of these c) Total energy remain constant
d) Total momentum remain constant
5. The phase angle of the body 11. The displacement of SHM is written as
performing SHM indicates: , If displacement is written by
a) Only direction of motion
then phase constant will be equal to:
b) Only magnitude of displacement
a)
c) Both magnitude of displacement and
b)
direction of motion
c)
d) None of these
d)
6. In SHM, the velocity of the particle is 12. If the displacement of a body executing S.H.M is
maximum at: plotted against time, then the curve is known
a) Mean position a) Frequency of S.H.M
b) Extreme position b) Period of S.H.M
c) In between mean and extreme position
c) Wave form
d) None
d) None of them
15
7.8 RESONANCE
Q # 35. Define the term resonance. Also describe few examples of resonance phenomenon
occurring in daily life.
Ans. When the frequency of the applied force is equal to the natural
frequency of simple harmonic oscillator, the amplitude of the
motion may become extraordinary large. This phenomenon is
called resonance.
Explanation: Consider a horizontal rod AB is supported by two
strings and . Three pairs of pendulums , and are
suspended to this rod. If one of these pendulums, say c, is displaced
from its mean position, then its resultant oscillatory motion causes
slight disturbance motion in rod AB. This causes the pendulum to oscillate back with steadily
increasing amplitude. However, the amplitude of the other pendulums remains small. The increase of
the amplitude of pendulum is due to effect of resonance, because the periods as well as the natural
frequencies of pendulum and are equal.
Mechanical Resonance for the case of swing: A swing is the good example of mechanical
resonance. It is like a pendulum with a single natural frequency depending on its length. If a series of
regular pushes are given to the swing, its motion can be built up enormously. If pushes are given
irregularly, the swing will hardly vibrate.
March of soldiers on bridge: The column of soldiers, while marching on a bridge
of long span is advised to break their steps. Their rhythmic march might set up
oscillation of dangerously large amplitude in the bridge structure.
Electrical Resonance in Tuning of a Radio: Tuning of a radio is the best example
of electrical resonance. When we turn the knob of a radio, to tune a station, we are
changing the natural frequency of electrical circuit of receiver, to make it equal to
the transmission frequency of the radio station. When the two frequencies match,
energy absorption is maximum and this is the only station we hear.
Cooking of a Food in Microwave Oven: Another good example of resonance is
the heating and cooking of food very efficiently and evenly by microwave oven.
The waves produced in this type of oven have a frequency of 2450 MHz. At this
frequency the waves are absorbed due to resonance by water and fat molecules in
the food.
Q # 36. Describe some common phenomenon in which resonance plays an important role.
Ans. There are some common phenomenon in which the resonance plays an important role such that:
 In radio sets
 In microwave oven
 Musical Instruments
16
7.9 DAMPED OSCILLATIONS
Q # 37. Define the term damping.
Ans. Damping is the process whereby energy is dissipated from the
oscillating system.
Q # 38. Write a note on damped oscillations?
Ans. The oscillation in which the amplitude decreases steadily with time are
called damped oscillations.

Explanation
In everyday life, the motion of any microscopic system is
accompanied by frictional effects. For the case of SHM, the amplitude of
simple harmonic oscillator gradually becomes smaller and smaller. The
energy of oscillator is used up in doing work against the resistive forces.
An application of damped oscillations is the shock absorber of a car
which provides a damping force to prevent extensive oscillations.
Q # 39. In a mass spring system is hung vertically and set into oscillations,
why does the motion eventually stop?
Ans. If the mass spring system is hung vertically and set into oscillation, the
motion eventually stops due to friction and air resistance and some other
damping forces.

13. In damped harmonic oscillation, which one 17. Sharpness of resonance is.
deceases? a) Directly proportional to damping force
a) Amplitude of vibration b) Inversely proportional to damping force
b) Energy of vibration c) Equal to square of damping force
c) Both amplitude and energy d) None of these
d) Neither amplitude nor energy
18. Which one does not work according to resonance?
14. A physical system undergoing forced a) T.V
vibrations is known as b) Radio
a) Driven harmonic oscillator c) Microwave oven
b) Resonance d) Bulb
c) Simple harmonic oscillator
d) None of above 19. The oscillations in which amplitude decreased steadily
with time are called:
15. Tuning of radio set is an example of
a) Natural oscillations
a) Mechanical resonance
b) Free oscillation
b) Musical resonance
c) Forced oscillations
c) Electrical resonance
d) Damped oscillations
d) Free vibration
20. Distance covered during one vibration of an oscillating
16. The frequency of waves produced in
body in term of amplitude A is:
microwaves oven is:
a) 1435 MHz a) ⁄
b) 2450 MHz b)
c) 1860 MHz c)
d) 2850 MHz d)
17
7.10 SHARPNESS OF RESONANCE
Q # 40. What do you understand by sharpness in resonance?
Ans. At resonance, the amplitude of the oscillator becomes very large.

If the amplitude decreases rapidly at a frequency slightly different
from the resonant frequency, the resonance will be sharp.
Q # 41. Describe the effect of damping on resonance and its
sharpness.
Ans. Smaller the damping, greater will be the amplitude and more
sharp will be the resonance. A heavily damped system has a fairly
flat reason curve as is shown in an amplitude frequency graph.
Q # 42. Under what condition does the addition of two simple harmonic motions produce a
resultant, which is also simple harmonic?
Ans. Addition of two simple harmonic motion produce a
resultant, which is also simple harmonic, if the following
conditions are fulfilled:
 Simple harmonic motion should be parallel
 Simple harmonic motion should have same frequency
 Simple harmonic motion should have constant phase
difference

21. Acceleration of a projection on the diameter 23. The length of second pendulum is.
for a particle moving along a circle is: a) 100 cm
a) w2x b) 99 cm
b) wx2 c) 99.2 cm
c) –w2x d) 98 cm
d) –wx2
22. In equation of SHM, , the 24. An object undergoes S.H.M has maximum acceleration
negative sign indicates the direction of when its displacement form the mean position is
motion of particle a) Maximum
a) Away from mean position b) Zero
b) Perpendicular to mean position c) Half of the maximum value
c) Towards mean position d) One third of the maximum value
d) None of above
18
Chapter 8 (Physics 1st Year) Waves
WAVES
Q # 1. Define the term wave.

Ans. Wave is the disturbance produced in a medium which is used to transport energy from one point
to another without transporting matter.
Q # 2. Differentiate among mechanical and electromagnetic waves.
Ans. There are two main types of waves
1. Mechanical Waves
2. Electromagnetic Waves
Mechanical Waves
The waves which require any medium for their propagation by the oscillation of material
particles are called mechanical waves e.g., sound waves, water waves etc.
Electromagnetic Waves
The waves don’t require any medium for their propagation are called electromagnetic waves.
These waves propagate out in space due to oscillations of electric and magnetic fields. Some examples
of electromagnetic waves are visible light, radio waves, television signals, and x-rays.
Q # 3. What do you know about Progressive or travelling waves? Also describe its types.
Ans. A wave, which transfers energy by moving away from the source of disturbance, is called a
progressive or travelling wave. There are two types of progressive waves:
1. Transverse Waves
2. Longitudinal Waves
Transverse Waves
A traveling wave that causes the elements of the disturbed medium to move perpendicular to
the direction of propagation is called a transverse wave.
Longitudinal Waves
A traveling wave that causes the elements of the medium to move parallel to the direction of
propagation is called a longitudinal wave.
Q # 4. What do you know about periodic waves.
1
Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik , www.HouseOfPhy.Blogspot.com , www.fb.com/HomeOfPhysics
Ans. Continuous, regular and rhythmic disturbance in a medium result from periodic vibrations of the
source causes the periodic waves in the medium.
Q # 5. Describe the different properties of transverse periodic waves.
Ans. Consider a string whose left end is connected to a blade that is set vibrating. The wave travels
towards right as the crest and trough in turn, replace each other. Every part of the string, such as point
P, oscillates vertically with simple harmonic motion.
Crest
The crest is a pattern in which the rope is displaced above its equilibrium position.
Trough
The portion of the rope which has displacement below its equilibrium position is called
trough.
Amplitude
The maximum displacement of an element of the medium from equilibrium position is called
the amplitude of the wave.
Wavelength
The distance between two consecutive crest and trough of a wave is called wavelength and is
denoted by the symbol λ.
Time Period
The period T of a wave is the time interval required for the wave to travel one wavelength.
Frequency
The frequency of a periodic wave is the number of crests (or troughs) that pass a given point
in a unit time interval. The frequency f of a wave is related to the period T by the expression:
1
f 
T
Q # 6. Derive the expression for the Speed of Wave through a medium.
Ans. Consider a crest of wave moves one wavelength  in one period of oscillation T . The speed of
the crest is therefore:
Distance Moved
v
Corresponding Time Interval

v ---------- (1)
T
2
But f  1
T
Thus the equation (1) becomes:
v f
Q # 7. How the longitudinal periodic waves are represented by waveform.
Ans. Consider a coil of spring capable of
vibrating horizontally. Suppose an oscillating
force F is applied to its ends horizontally. The
force will alternately stretch and compress the
spring, thereby sending a series of stretched
regions (rarefactions) and compressions down
the spring. Such types of waves are also called
the compressional waves. Theses compressions and rarefactions are represented by corresponding
crests and troughs as shown in the figure:
Q # 8. Describe the formula for the speed of sound in term of modulus of elasticity of the
medium.
Ans. The speed of sound waves depends on the compressibility and inertia of the medium through
which they are travelling. If the medium has elastic modulus E and density  then, speed v is given
by:
E ------------ (1)
v

Q # 9. How Newton derived the Formula for Speed of Sound.
Ans. For the calculations of elastic modulus for air, Newton assumed that when a sound wave travels
through air, the temperature of the air during compression remains constant. The pressure changes from
P to ( P  P) and therefore, the volume changes from V to (V  V ) . According to the Boyle’s
law:
PV   P  P V  V 
 PV  PV  PV  V P  PV
  PV  V P  PV  0
The product PV is very small and can be neglected. So the above equation becomes:
  PV  V P  0
 PV  V P
V P P
P 
V V / V
 P 
The expression   is the elastic constant E at constant temperature. Therefore:
 V / V 
PE
So, substituting P for E in equation (1) gives us the Newton’s formula for speed of sound in air. Hence
3
P
v

On substituting the values of atmospheric pressure and density of air at S.T.P., the speed of
sound waves in air comes out to be 280 ms-1, whereas its experimental value is 332 ms-1.
Q # 10. Describe the Laplace’s correction in the Newton’s Formula for Speed of Sound.
Ans. Laplace pointed out that the compression and rarefactions occur so rapidly that heat of
compressions remains confined to the regions where it is generated and does not have time to flow to
the neighboring cooler regions which have undergone an expansion. Hence the temperature of the
medium does not remain constant. In such case, Boyle’s law takes the form:
PV   const. ----------- (1)

Where   Molar specific heat of gas at constant pressure
Molar specific heat of gas at constant volume
If the pressure of the gas changes from P to ( P  P) and volume changes from V to
(V  V ) , then equation (1) will become:
PV    P  P V  V 


 V 
 PV   P  P V 1 
 

 V 

 V 
 P   P  P  1   ----------- (4)
 V 

 V  V
By binomial theorem: 1    1   negligibleterms
 V  V
Putting values in equation (4), we get:
 V 
 P   P  P  1   
 V 
V V
 P  P  P  P  P
V V
V V
 P  P  P  P   P
V V
V V
 0   P  P   P
V V
V
Where the term  P is negligible, we have:
V
V
 0   P  P
V
V
P  P
V
P
P  E
V / V
Hence by substituting the value of elastic modulus in equation (2), we get the Laplace’s expression for
speed of sound in air.
4
P
v

For air   1.4 . So at S.T.P, the speed of sound in air will be:
v  333 ms 1
This value is very close to the experimental value.
Q # 11. Describe the effect of Variation of Pressure, Density and Temperature on Speed of
Sound in a Gas.
Ans.
Effect of Variation of Pressure on Speed of Sound in a Gas
Since density of a gas is proportional to the pressure, the speed of sound is not affected by the
variation in the pressure of the gas.
Effect of Variation of Density on Speed of Sound in a Gas
At same temperature and pressure for the gases having the same value of  , the speed is
inversely proportional to the square root of their densities. Thus the speed of sound in hydrogen is four
time its speed in oxygen as the density of oxygen is 16 times that of hydrogen.
Effect of Variation of Temperature on Speed of Sound in a Gas
When the gas is heated at constant pressure, its volume is increased and hence its density as:
P
v

So, the speed of sound increased with increase in temperature.
Q # 11. Show that one degree Celsius rise in temperature produces approximately 0.61 ms -1
increases the speed of sound.
Ans. Let
v0  Speed of sound at 00 C
vt  Speed of sound at t 0C
0  Density of gas at 00 C
t  Density of gas at t 0C
P
Then v0  ---------- (1)
0
P
And vt  ---------- (2)
t
Dividing equation (1) & (2), we get:
vt 0
 ---------- (3)
v0 t
If V0 is the volume of the gas at 0C and Vt is the volume at t C , then by Charles Law:
5
 t 
Vt  V0 1   ----------- (4)
 273 
Since
mass
Volume =
density , so the equation (4) becomes:
m m t 
 1 
t 0  273 
0  t 
  1 
t  273 
Putting values in equation (3), we get:
vt t
 1
v0 273
1
vt  t  2
 1  
v0  273 
Expending using Binomial Theorem and neglecting higher powers, we have:
vt t
 1
v0 576
 t  v0t
 vt  v0 1    v0 
 576  576
As v0  332 ms 1 , therefore:
332
vt  v0  t
576
vt  v0  0.61t
This shows that one degree Celsius rise in temperature produces approximately 0.61 ms -1
increases the speed of sound.
Q # 12. State the Principal of Superposition of waves. Also describe its significance.
If the particle of the medium is simultaneously acted upon by n waves such that its
displacement its displacement due to each of the individual n waves be y1 , y2 ,......, yn , then the
resultant displacement of the particle, under the simultaneous action of these n waves is algebraic sum
of all displacement i.e.,
Y  y1  y2  ......  yn
Application of Superposition Principle
Principle of superposition leads to many interesting phenomenon with waves:
1. Superposition of two waves having same frequency and travelling in the same direction will
result in a phenomenon called interference
6
2. Superposition of two waves having slightly different frequencies and travelling in the same
direction will produce beats phenomenon
3. Superposition of two waves having same frequency and travelling in the opposite direction
will produce the stationary waves
Q # 13. What do you know about the Interference of waves? Also describe different types of
interference phenomenon.
Ans. Superposition of two waves having same frequency and travelling in the same direction will result
in a phenomenon called interference.
Types of Interference
There are two types of interference:
1. Constructive Interference
2. Destructive Interference
Constructive Interference
Whenever the path difference between the two waves is an integral multiple of wavelength,
then the both waves reinforce each other. This effect is called constructive interference.
If S is the path difference between two waves having wavelength  , then condition of
constructive interference can be describe as:
S  n
Where n  0, 1,  2,  3,......
Destructive Interference
Whenever the path difference between the two waves is an odd integral multiple of half of
wavelength, then the both waves cancel each other’s effect. This effect is called constructive
interference.
If S is the path difference between two waves having wavelength  , then condition of
constructive interference can be describe as:

S   2n  1
2
Where n  0, 1,  2,  3,......
Q # 14. What do you know about the Beats phenomenon? Also describe its applications.
Ans. The periodic rise and fall in the amplitude of resultant wave due to superposition of two waves
having slightly different frequencies but moving in the same direction.
Important Note:
Number of beats per second is equal to the difference between the frequencies of the tuning
forks. When the difference between the frequencies of the two sounds is more than 10 Hz, then it
becomes difficult to recognize the beats.
7
Uses of Beats
 Beats are used to determine unknown frequency.
 Beats are used in tuning the musical instruments such as piano or violin.
 Beats are also used to produce the variety in music.
Q # 15. Describe the two conditions of reflection of waves.
 If a transverse wave travelling in the rare medium is incident on a denser medium, it is
reflected such that it undergoes a phase change of 1800 .

 If a transverse wave travelling in the denser medium is incident on a rare medium, it is
reflected without any change in phase.
Q # 16. What are the stationary waves? Describe the main characteristics of stationary waves.
The stationary waves are produced by the superposition of two waves having same frequency and
travelling in the opposite direction.
Characteristics of Stationary Waves
 The points of zero displacement in the stationary waves are called nodes.
 The points of maximum displacement in the stationary waves are called anti-nodes.
 No energy is transferred from particle to particle in stationary waves.
 Particles, except nodes, perform SHM with the same period as the component waves.

 Distance between the two consecutive nodes or anti-nodes is equal to .
2

 Distance between node and its neighboring anti-nodes is equal to .
4
Q # 17. How the stationary waves are produced in stretched string?
 When the string is plucked at its middle point, two transverse waves will originate from this point.
One of waves will moves towards the left end of the string and the other towards the right end.
When these waves reach the two clamped ends, they are reflected back thus giving rise to
stationary waves and the string vibrate in one loop.
 When the string is plucked from one quarter of its length, the stationary waves will be setup and
the string vibrates in two loops.
 When the string is plucked from one-sixth of its length, the stationary waves will be setup and the
string vibrates in three loops.
8
 Similarly, by plucking the string properly, it can be made to vibrate in 4, 5, 6,…..,n loops and the
frequency of these modes of vibration will be 4 f1 , 5 f1 , 6 f1 ,…., nf1 , respectively.
Q # 18. Describe the expression of frequency of stationary waves produced in a stretched string.
Or Show that the frequencies of stationary waves in stretched string are quantized.
Ans. Consider a string of length L which is kept stretched by
clamping its ends so that the tension in the string is F. The speed
v of the waves in the string depends upon the tension F of the
string and m, mass per unit length of string. The speed of the
stationary waves is given by the expression:
F
v
m
When the string is plucked at its Middle Point
When the string is plucked at its middle point, the
stationary waves will be setup and the string vibrates in one loop.
If f1 and 1 be the frequency and the wavelength of the

stationary wave, then from figure (b):
1
L
2
1  2L
The frequency corresponding to one loop in stretched string is denoted by f1 and is called
fundamental frequency. If v is the speed of the wave, then
v  f11  f1 (2 L)
v
f1 
2L
When the string is plucked One Quarter of its Length
When the string is plucked from one quarter of its length, the stationary waves will be setup
and the string vibrates in two loops.
If f 2 and 2 be the frequency and the wavelength

of the stationary wave, then from figure (c):
 
L  2 2 
 2
2  L
The frequency corresponding to two loops in stretched
string is denoted by f 2 . If v is the speed of the wave, then

v  f 2 2  f 2 ( L)
9
v  v 
f2   2   2 f1
L  2L 
Hence f 2 is double of fundamental frequency.
When the string is plucked One Sixth of its Length
When the string is plucked from one-sixth of its length, the stationary waves will be setup and
the string vibrates in three loops. If f3 and 3 be the frequency and the wavelength of the stationary
wave, then from figure (c):
 
L  3 3 
 2
2L
3 
3
The frequency corresponding to two loops in
stretched string is denoted by f3 . If v is the speed of the

wave, then
 2L 
v  f33  f3  
 3 
v  v 
f3   3   3 f1
 2L   2L 
 
 3 
Hence f3 is thrice the fundamental frequency.
Generalization
Similarly, by plucking the string properly, it can be made to vibrate in 4, 5, 6,….. loops and
the frequency of these modes of vibration will be 4 f1 , 5 f1 , 6 f1 ,…. respectively.
Thus we can generalize that if the string is made to vibrate in n loops, then its frequency f n is
described by the relation:
f n  nf1 ,
This proves that the frequencies of stationary waves in stretched string are quantized.
Q # 19. What is an organ pipe? Describe its different types.
Ans. An organ pipe is a wind instrument. It consist of a long tube in which air is forced from one end
and sound is produced by means of a vibrating air column.
When air is forced in the pipe, the air inside is set into vibrations and stationary waves are
produced in the pipe.
Types of Organ Pipe
There are two types of organ pipes:
(i) Closed Pipe (ii) Open Pipe
Closed Pipe
If one end of the organ pipe is closed, it is called closed pipe.
Open Pipe
If both ends of the organ pipe are open, it is called open pipe.
10
Q # 20. Describe the phenomenon of stationary waves in air column.
Ans. Stationary waves can be set in air column, such as in case of organ pipe. The relationship between
the incident wave and the reflected wave depends on whether the reflecting end is open or close.
 If the reflecting end is open, as in case of open organ pipe, the air molecule has complete
freedom of motion and this behaves as an anti-node.
 If the reflecting end is closed, as in case of close organ pipe, the motion of the air molecules is
restricted and it behaves as a node.
Q # 21. Describe the expression of frequency of stationary waves produce in the air column
produced in the air column of Open Organ Pipe.
Ans. Modes of vibrations in an Open Air Column
Let a vibrating tuning fork be held at the mouth of an open pipe of length L . If the pipe is
open at both ends, then its ends behaves as anti-nodes.
First Harmonic
If f1 and 1 be the frequency and the wavelength of the stationary wave for the case of first
harmonic, then from figure:
1
L  1  2L
2
If v is the speed of the wave, then
v  f11  f1 (2 L)
v
 f1 
2L
Second Harmonic
If f 2 and 2 be the frequency and the wavelength of the stationary wave for the case of
second harmonic, then from figure:
 
L  2  2   2  L
 2
v  f 2 2  f 2 ( L)
v  v 
 f2   2   2 f1
L  2L 
Third Harmonic
11
If f3 and 3 be the frequency and the wavelength of the stationary wave for the case of third
  2L
L  3  3   3 
 2 3
 2L 
v  f33  f3  
 3 
 v 
 f3  3    3 f1
 2L 
Generalization
Similarly for the nth harmonic,
f n  nf1
Where n  1, 2,3,.....
Hence, it is proved that all harmonics are present in an open organ pipe.
Q # 22. Describe the expression of frequency of stationary waves produce in the air column
produced in the air column of Close Organ Pipe
Ans. Modes of vibrations in a Close Air Column
Let a vibrating tuning fork be held at the mouth of an open pipe of length L . If the pipe is
close at one end and open at the other, the close end acts as node while the open end behaves as anti-
nodes.
First Harmonic
If f1 and 1 be the frequency and the wavelength of the stationary wave for the case of first
1
L  1  4L
4
v  f11  f1 (4 L)
v
 f1 
4L
Second Harmonic
12
If f 2 and 2 be the frequency and the wavelength of the stationary wave for the case of
second harmonic, then from figure:
  4L
L  3  2   2 
 4 3
 4L 
v  f 2 2  f 2  
 3 
 v 
 f2  3   3 f1
 4L 
Third Harmonic
If f3 and 3 be the frequency and the wavelength of the stationary wave for the case of third
  2L
L  5  3   3 
 2 5
 2L 
v  f33  f3  
 5 
 v 
 f3  5    5 f1
 2L 
Generalization
Similarly for the nth harmonic,
f n  nf1
Where n  1,3,5,.....
Hence, it is proved that only the odd harmonics are present in a close organ pipe.
Q # 23. What is the Doppler Effect? Find out the expression of apparently changed frequency for
the following cases:
(i) When the observer moves towards the stationary source
(ii) When the observer moves away from stationary source
(iii) When the source moves towards the stationary observer
(iv) When the source moves away from stationary observer
13
Ans. Doppler’s Effect
The apparent change in the frequency of sound due to relative motion between the observer
and source of sound is called Doppler Effect.
Suppose a source of sound emits a sound of frequency f and wavelength  . Let the
velocity of the sound in the medium is v . If both the source and observer are stationary, the number of
waves observed by the observer in one second are:
v
f 

We want to find out the expression of apparent change in the frequency of sound due to the
relative motion between source and observer.
Case 1. When the observer moves towards the stationary source
If the observer A moves towards the stationary source with velocity u0 , then the relative
velocity of the waves and the observer is increased to  v  u0  . Then the frequency of sound received
by the observer A is :
v  u0 v  u0
fA  

vf
 v  u0 
fA   f
 v 
v  u0
Since  1, therefore f A  f
v
Result: The apparent frequency of the sound increases, when the observer moves towards the
stationary source of sound.
Case 2. When the observer moves away from stationary source
Let the observer moves away from the stationary source with velocity u0 , then the relative
velocity of the waves and the observer is  v  u0  . Then the frequency of sound received by the
observer B is :
v  u0 v  u0
fB  

vf
 v  u0 
fB   f
 v 
v  u0
Since  1 , therefore f B  f
v
Result: The apparent frequency of the
sound decreases, when the observer moves away from the stationary source of sound.
14
Case 3. When the source moves towards the stationary observer
If the source is moving away towards the observer C with speed us , then the waves are
compressed per second by an amount  , known as Doppler Shift:
us
 
f
The compression of waves is due to the fact that same number of waves are contained in a
shorter space depending upon the velocity of source.
The wavelength for observer C is
v us v  us
c       
f f f
The modified frequency for observer C is
v v  v 
fc    f
c  v  us   v  us 
 f 
 
v
Since  1 , therefore f c  f
v  us
Result: The apparent frequency of the sound increases, when the source moves towards the stationary
observer.
Case 4. When the source moves away from the stationary observer
If the source is moving away towards the observer D with speed us , the wavelength of
increases by an amount  , known as Doppler Shift:

us
 
f
The expansion of wavelength is due to the fact that same number of waves are contained in a
larger space depending upon the velocity of source.
The wavelength for observer D is

v us v  us
D       
f f f
The modified frequency for observer D is
v v  v 
fD    f
D  v  us   v  us 
 f 
 
v
Since  1 , therefore f D  f
v  us
15
Result: The apparent frequency of the sound decrease, when the source moves away from the
stationary observer.
Q # 24. Describe the application of Doppler effect.
Radar System
In radar systems, the Doppler effect is used to determine the elevation and speed of aeroplane.
Radar is a device, which transmits and receives the radio waves.
 If the aeroplane approaches towards the radar, then the wavelength of the wave reflected from
the aeroplane would be shorter.
 If the aeroplane moves away from radar, then the wavelength of the wave reflected from the
aeroplane would be larger.
The speed of satellites moving around the earth can also be determined from the same principal.
SONARS
In SONAR, the “Doppler detection” relies upon the relative speed of the target and the
detector to provide and indication of the target speed. Its known military application include:
 The detection and location of submarines
 Control of anti-submarine weapons
 Mine Hunting
 Depth measurement of sea
Applications in Astronomy
Astronomers use the Doppler Effect to calculate the speed of distant star and galaxies.
Star moving towards the Earth show a blue shift, while stars moving away from the Earth
show a red shift. By comparing the line spectrum of light from the star with light from a laboratory
source, the Doppler shift of the star’s light can be measured. Then the speed of star can be calculated.
Radar Speed Trap System
In radar speed tramp system, the microwaves are emitted from a transmitter in short bursts.
Each burst is reflected off by any car in the path of microwaves. The transmitter is open to detect the
reflected microwaves. If the election is caused by a moving obstacle, the reflected microwaves are
Doppler shifted. By measuring the Doppler shift, the speed at which the car moves is calculated by the
computer program.
16
EXERCISE SHORT QUESTIONS
Q # 1. What features do longitudinal waves have in common with transverse waves?

Ans. Following features are common in transverse and longitudinal waves:
 Both are mechanical waves.
 Particles oscillate about their mean position in both types of waves.
 Both transport energy from one place to another.
 Both satisfy the equation: v  f 
Q # 2. Is it possible for two identical waves travelling in the same direction along a string
to give rise to stationary waves?
Ans. No, it is not possible for two identical waves travelling in the same direction along a
string to give rise to stationary waves. For stationary waves, two identical waves must travel
in opposite direction.
Q # 3. A wave is produced along a stretched string but some of its particles permanently
show zero displacement. What type of wave is it?
Ans. It is a stationary wave and the pints are called Nodes.
Q # 4. Explain the terms crest, trough, node and anti-node.

Ans.
Crest. The portion of the wave above the mean level is called crest.
Trough. The portion of the wave below the mean level is called trough.
Node. The points of zero displacement in stationary waves are called Nodes
Anti-node. The points of maximum displacement in stationary waves are called anti-
nodes.
Q # 5. Why should sound travel faster in solids than in gases?
Ans. The formula for speed of sound is:
E
v

Where
E = Modulus of Elasticity
  Density
Although the density of solids is greater than the density of gases but the modulus of
elasticity for solids is much greater than gases. Hence, sound travel faster in solids than in
gases.
17
Q # 6. How are the beats useful in tuning musical instruments?
Ans. We know that the number of beats produced per second is equal to the difference of
frequencies of the two bodies. To tune a musical instrument to the required frequency, it is
sounded together with an instrument of known frequency. Now the number of beats produce
will tell the difference of their frequency.
The frequency of the untuned instrument is adjusted till the number of beats become
zero. At this stage, the two instruments will have the same frequencies. Thus the musical
instrument is said to be tuned.
Q # 7. When two notes of frequencies f1 and f 2 are sounded together, beats are
formed. If f1  f 2 , what will be the frequency of the beats?
1 1
(i) f1  f 2 (ii)  f1  f2  (iii) f1  f 2 (iv)  f1  f2 
2 2
Ans. The correct answer is (iii) f1  f 2
Q # 8. As a result of a distant explosion, an observer senses a ground tremor and then

hears the explosion. Explain the time difference.
Ans. The waves produced by the explosion reach the observer quickly through the ground as
compared to the sound waves reaching through the air. This is due to the reason that sound
travels faster in solid than gases.
Q # 9. Explain why sound travels faster in warm air than in cold air.
Ans. The speed of sound varies directly as the square root of absolute temperature, i.e.,
v  T
It means that greater the temperature of air, more will be the speed of sound in it.
That’s why sound travel faster in warm air than in cold air.
Q # 10. How should a sound source move with respect to an observer so that the
frequency of its sound does not change?
Ans. If the relative velocity between the source and the observer is zero, then there will be no
change in frequency of the source and the apparent frequency will be zero.
18
Chapter 9 (Physics 1st Year) Physical Optics (Edition: 2015-16)
(a) Schematic diagram of

Young’s double-slit experiment.
Slits and behave as
coherent sources of light waves
that produce an interference
pattern on the viewing screen.
(b) An enlargement of the

center of a fringe pattern
formed on the viewing screen.
Light is a type of energy which produces sensation of vision. In 1678, Huygen proposed that light energy from
luminous source travels in space as waves. The experimental evidence in support of wave theory was not
convincing. However, in 1801, Young’s interference experiment proved wave nature of light.
9.1 WAVEFRONTS
Q # 1: Define and explain the term wavefront.
Ans. Such a surface on which all the points have the same phase of vibration
is called wavefront.
Explanation: Consider a point source of light s is emitting light waves in all
directions with speed c. After time t, light waves will reach the surface of the
sphere with its center at S and radius ( ). Every point on the
surface of this sphere will be set into vibration by the wave reaching there. As
the distance of all these points from the source is same, the points are in same
state of vibration.
In this way, the wave moves forward producing new wavefronts. All
these wavefronts are concentric. These are call spherical wavefronts. The distance between two consecutive
wavefronts is one wavelength . A line normal to the wavefront which gives the
direction of motion of the wave is called a ray. Ray is always perpendicular to
the wavefront.
Q # 2: Describe different kinds of wavefronts.
Spherical wavefront: The source in which the waves propagate in spherical
form, with the source at the center of sphere, is called spherical wavefront.
Plane wavefront: The wavefront, in which the rays of the waves are parallel, is
called plane wavefront. At very large distance from the source, a small portion of the spherical wavefront is
nearly plane and is called plane wavefront.
1
9.2 HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE

Q # 3: Describe the significance of Huygen’s Principle.
Ans. Knowing the shape and position of a wavefront at any time t, Huygen’s principle
enables us to find the shape and position of the new wavefront at a later time .
Q # 4: State and explain Huygen’s Principle.
Ans. This statement of Huygen’s principle consists of two points:
1. Every point of a wavefront may be considered as a source of secondary
wavelets which spread out in forward direction with the speed equal to the
speed of propagation of wave.
2. The new position of the wavefront after a certain interval of time can be
found by constructing a surface that touches all secondary wavelets.
Explanation
In figure a, AB is a spherical wavefront at any time t. To find the wavefront at
time draw secondary wavelets with center at various point on the wavefront
AB and radius , where c is the speed of propagation of waves.
is the new wavefront at a time . it is obtained by drawing a plane
tangent to the secondary wavelets. Figure b shows similar construction for a plane
wavefront.

1. The locus of all points in a medium having the 4. Sodium chloride in a flame gives out pure:
same phase of vibration is called a) Blue light
a) Crest b) Yellow light
b) Trough c) Red light
c) Wavelength d) White light
d) Wave front
5. The condition for constructive interference of
2. The distance between two consecutive wave two coherent beams is that the path difference
fronts is called: should be
a) Time period a) Integral multiple of λ/2
b) Frequency b) Integral multiple of λ
c) Wavelength c) Odd Integral multiple of λ/2
d) Displacement d) Even integral multiple of λ
3. Two sources of light are coherent if they emit 6. The condition for destructive interference of two
rays of coherent beams is that the path difference should
a) Same wavelength be
b) Same amplitude of vibration a) Integral multiple of λ/2
c) Same wave length with constant phase b) Integral multiple of λ
difference c) Odd Integral multiple of λ/2
d) Same amplitude and wavelength d) Even integral multiple of λ
2
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT WAVES

Q # 5: What do you know about interference of light waves?
Ans. Superposition of the two or more waves, having same frequency and moving in the same direction, is
called interference.
 In case of constructive interference, the amplitude of the resultant wave will be greater than either of
the individual waves.
 In case of destructive interference, the amplitude of the resultant wave will be less than either of the
individual waves.
Q # 6: Describe the condition for detectable interference of light waves.
Ans. Interference of light waves is not easy to observe because of the random emission of light from a source.
The following condition must be met, in order to observe the interference of light phenomenon:
 The interfering beam of light must be monochromatic i.e., of single wavelength.
 The interfering beam of light must be coherent or phase coherent.
Q # 7: What are coherent sources?
Ans. The monochromatic source of light which emits waves having the constant phase difference are called
phase coherent sources.
Q # 8: Under what conditions two or more sources of light behave as coherent sources?
1. When a single source is splitted into two sources, then these two sources will behave as coherent
sources.
2. A source with its mirror image also acts as coherent sources.
YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
Q # 9: Describe the Young’s Double Slit Experiment for determination of condition for condition of
constructive and destructive interference of light. Also determine the fringe spacing.
Ans. In 1801, Young devised an experimental arrangement as
shown in the figure to study the interference of light.
A beam of monochromatic light falls on a screen having
two slits and . and behave as a phase coherent
sources producing coherent secondary wavelets.
Superposition of these wavelets produce a series of bright and
dark bands (fringes) on the screen which is placed at some
distance from the slits and .
1. When the wavelets arriving the screen are in such a
way that at some points crest fall on the crest and
troughs fall on the troughs, then a bright fringe (Maxima) is seen on the screen due to constructive
interference.
2. The points on the screen at which crests meets troughs, then a dark fringe (Minima) is seen on the
screen due to destructive interference.
3
In order to derive equations for maxima and minima, an arbitrary point P is taken on the screen on one
side of the central point O as shown in the figure. AP and BP are the paths of the rays reaching P. The line AD
is drawn such that . The separation between the centers of two slits is AB=d. The distance of Screen
from slits is . The angle between and is .
Condition for Maxima

If the point P is to have bright fringe, the path difference BD must be an integral multiple of wavelength.
Thus,
Since
Therefore,
This is the condition of bright fringe (maxima).
Condition for Minima
If the point P is to have dark fringe, the path difference BD must be an odd integral multiple half wavelength.
Thus, ( ) ( )
Since
Therefore, ( )
This is the condition of dark fringe (minima).
4
Linear distance between adjacent bright fringes

If a bright fringe is observed at P, the angle is small, then
If is the distance of point P from point O, then from figure, . Thus

the condition of maxima is also be described as:
In order to determine the distance between two adjacent bright fringes on the screen, and ( )
fringes are considered.
For the bright fringe:
For the ( ) bright fringe: ( )
If the distance between the adjacent bright fringes is , then
( ) ( )
Therefore,
Similarly, for dark fringe ( ) and the distance between two adjacent dark fringes can be proved to
be . It is, therefore, found that that bright and dark fringes are of equal width and are equally spaced.
Q # 10: How is the distance between interference fringes affected by the separation between the slits of
Young’s experiment? Can fringes disappear?
Ans. According to the formula of fringe spacing , increasing the distance between the slits, the
distance between the fringes decreases and vice versa.

If we increase the separation between the slits beyond the limit, then there might be a chance that the
interference phenomenon stops occurring and fringes disappear.
Q # 11: Can visible light produce interference fringes? Explain.
Ans. Visible light consist of seven colors of different wavelengths. Each color forms its own fringes but
collectively they overlapped to form no clear fringes pattern.
Q # 12: In the Young’s experiment, one of the slits is covered with blue filter and other with red filter.
What would be the pattern of light intensity on the screen?
Ans. Due to different wavelength, the interference will not take place and we get a mixture of two colors on
the screen with almost constant intensity.
Q # 13: Explain whether the young’s experiment is an experiment for studying interference or
diffraction effects of light?
Ans. In young’s double slit experiment, in addition to interference the phenomenon of diffraction also takes
place. Due to which the central fringe is always bright. But actually the young’s experiment was carried out to
study the interference effects of light.
5
Q # 14: Calculate the wavelength of light, which illuminates two slits 0.5 mm apart and produces an
interference pattern on a screen placed 200 cm away from the slits. The first bright fringe is observed at
a distance of 2.40 mm from the central bright image.
Given Data: Distance between Slits , Inter-Screen Distance
st st
For the 1 bright fringe , Distance of 1 bright fringe from central maxima
To Determine:
Calculations: For dark fringe
Q # 15: The distance between the slits in Young’s double slit experiment is 0.25 cm. Interference fringes
are formed on a screen placed at a distance of 100 cm from the slits. The distance of the third dark
fringe from the central bright fringe is 0.059 cm. Find the wavelength of the incident light.
Given Data: Distance between Slits , Inter-Screen Distance
rd rd
For the 3 dark fringe , Distance of 3 dark fringe from central maxima
To Determine:
Calculations: For dark fringe ( ) ( )
Q # 16: Yellow sodium light of wavelength 589 nm, emitted by a single source passes through two
narrow slits 1 mm apart. The interference pattern is observed on a screen 225 cm away. How far apart
are two adjacent bright fringes?
Given Data: Wavelength , Distance between Slits ,
Inter-Screen Distance
To Determine:
Calculations:
Q # 17: In a double slit experiment the second order maximum occurs at . The wavelength is
650 nm. Determine the slit separation.
Given Data: Wavelength , , Angle
To Determine:
Calculations: For dark fringe ( )
Q # 18: Light of wavelength 546 nm is allowed to illuminate the slits of Young’s experiment. The
separation between the slits is 0.10 mm and the distance of the screen from the slits where interference
effects are observed is 20 cm. at what angle the first minimum will fall? What will be the linear distance
on the screen between adjacent maxima?
Given Data: Wavelength , Distance between Slits ,
Inter-Screen Distance
Calculations: (i) For dark fringe ( ) ( )
( )
(ii)
6
INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS

Q # 19: What do you know about thin films?
Ans. A thin film is a transparent medium whose thickness is comparable with the wavelength of light.
Beautiful colors are seen in soap bubbles and oil film on the surface of water due to interference of light in
thin films.
Q # 20: How the interference of light waves occurs
in thin films.
Ans. Consider a thin film of refracting medium.
Suppose an oil film on water. A beam of
monochromatic light of wavelength falls on the
upper surface of the film at point B. it is partly
reflected along BC and partly refracted into the
medium along BD.
At point D, it is again partly reflected inside
medium along DE and then along EF as shown in the
figure. As BC ad EF are parts of same beam so they
are phase coherent. Since the film is thin, so the separation between the beams BC and EF will be very small.
They will superpose each other and produce interference fringes.
Q # 21: What are the factors on which the path difference between two coherent beams from a thin film
depends?
Ans. The part difference depends upon:
 Thickness and nature of the film
 Angle of incidence
Q # 22: An oil film over a wet foot path shows color. Explain how does it happen?
Ans. The colors are appeared due to interference of light in thin of oil on the water surface.
Important Note: If the white light falls on the film of irregular thickness at all possible angles, we should
consider the interference pattern due to each spectral color separately and we see different colors.
7
NEWTON RINGS
Q # 23: What do you know about Newton Rings?
Ans. Circular dark and bright fringes obtained due to the interference of light through air film enclosed
between plano-convex lens and a glass plate are called Newton’s Rings.
Q # 24: How the Newton Rings are formed?
Ans. Consider a plano-convex lens of long focal length is
placed in contact with a plane glass plate. A thin air film is
enclosed between the upper surface of glass plate and the lower
surface of the lens. The thickness of the air film is almost zero
at the point of contact O and it gradually increases as one
proceeds towards the periphery of the lens. Thus the points
where the thickness of air film is constant will lie on circle with
O as center.
By means of sheet of Glass G, a parallel beam of
monochromatic light is reflected towards the plano-convex
lens. Light rays are reflected from the top and bottom surface
of the air film. These rays interfere each other and alternate circular dark
and bright fringes are seen through the microscope M. These are called
Newton’s Rings.
Q # 25: Why the Central Point in the pattern of Newton Rings is
always dark?
Ans. At the point of contact of plano-convex lens and glass plate, the
thickness of air film is zero. But due to the reflection at the lower
surface of air film from denser medium, an additional path difference of
is introduced. Consecuently, the center of Newton rings is dark due to
destructive interference.
Q # 26: Could you obtain Newton rings with transmitted light? If yes, would the pattern be different
from that obtained with reflected light?
Ans. Yes, it is possible to obtain Newton rings with transmitted light. In this case, we will get a central bright
fringe instead of dark.

7. The center of Newton’s rings is_________ due 8. When the Newton’s rings are observed with
to destructive interference: transmitted light, the central spot is:
a) Bright a) Red
b) Dark b) Blue
c) Colorless c) Dark
d) Red d) Bright
8
9.7 MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER

Q # 27: What do you know about Michelson’s Interferometer?
Ans. Michelson’s Interferometer in an instrument used to measure distance with extremely high precision. It
splits a beam of light into parts and then recombines them to produce interference.
Q # 28: Describe the construction and working of Michelson’s Interferometer
(i) Monochromatic light from a source falls on a half silvered glass plate that partially reflects it and
partially transmit it.
(ii) The reflected portion labeled as I in the figure travels a distance to
mirror , which reflects the beam back towards . transmits this
portion that finally arrives at the observer’s eye.
(iii) The transmitted portion of the original beam labeled as II, travels a
distance to mirror which reflects the beam back towards .
The beam II reflected by also arrives the observer’s eye finally.
(iv) The plate cut from the same piece of glass as , is introduced in
the path of beam II as compensator plate. , therefore equalized the
path length of the beams I and II in glass.
(v) The two beams having their different paths are coherent. They produce interference effects when arrive at
observer’s eye. The observer then sees a series of parallel interference
fringes.
Q # 29: How can we use the Michelson’s Interferometer to measure the
length precisely?
Ans. In practical interferometer, the mirror can be moved along the
direction perpendicular to its surface by means of a precision screw. As the
length is changed, the pattern of interference fringes is observed to shift.
Each time, the fringe is shifted, the mirror is displaced through . So, by
counting the number m of fringes which are shifted by the displacement L of

the mirror, we can write the equation.
By using the radiation of known wavelength, we can make use of this formula to determine the length
precisely.
Q # 30: A monochromatic light of is allowed to fall on the half silvered glass plate , in
the Michelson Interferometer. If mirror is moved through 0.233 mm, how many fringes will be
observed to shift?
Given Data: Wavelength , Distance covered by mirror
To Determine:
Calculations:
9
9.8 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

Q # 31: What do you know about Diffraction of Light? Also describe some examples of diffraction of
light.
Ans. The bending of light around obstacles and spreading of light waves into the geometrical shadow of an
obstacle is called diffraction.
The diffraction of light occurs due to the interference between the rays coming from different parts of same
wavefront. Diffraction is prominent when the wavelength of light is large as compared with the size of the
obstacle or aperture of the slit.
Examples of diffraction of light
(i) Consider a small and smooth steel ball of about
3 mm in diameter is illuminated by a point
source light. The shadow of the spherical
object is not completely dark but has a small
bright spot at its center. According to the
Huygen’s principle, each point on the rim of
the sphere behaves as a source of secondary
wavelet which illuminate the central region of
the shadow.
(ii) In the interference pattern obtained with the Young’s double slit experiment, the central region of the
fringe system is bright. If light travels in a straight line, the central region should appear dark.
These two experiments clearly show that when light travels past an obstacle, it does not proceed exactly along
straight path, but bends around obstacle.

9. In Young’s double slit experiment, the distance 11. The appearance of Color in thin films is due to
between two adjacent bright fringes, is: a) Diffraction
a) b) Dispersion
c) Interference
b) d) Polarization
c) 12. Soap film exhibit brilliant colors in sun light due
to:
d) a) Dispersion of light
b) Interference of light
10. In Young double slit experiment, if white light is c) Diffraction of light
used d) Scattering of light
a) Alternate dark and bright fringes will be 13. A light ray traveling form rarer to denser
seen medium suffers a phase change of:
b) Colored fringes will be seen a)
c) No interference fringes will be seen b)
d) Impossible to predict c)
d)
10
9.9 DIFFRACTION DUE TO A NARROW SLIT

Q # 32: Derive the condition for the diffraction of monochromatic light due to a narrow slit.
Ans. The experimental arrangement for studying diffraction of light due to a narrow slit is shown in the
figure.
The slit AB of width d is illuminated by a parallel beam
of monochromatic light of wavelength . The screen S is
placed parallel to the slit AB. Rays of light are brought to
focus on the screen. A small portion of the incident wavefront
passes through the narrow slit. Each point of wavefront sends
out secondary wavelets to the screen. These wavelets then
interfere to produce diffraction. We take rays instead of
wavefronts to show diffraction on the screen. In figure only 9
rays have been shown. Actually there are large numbers of rays.
Consider two rays 1 and 5 which are in phase when they are at wavefront AB. When these reach the
wavefront AC, ray 5 should have a path difference ab. In triangle ,
( )
So the path difference
For first minima (destructive interference),
Path difference
Therefore,
In general, the condition for different orders of minima on either side of center is given by:
( )

14. Bending of light around the edges of an obstacle 15. The bending of a beam of light when it passes
is known as: from one medium to another is known as:
a) Refraction a) Refraction
b) Polarization b) Reflection
c) Diffraction c) Diffraction
d) Interference d) Dispersion
11
9.10 DIFFRACTION GRATING

Q # 33: What do you know about diffraction grating?
Ans. A diffraction grating is glass plate having a large number of close parallel equidistant slits mechanically
ruled on it. The transparent spacing between the scratches on the glass plate act as slits.
Q # 34: Define the term Grating Element.
Ans. Distance between two adjacent slits is called grating element. If N is the total number of lines on the
grating and L is the length of the grating, then the grating element d is described as:
Q # 35: Derive the condition for diffraction of monochromatic light by diffraction grating.
Ans. Consider a parallel beam of monochromatic light falls normally on a diffraction grating as shown in the
figure. A few of the equally spaced narrow slits are shown in the
figure. The distance between two adjacent slits is d, called
grating element. The section of the wavefronts that pass through
the slits behaves as a source of secondary wavelets according to
the Huygen’s Principle.
Consider the parallel rays which after diffraction
through the grating make an angle with the normal to the
grating AB. The rays are brought to focus at point P by the
convex lens. If the path difference between rays 1 and 2 is
one wavelength , they will interfere constructively. This
condition is described mathematically as:
( )
From figure, , where d is the grating element. Substituting the values in equation (1):
( )
 According to equation , when then the path difference between the rays coming out
from the slits of grating will be zero. So we get bright image in this direction. This is known as zero order
image.
 If we increase on either sides of this direction, a value will be arrived for which will be equal
to ( ) and according to equation (2) we will again get bright image. This is known as
first order image.
 In this way if we continue increasing . We will get second, third etc. images on either side of zero order
image with dark regions in between.
The second and third order bright images would occur according as becomes equal to ,
respectively. Thus equation (2) can be written in more general form as:
Where
12
Q # 36: In the white light spectrum obtained with the diffraction grating, the third order image of a
wavelength coincides with forth order image of a second wavelength. Calculate the ratio of two
wavelengths.
Ans. Using the formula, .
For case 1:
For case 2:
Dividing the two equations, we get:
Q # 37: How would you manage to get more orders of spectra using a diffraction grating?
Ans. Using the formula
This shows that by increasing the value of grating element “ ” or by decreasing the value of wavelength “ ”
used, we can get more order of spectra.
Q # 38: A second order spectrum formed at an angle of when light falls normally on diffraction
grating having 5400 lines per centimeter determine wavelength of the light used.
Given Data: For 2nd order Spectrum , Angle of Diffraction
Number of lines per cm ,
To Determine:
Calculations:
Q # 39: A light is incident normally on a grating which has 2500 lines per centimeter. Compute the
wavelength of spectral line for which the deviation in second order is .
Given Data: For 2nd order Spectrum , Angle of Diffraction
To Determine:
Calculations:
Q # 40: Sodium light ( ) is incident normally on a grating having 3000 lines per centimeter.
What is the highest order of the spectrum obtained with this grating?
Given Data: Angle
To Determine: Order of Spectra
Calculations:
Hence, the highest order of spectrum is 5
13
Q # 41: Blue light of wavelength illuminates a diffraction grating. The second order image is
formed at an angle of from the central image. How many lines in a centimeter of the grating have
been ruled out?
Given Data: Angle , Order of Spectra
To Determine: Number of lines per cm ,

Calculations:
Hence, the highest order of spectrum is 5th
Q # 42: Light of wavelength 450 nm is incident on a diffraction grating on which 5000 line/cm have
been ruled:
(i) How many orders of spectra can be observed on either side of the direct beam?
(ii) Determine the angle corresponding to each other.
Given Data: , For maximum order of spectra:

To Determine: (i) Order of Spectra (ii) Angle corresponding to each order of spectrum
Calculations: (i)
Hence, the maximum order of spectrum is 4
(ii) For 1st order spectrum ( ), ( ) ( )
For 2nd order spectrum ( ), ( ) ( )
For 3rd order spectrum ( ), ( ) ( )
For 4th order spectrum ( ), ( ) ( )

16. The equation of Michelson’s interferometer is: 19. is called:
a) a) Laplace’s equaiton
b) Slit Diffraction Condition
b) c) Refraction equaion
c) d) Bragg’s equation
d) 20. A light ray traveling form denser to rarer
medium suffers a phase change of:
17. One angstrom is equal to: a)
a) b)
b) c)
c) d)
d) 21. Soap film exhibit brilliant colors in sun light due
18. is called: to:
a) Dispersion of light
a) Laplace’s equaiton
b) Reflection equation b) Interference of light
c) Diffraction of light
c) Refraction equaion
d) Bragg’s equation d) Scattering of light
14
9.11 DIFFRACTION OF X-RAYS BY CRYSTAL

Q # 43: Why the diffraction effects of X-rays are not observed by ordinary diffraction gratings.
Ans. Diffraction occurs when the grating spacing is of the order of the wavelength of radiation used. X-rays
are electromagnetic radiation of much smaller wavelength, typically of the order of . This wavelength
is much smaller as compared with the wavelength of visible light. So, the ordinary diffraction gratings can’t
be used for the diffraction of X-rays. But the crystals can be used for diffraction of X-rays because the
distance between the atomic planes is of the order of .
Q # 44: Derive the condition of X-ray Diffraction by Crystals.
Ans. Consider a series of atomic planes with inter-planer distance d
parallel to the crystal face as shown by lines , , , and so on
as shown in the figure.
Suppose parallel beams of X-rays fall at an angle on the
parallel planes of the crystal. Beam 1 is reflected from plane and
beam 2 is reflected from lower plane . The beam reflected from the
lower plane travels some extra distance as compared to the beam
reflected from the upper plane. The effective path difference between
the two reflected beams is . Therefore, for reinforcement, the
path difference should be an integral multiple of wavelength. Thus
The value of n is referred as the order of reflection. This equation is known as Bragg’s equation.
Q # 45: X-rays of wavelength are observed to undergo a first order reflection at a Bragg’s
angle of from a quartz ( ) crystal. What is the inter-planner spacing of the reflecting planes
in the crystal?
Given Data: Angle , Order of Spectra
To Determine: Inter-Planner Spacing
Calculations:
An X-ray beam of wavelength undergoes a first order reflection from a crystal when its angle of
incidence to a crystal face is , and an X-ray beam of wavelength 0.097 nm undergoes a third order
reflection when its angle of incidence to that face is . Assuming that the two beams reflect from
the same family of planes, calculate (a) the interplaner spacing of the planes and (b) the wavelength
Given Data:
To Determine: (i) Inter-Planner Spacing (ii) Wavelength of 1st beam

Calculations: For 2nd Beam
For 1st Beam
15
9.12 POLARIZATION
Q # 45: Differentiate among Unpolarized and Plane- Polarized light.
Unpolarized Light
A beam of ordinary light consisting of large number of planes of vibrations,
vibrates in all directions in all possible directions perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. Such a beam is called unpolarized light. For example, the light emitted by
an ordinary incandescent bulb (and also by the sun) is unpolarized because its
(electrical) vibrations are randomly oriented in space.
Plane Polarized Light
If the vibrations of light are confined only in one plane, the light is said to
be polarized.
The plane polarized beam can be obtained by removing all those waves
from the beam of unpolarzied light which have vibration not along one particular
plane.
Q # 46: Describe the different method to convert unpolarized light to plane
polarized light.
Ans. The unpolarized light can be converted to plane polarized light by the various
method described below:
(i) Selective absorption
(ii) Reflection from different surfaces
(iii) Scattering by small particles
Selective Absorption
The selective absorption method is the most common method to
obtain plane polarized light by using certain types of materials called
dichroic substances. These materials transmit only those waves, whose
vibrations are parallel to a particular plane and will absorb those waves
whose vibrations are in other direction. One such commercial polarizing
material is a Polaroid.
Reflection from Different Surfaces
Reflection of light from water, glass, snow and rough road surfaces, for larger angles of incidence,
produces glare. Since the reflected light is partially polarized, glare can considerably be reduced by using
Polaroid sunglasses.
Scattering by Small Particles
Sunlight becomes partially polarized due to scattering by air molecules of the Earth’s atmosphere.
This effect can be observed by looking directly up through a pair of sunglasses made of polarizing glass. At
certain orientations of the lenses, less light passes through than the others.
16
Q # 47: What do you know about optical rotation? Also describe its
application.
Ans. When plane polarized light is passed through certain crystals, they rotate the
plane of polarization. This phenomenon is called optical rotation. The crystals
which show this phenomenon are called optically active crystals. Quartz and
sodium chloride are the example of optically active crystals.
Certain solutions of organic substance, such as sugar and tartaric acid,
show optical rotation. This property of optically active substances can be used to
determine their concentration in the solutions.
Q # 48: Why the Polaroid sun-glasses are better than ordinary sun-glasses?
Ans. The Polaroid sunglasses reduce the intensity of light passing through them, due to which the glare of
light is decreased. That is why, they are better than ordinary sunglasses.
Q # 49: How would you distinguish between un-polarized and plane-polarized light?
Ans. A Polaroid is placed in the path of light and slowly rotated. If the light become dimmer and dimmer and
then vanishes then the incident light was plane polarized. And if the light keeps on coming on the other side
then it was un-polarized.
17
Chapter 10 (Physics 1st Year) Optical Instruments (Edition 2015-16)
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
(a) Rays from a medium with index of refraction travel to a medium with index of refraction , where
. As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction increases until is 90° (ray 4). For
even larger angles of incidence, total internal reflection occurs (ray 5). (b) The angle of incidence producing
a 90°angle of refraction is often called the critical angle .
10.1 LEAST DISTANCE OF DISTINCT VISION

Q # 1: What do you know about the Least Distance of Distinct Vision?
Ans. The minimum distance from the eye at which an object appears to be distinct is called the least distance
of distinct vision or near point.
The near point is about 25 cm from the eye. If the object is held closer to the eye than this distance,
the image formed will be blurred and fuzzy. The location of near point changes with age.
10.2 MAGNIFYING POWER AND RESOLVING POWER OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENT
Q # 2: What do you understand by linear magnification and angular magnification? Explain how a
convex lens is used as a magnifier?
Linear Magnification: The ratio of the size of image to the size of object is called linear magnification.
Angular magnification: The ratio of the angle subtended by the image as seen through the optical device to
that subtended by the object at the un-aided eye
Convex lens used as a magnifier when an object is brought within the focal length of convex lens.
Q # 3: Explain the difference between the angular magnification and resolving power of optical
instrument. What limits the magnification of an optical instrument?
Angular magnification: The ratio of the angle subtended by the image as seen through the optical device to
that subtended by the object at the un-aided eye
Resolving Power: It is the ability to disclose the minor details of the object under examination.
The magnification of an optical instrument is limited due to defects in lenses.
1
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Q # 4: Describe the procedure to determine the resolving power for a lens and diffraction grating.
Ans. The resolving power is expressed as the reciprocal of minimum angle which two point sources
subtend at the instrument so that their images are seen as two distinct spots of light rather than one.
Resolving Power of Lens
Raleigh showed that the resolving power for light of wavelength through the lens of diameter D is given by:
Resolving Power of Diffraction Grating

The resolving power of diffraction grating is described by the formula:
Where and . Thus the grating with high resolving power can distinguish small
difference in wavelength.
If N is the number of rulings on the grating, the resolving power of in the mth-order diffraction is
described as:
10.3 SIMPLE MICROSCOPE

Q # 5: Derive the formula for Angular Magnification of Simple Microscope.
Ans. Convex lens is called simple microscope as it is often used as a magnifier when an object is
brought within the focal length of convex lens. The magnified and virtual image is formed at least
distance of distinct vision d.
In Fig. a, the image formed by the object, when placed at distance d, on
the eye is shown. In Fig. b, a lens is placed in front of the lens in such a way that a
virtual image of the object is formed at a distance d from the eye. The size of the
image is now much larger than without the lens.
If and are respective angles subtended by the object when seen through
lens (simple microscope) and when viewed directly, then angular magnification
is defined as:
When angles are small, then they are nearly equal to their tangents. From Fig. a and Fig. b, we find:
Since the image is at the least distance of distinct vision, so . Therefore, the equation (3) becomes:
2
Putting vales of and in equation (1), we have:
(⁄ )
( ⁄ )
As we already know that
Thus the equation (5) becomes:
For virtual image, the lens formula if written as:
Multiplying both sides of equation by d, we have:
Putting value of in equation (6), we have:
It is obvious that for a lens of high angular magnification, the focal length should be small.
10.4 COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Q # 6: Derive the formula for the Angular Magnification of Compound Microscope.
Ans. Whenever high magnification is desired, a compound microscope is used. It consists of two convex
lenses, an object lens of very short focal length and an eye-piece of comparatively longer
focal length. The ray diagram of compound microscope is given in the Figure.
3
The object of height h is placed just beyond the principal focus of the objective. This produces a real
and magnified image of height of the object at a place situated within the focal point of the eye-piece. It is
then further magnified by the eye-piece (final image has the height ). In normal adjustment, the eye-piece is
positioned so that the final image is formed at the near point of the eye at a distance d.
The angular magnification M of a compound microscope is described by the formula:
where is the angle subtended by the final image of height and is the angle that the object of
height subtend at the eye if placed at the near point d. Now, from figure:
Putting values in equation (1), we have:
( )
( )
Where is the magnification of objective and is the linear magnification of eye-piece. Hence, total
magnification is:
 For case of objective (Real and Inverted Image),
 For case of eye-piece (Virtual Image),
Equation (2) becomes:
( )
This expression gives the magnifying power of a compound microscope.

Q # 7: Why would it be advantages to use blue light with compound microscope?
Ans. The limit, to which a microscope can be used to resolve details, depends upon the width of the objective.
A wider objective and use of blue light (short wavelength) produces less diffraction and allows more details to
be viewed.
Q # 8: One can buy cheap microscope for use of children. The images seen in such microscope have
colored edges, why is this so?
Ans. The images in microscope have colored edges because of
defects in lenses. Such a defect is known as chromatic aberration.
In such a problem, a lens can’t bring all rays of white light to a
single point on image. So image is not sharp and has colored edges.
4
10.5 ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE

Q # 9: What do you know about astronomical telescope? Describe the construction and working of
astronomical telescope with help of ray diagram.
Ans. Telescope is an optical device used for viewing distant objects. Initially the extensive use of the
telescopes was for astronomical observations. These telescopes are called astronomical telescopes.
Construction: A simple astronomical telescope consists of two convex lens:
 Objective of long focal length
 Eye-Piece of short focal length
Working: When a very distant object is viewed through astronomical telescope, the rays of light coming from
any of its point are considered parallel. These parallel rays are converged by the objective by objective to form
a real image at its focus.
 If it is desired to see the final image through the eye-piece without any strain on the eye, the eye-
piece must be placed so that the image lies at its focus.
 The rays after refraction through the eye-piece will become parallel and the final image appears to
be formed at infinity.
Q # 10: Derive the expression of Magnifying Power of astronomical telescope.

Ans. Consider the normal adjustment of an astronomical telescope, having objective lens with long focal
length and eye-piece of short focal length . The angle subtended at un-aided eye is practically the same
as subtended at the objective and is equal to . Thus in right triangle , we have:
The angle subtended at the eye by the final image is equal to . Thus:
The magnifying power M of astronomical telescope is described by formula:
( )
( )
5
Q # 11: What is the basic condition for the normal adjustment of astronomical telescope?
An astronomical telescope is said to have normal adjustment if the image formed by objective lies at the focus
of both the objective and the eye-piece. The distance between the objective and eye-piece of a telescope in
normal adjustment is which is equal to the length of the telescope, where and are the focal
lengths of objective and eye-piece of astronomical telescope respectively.
Q # 12: If a person looking through microscope at the full moon, how would the appearance of moon be
changed by covering of objective lens?
Ans. He will observe the full image but its brightness will be reduced. In other word, the intensity of light will
decreased.
10.6 SPECTROMETER
Q # 13: What do you know about spectrometer? Also describe some applications of spectrometer.
Ans. A spectrometer is an optical device used to study spectra from different sources of light. The applications
of spectrometer are as follows:
 Spectrometer is used to measure the deviation of light by a glass prism and the refractive index of the
material of prism accurately.
 Using diffraction grating, the spectrometer can be employed to measure the wavelength of light.
Q # 14: What are the essential of spectrometer? Describe the working of each component separately.
Ans. The essential of spectrometer are collimator, turn table and telescope. The construction and working of
each component are as follows:
Collimator
It consist of a fixed metallic tube with a convex lens at one end and an adjustable slit, that can slide in
and out of the tube, at the other end. When the slit is just at the focus of the convex lens, the rays of light
coming out of the lens become parallel. For this reason, it is called a collimator.
6
Turn Table
A prism or a grating is placed on a turn table which is capable of rotating about a fixed vertical axis.
A circular scale, graduated in half degrees, is attached to it.
Telescope
A telescope is attached with a vernier scale and is rotatable the same vertical axis as the turn table.
10.7 SPEED OF LIGHT
Q # 15: Describe the Michelson’s experiment to determination of speed of light.
Ans. In Michelson’s experiment, the speed of light was determined by measuring the time it takes to cover a
round trip between two mountains. The distance between the two mountains
was measured accurately.
The experimental set up is shown in the figure:
An eight sided polished mirror M is mounted on the shaft of a motor whose
velocity can be varied.
 The mirror is stationary in the position shown in the figure. A beam of
light from the face 1 of mirror M falls at the plane mirror m placed at a
distance d from M. The beam is reflected back from mirror m and falls
on the face 3 of mirror M. On reflection from face 3, it enters the
telescope.
 If the mirror M is rotated clockwise, initially the source will not be
visible through telescope. When mirror M gains a certain speed, the
source S becomes visible. This happens when
Now
If is frequency of the mirror M, then
( )
If c is speed of light,
Equating (1) and (2), we have:
This equation was used by Michelson to determine the speed of light.
7
10.8 INTRODUCTION TO FIBRE OPTICS

Q # 16: Describe some advantages of Fibre Optics.
Ans. The transmission of information in the form of light signal through Fibre Optic is widely used in
communication technology. Some advantages of Fibre Optics are as follows:
Wide Band-Width
Fibre Optic system has the ability to transmit thousands of telephone conversations, several television
programs and numerous data signal using hair thin thread of Fibre Optics. With the tremendous information
carrying capacity (called bandwidth), Fibre Optic systems have made practical such services as two way
television which was too costly before the development of Fibre Optics.
Light Weight and Cheaper
In addition to giving extremely wide bandwidth, the Fibre Optic system has much thinner and light
weight cables. A Fibre Optic with its protective case may be typically 6.0 mm in diameter, and yet it can
replace a 7.62 cm diameter bundle of copper wires now used to carry the same amount of signals.
10.9 FIBRE OPTIC PRINCIPLES
Q # 17: What do you know about the refractive index of a material?
Ans. The refractive index “n” is the ratio of speed to light in vacuum “c” to the speed of light in that material
“v”. Mathematically, it is described as:
Q # 18: Define the term critical angle.

Ans. The angle of incidence for light at the boundary of optically transparent medium for which the angle of
refraction is , is called critical angle.
Q # 19: State the Snell’s Law.
Ans. The Snell’s describe the condition for refraction when a ray of light passes from one medium to another.
Let and are the refractive index of glass and air respectively, then Snell’s law is described as:
Where and are the angle of incidence and angle of reflection respectively.
Q # 20: Use the Snell’s Law to find out the critical angle the critical angle of glass at the boundary of
glass-air interface.
Ans. We know that the refractive index of glass and air are 1.5 and 1 respectively. For critical angle of glass,
consider and . The Snell’s Law takes the form:
( )
Hence the critical angle of glass at the boundary of glass-air interface is .
8
Q # 21: Describe the principles by which light can be confined

and propagated through Fibre Optic.
Ans. Propagation of light in Fibre Optic requires that the light should
be totally confined within the Fibre Optic. This may be done by total
internal reflection and continuous refraction.
Total Internal Reflection
The boundary between two optical media, e.g., glass and air
having different refractive indices can reflect or refract light rays. The
amount and direction of reflection or refraction is determined by
following factors:
i. Amount of difference in refractive indices
ii. Angle of incidence of ray of light at the boundary
All the light rays striking the internal surface of optically transparent
medium (e.g., glass) at angle of incidence greater than critical angle
(critical angle of glass is ) will be reflected back into the glass.
The rays with angles less than critical angle will escape from the
optically transparent medium.
Continuous Refraction
Light signal can also be propagated through Fibre Optic by continuous
refraction phenomenon. For this purpose, two types of Fibre Optics are used:
 Multi-Mode Step Index Fibre Central core has high refractive index
(High Density) and over it is a layer of a lower refractive index (Low
Density). This layer is called cladding.
 Multi-Mode Graded Index Fibre Central core has high refractive index
(High Density) and its density gradually decreases towards its periphery.
In step index or graded index fibre, a ray of light entering the Fibre Optic is
continuously refracted through these steps and is reflected through the surface
of outer layer. Hence light is transmitted by continuous refraction and total
internal reflection.
9
10.10 TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBRES

Q # 22: Describe different types of optical fibre.
Ans. There are three types of optical fibres which are classified on the basis of the mode by which they
propagate light. These are (i) Single-Mode Step Index, (ii) Multi-Mode Step Index and (iii) Multi-Mode
Graded index.
Single-Mode Step Index Fibre
Single-Mode or Mono-Mode step index fibre has a very thin core of
about diameter and has relatively larger cladding (of glass or plastic).
Since it has a very thin core, a strong monochromatic light source i.e., a Laser
source has to be used to send light signals through it. It can carry more than 14
TV channels or 14000 phone calls.
Multi-Mode Step Index Fibre
This type of fibre has a core of relatively larger diameter such as
. It is mostly used for carrying white light but due to dispersion effects, it
is useful for a short distance only. The core has a constant refractive index (e.g., 1.52). The core is
surrounded by cladding, which has
relatively smaller refractive index
(e.g., 1.48) as compared to core.
This is called Multi-Mode Step
Index fibre, because the refractive index
steps down from 1.52 to 1.48 at the
boundary with the cladding.
Multi-Mode Graded Index Fibre
Multi-Mode Graded Index Fibre has core which ranges in

diameter from to . It has a core of relatively high
refractive index and the refractive index decreases gradually
from the middle to the outer surface of the fibre. There is no
noticeable boundary between the core and cladding. This type
of Optical Fibre is useful for long distances.
10
10.11 SIGNAL TRANSMISSION AND CONVERSION TO SOUND

Q # 7: How the light signal is transmitted through the fiber?
Ans. There are three major parts:
1. Transmitter: it converts electrical signal into light signals
2. Optical fiber: it carries the signal from one place to another
3. Receiver: it converts light signal into electrical signal
Pulse of light represented by “1” and absence of light is represented by “0”. Any information can be
represented by the pattern of 1’s and 0’s.
Describe the construction and working of major components of Fibre Optic Communication System.
A Fibre Optic communication system consists of three major components: (i) Transmitter, (ii) Optic Fibre,
(iii) Receiver. The construction and working of each component of Fibre Optic Communication System is as
follows:
Transmitter: Transmitter converts electrical signal into light signals. The light source in the transmitter
can be either a semiconductor laser or a light emitting diode (LED). To transmit information by light waves, it
is necessary to modulate the light waves. The most common method of modulation is called digital
modulation in which the laser or LED is flashed on and off at an extremely fast rate. A pulse of light
represents the number 1 and absence of light represents 0. With computer type equipment, any communication
can be represented by a particular pattern or code of these 1s and 0s.
Fibre Optic: Fibre Optic carries the signal from one place to another. Propagation of light in Fibre Optic
requires that the light should be totally confined within the Fibre Optic. This may be done by total internal
reflection and continuous refraction. Despite the ultra-purity (99.99% glass) of optical fibre, the light
signals eventually become dim and must be regenerated by devices called repeaters.
Receiver: It captures the light signals at the other end of the fibre and reconverts them to electric signals. For
this purpose, the photodiodes are used. Receiver is programmed to decode the 1s and 0s, thus it receive the
sound, pictures or data as required.
10.12 LOSSES OF POWER
What are the causes of LOSS OF POWER or LOSS OF INFORMATION in Fibre Optics?
When a light signal travels along fibres by multiple reflection, some light is absorbed due to impurities in the
glass. Some of it is scattered by group of atoms which are formed at places such as joints when fibre are
joined together.
How can we reduce the power losses (information loss) in due to scattering in Fibre Optic?
The information received at the other end of a fibre optic can be inaccurate due to dispersion or spreading of
the light signal. Also, the light signal may not be perfectly monochromatic. Careful manufacturing can reduce
the power loss by scattering and absorption.
For case of step-index fibre, a narrow band of wavelengths are refracted in different directions. So the
light of different wavelengths reaches the other end of the fibre at different times. The signal received is,
therefore, faulty or distorted.
11
The disadvantage of step-index fibre can considerably be reduced by using graded index fibre. The
different wavelengths still take different paths and are totally internally refracted at different layers, but still
they are focused. Inspite of the different dispersion, all the wavelengths arrive at the other end of the fibre at
the same time. With step-index fiber, the overall time difference may be about 33 ns per km length of the
fibre. Using a graded index fibre, the time difference is reduced to about 1 ns per km.
12
Chapter 11 (Physics 1st Year) Heat and Thermodynamics (Edition 2015-16)
HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS
This steam-driven locomotive runs
from Durango to Silverton, Colorado. It
obtains its energy by burning wood or coal.
The generated energy vaporizes water into
steam, which powers the locomotive. (This
locomotive must take on water from tanks
located along the route to replace steam
lost through the funnel.)
Modern locomotives use diesel fuel
instead of wood or coal. Whether old-
fashioned or modern, such locomotives can
be modeled as heat engines, which extract
energy from a burning fuel and convert a
fraction of it to mechanical energy
11.1 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
Q # 1. What do you know about thermodynamics?

Ans. It is the branch of physics which deals with transformation of heat into other forms of energy e.g.,
conversion of heat into mechanical work.
Thermodynamics plays central role in technology, since almost all the raw energy available for
our use is liberated in the form of heat.
Q # 2. Describe the significance of Kinetic Theory of Gases.
Ans. The microscopic behavior of gases is well accounted for by the kinetic theory of gases. This theory
successfully explained the Diffusion of Gases and Brownian Motion of Smoke Particles.
Q # 3. What are the basic postulates of kinetic theory of gases?
Ans. The kinetic theory of gas is based on following postulates:
 The number of molecules in the gas is large, and the average separation between them is large
compared with their dimensions.
 The molecules execute random motion and may change their direction of motion after every
collision.
 The molecules make elastic collisions with each other and with the walls of container.
 Molecules don’t exert force on each other except during a collision.
1
www.HouseOfPhy.Blogspot.com Muhammad Ali Malik aliphy2008@gmail.com , www.facebook.com/HomeOfPhysics,
Q # 4. Derive the expression of pressure of gases on the basis of kinetic theory of gases.
Ans. Consider an ideal gas in a cubical container having edge length l. Let m is the mass of one molecule
of gas and N be the total number of molecules in the container. The
velocity of any one of these molecules can be resolved into three
rectangular components parallel to three coordinate axes x,
y and z.
Initial momentum of the molecule striking the face ABCDA is
then . If the collision is assumed perfectly elastic, the molecule
will rebound from the face ABCDA with the same speed. Thus each
collision produces a change in momentum, which is equal to
After recoil the molecule travels to opposite face EFGHE and collides with it, rebounds and
travels back to face ABCDA after covering a distance 2l. The time between two successive collisions
with face ABCDA is:
Thus,
( ⁄ )
According to Newton’s third law of motion, the force exerted by molecule will be equal and
opposite to the force exerted by wall, so
( )
Similarly the forces due to all other molecules can be determined. Thus total x-directed force due to N
number of molecules of the gas moving with velocities is:
( )
As the pressure is the normal force per unit area, hence the pressure on the face perpendicular to x-
axis is:
( )
( )
2
Now as N is the total number of molecules each of mass m, so total mass of gas will be Nm. So the
density of the gas will be:
( )
( )
The quantity within brackets is mean square velocity of gas molecules along x-axis and is denoted by
〈 〉. Therefore
〈 〉
Similarly pressure on the faces perpendicular to y and z axes will be 〈 〉 and 〈 〉
As there is no preference to one direction or another and molecules are supposed to be moving
randomly, the mean square of all the components will be equal. Hence
〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉
And from vector addition:
〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉
〈 〉 〈 〉
〈 〉 〈 〉
〈 〉
By Pascal’s law, the pressure will be same everywhere in the vessel provided that the gas is of uniform
density. So,
〈 〉
Thus in general
〈 〉
This is the required expression of pressure of the gas.
Q # 5. Show that pressure exerted by the gas is directly proportional to the average translational
kinetic energy of the gas molecules.
Ans. Since
The expression of pressure of gas takes the form:
〈 〉
〈 〉
〈 〉
〈 〉
Hence proved that the pressure exerted by the gas is directly proportional to the average
translational kinetic energy of the gas molecules.
3
Q # 6. Show that absolute temperature of an ideal gas is directly proportional to average kinetic
energy of the gas molecules.
Ans. The ideal gas law for gas having n moles of gas contained in volume V at standard pressure P and
absolute temperature T is described mathematically as:
Where R is the universal gas constant. Its value is .

The number of moles is described as:
where is the Avogadro number and is the total number of molecules of gas. Thus equation (1)
becomes:
Here is the Boltzmann’s Constant. It is the gas constant per molecule and has the value
.
The pressure of the gas according to kinetic theory of gas is given by expression:
〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉
Comparing equation (2) and (3), we get:
〈 〉
〈 〉
〈 〉
〈 〉
This expression shows that Absolute temperature of an ideal gas is directly proportional to average
translational kinetic energy of gas molecules.
Q # 7. Why does the pressure of gas in a car tyre increase when it is driven through some
distance?
Ans. When a car is driven through some distance the temperature of gas in the tyre increases due to
friction between road and tyre. As a result the velocity of the gas molecules increases and they start
colliding with the walls of container with higher velocities. Thus pressure of the tyre increases.
Q # 8.Why is the average velocity of the molecules in a gas zero but the average of the square of
velocities is not zero?
Ans. The molecules of a gas are always in a random motion. The number of molecules moving in a
certain direction is equal to the number of molecules moving in opposite direction with same velocity.
Thus their average velocity is zero. But the average of square of velocities is not zero because square of
negative values becomes positive.”
4
Q # 9. A thermos flask containing milk as a system is shaken rapidly. Does the temperature of milk
rise?
Ans. When milk is shaken rapidly in a thermos flask, the K.E. of the molecules increases. As a result, its
temperature rises a little.
Q # 10. What is average translational kinetic energy of molecules in a gas at temperature at ?
Given Data:
To Determine: 〈 〉
Calculations: As 〈 〉 〈 〉
Q # 11. Find the average speed of oxygen molecule in air at STP.

Given Data:
Calculations: 〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉 √
As
Equation (1) becomes: 〈 〉 √
Q # 12. Estimate the average speed of nitrogen molecules in air under standard conditions of
pressure and temperature.
Given Data:
Calculations: 〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉 √
As
Equation (1) becomes: 〈 〉 √
Q # 13. Show that ratio of the root mean square speed of molecules of two different gases at certain
temperature is equal to square root of the inverse ratio of their masses.
〈 〉
Calculations: Temperature of First Gas 〈 〉
Temperature of Second Gas 〈 〉
Equating Equation (1) and (2): 〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉
〈 〉 〈 〉
√
〈 〉 〈 〉
5
Q # 14. Derive the expression of Boyle’s Law and Charles Law from Kinetic Theory of Gases.
Boyle’s Law
From Kinetic Theory of Gases,
〈 〉
If we keep the temperature of the gas constant, average K.E. i.e., 〈 〉 remains constant, so the right
hand side of the equation is constant. Therefore
Thus pressure P is inversely proportional to volume V at constant temperature of the gas which is
Boyle’s law.
Charles Law
The mathematical expression of Kinetic Theory of Gases is written as:
〈 〉
If pressure of the gas is kept constant, then we have:
〈 〉
As from a consequence of Kinetic Theory of Gases, Absolute temperature of Gas T is given by:
〈 〉
From equations (1) and (2), we have:
Hence volume of gas is directly proportional to absolute temperature of the gas provided pressure is kept
constant. This is known as Charles law.

1. Heat is the form of: 3. In the isothermal process, one of the
a) Power following is constant:
b) Work a) Pressure
c) Energy b) Volume
d) Motion c) Temperature
d) Heat energy
2. Pressure of the gas depends upon: e) Specific heat
a) Only on molecular speed
b) Only on mass of molecule 4. For a gas obeying Boyle’s law, if the
c) Only on number of molecules in a pressure is doubled, the volume becomes:
unit volume a) Double
d) Number of molecules in a unit b) One half
volume, mass and speed of c) Four times
molecule d) One fourth
6
11.2 INTERNAL ENERGY
Q # 15. Define the term Internal Energy of gas. What are the factors on which the internal energy
of an ideal gas depends?
Ans. The sum of all forms of molecular energies (kinetic and potential) of a substance is termed as its
internal energy.
The molecules of an ideal gas don’t exert forces on one another. So the internal energy of an
ideal gas system is generally the translational K.E. of its molecules. Since the temperature of a system is
defined as the average K.E of its molecules, thus for an ideal as system, the internal energy is directly
proportional to its temperature.
Q # 16. Describe the internal energy as a function of state.
Ans. In thermodynamics, internal energy is a function of state. Consequently, it
does not depend on path but depends on the initial and final states of the system.
Consider a system which undergoes a pressure and volume change from and
to and respectively. But experiment it has been seen that the change in
internal energy is independent of paths and as shown in the figure.
11.3 WORK AND HEAT
Q # 17. Derive the expression of work done by ideal gas.
Ans. Consider the gas enclosed in the cylinder with a moveable, frictionless piston of
cross-sectional area A. In equilibrium the system occupies volume V, and exerts
pressure P on the walls of the cylinder and its piston. The force exerted by the gas on
the piston is PA.
We assume that the gas expands through very slowly, so that the system
remains in equilibrium. As piston moves up through a small distance , the work W
done on the gas is:
The work done can also be calculated by the area under P-V graph.
Q # 18. A sample of the gas is compressed to one half of its initial volume at constant pressure of
. During compression, 100 J of work is done on the gas. Determine the final
volume of the gas.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: ( )
Now
7
11.4 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Q # 19. State and explain the first law of thermodynamics.
Ans. In any thermodynamics process when heat Q is added to a system, this energy appears as an
increase in the internal energy stored in the system plus the work W done by the system on its
surroundings.
Explanation
Suppose is the initial internal energy of a system in equilibrium state. If Q be the energy
supplied to the system in the form of heat. A part of supplied heat is used in doing work W and the
remaining energy causes the internal energy of the system to increase to in final equilibrium state.
According to the law of conservation of energy, the net energy received by the system must be
equal to the increase in internal energy i.e.,
This is mathematical form of First Law of Thermodynamics.

Example
The First Law of Thermodynamics can be applied to organism of human body.
Work W done will result in decrease in internal energy of the body. Consequently the body temperature
or in other words internal energy is maintained by food we eat.
Q # 20. A gas is enclosed in a container fitted with a piston of cross-sectional area . The
pressure of the gas is maintained at . When heat is slowly transferred, the piston is
pushed up through a distance of . If heat is transferred to the system during the
expansion, what is the change in internal energy of the system?
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations:
By First Law of Thermodynamics
Q # 21. A thermodynamic system undergoes a process in which its internal energy decreases by 300
J. If at the same time 120 J of work is done on the system, fine the heat lost by the system.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: By First Law of Thermodynamics
8
9
Q # 22. What do you know about an Isothermal Process? How an isothermal process is described
in terms of First Law of Thermodynamics?
Ans. It is a process which is carried out at constant temperature.
At constant temperature, the condition of Boyle’s law on the gas is fulfilled. Therefore, when gas
expands or compresses isothermally, the product of its pressure and
volume during the process remains constant. If , are the initial
pressure and volume where as , are pressure and volume after the
isothermal change takes place, then
The PV-curve representing an isothermal process is called an isotherm.

Isothermal Process and First Law of Thermodynamics
In case of an ideal gas, the P.E. associated with the molecules is zero. And the internal energy of
an ideal gas depends only on its temperature, which in this case remains constant, therefore .
Hence the first law of thermodynamics reduces to:
Thus if gas expands and does external work W, an amount of heat Q has to be supplied to the gas in
order to produce an isothermal change.
Important Note: Since the transfer of heat from one place to another requires time, hence, to keep the
temperature of the gas constant, the expansion of compression must take place slowly
Q # 23. What do you know about an Adiabatic Process? How an Adiabatic process is described in
terms of First Law of Thermodynamics?
An adiabatic process is the one in which no heat enters of leaves the
system. In case of adiabatic change it has been seen that
Where is the ratio molar specific heat of the gas at constant pressure to
molar specific heat at constant volume. The PV-curve representing an
adiabatic process is called an adiabat.
Adiabatic Process and First Law of Thermodynamics
As no heat enters or leave the system during an adiabatic process i.e., . Therefore:
This expression tells that:

 If the gas expands and does external work, it is done at the expense of the internal energy of its molecules
and, hence, the temperature of the gas falls.
 An adiabatic compression causes the temperature of the gas to rise because of the work done on the gas.
10
Important Note: Adiabatic change occurs when the gas expands or is compressed rapidly. The examples
of adiabatic processes are:
 The rapid escape of air from a burst tyre
 The rapid expansion and compression of air through which the sound wave is passing
 Cloud formation in atmosphere
Important Note: Adiabat is steeper than Isotherm
Q # 24. Give an example of a process in which no heat is transferred to or from the system but the
temperature of the system changes.
Ans. An adiabatic process is the one in which no heat enters or leaves the system but the temperature of
the system changes.
For example, in adiabatic expansion, the temperature of the system falls at the cost of its own
internal energy. Where as in adiabatic compression, the temperature of the system increases without the
transfer of heat to the system.
Q # 25. Is it possible to convert internal energy into mechanical energy? Explain with an example.
Ans. Yes it is possible to convert internal energy into mechanical energy. In adiabatic expansion, the
system expands and moves the piston upward at the cost of its own internal energy.
Q # 26. Can the mechanical energy be converted completely into heat energy? If so, give an
example.
Ans. Yes mechanical energy can be converted into heat energy. In adiabatic compression, when the
piston of the cylinder is pushed downwards, the temperature of the gas increases.
5. A process in which no heat enters or leaves 9. An adiabatic change is one in which:
the system is called:
a) No heat is added to or taken out of a system
a) Isothermal process
b) No change of temperature takes place
b) Adiabatic process
c) Boyle’s law is applicable
c) Isochoric process
d) Pressure and volume remains constant
d) Isobaric process
10. The first law of thermodynamics is an expression
6. Gas law is for:
of:
a) Isothermal process
a) The conservation of energy
b) Adiabatic process
b) Conservation of mass
c) Isobaric process
c) Heat death of the universe
d) Isochoric process
d) Degradation of energy
7. Cloud formation in the atmosphere is example
11. The expression for isothermal process is:
of:
a)
a) Adiabatic process
b)
b) Isothermal process
c)
c) Isochoric process
d) Isobaric process d)
8. Which one is true for internal energy? 12. In adiabatic expansion, first law of
thermodynamics becomes:
a) It is sum of all forms of energies
associated with molecules of a system. a)
b) It is a state function of a system b)
c) It is proportional to transnational K.E of c)
the molecules d) None of these
d) All are correct
11
11.5 MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT OF A GAS
Q # 27. Write a note on molar specific heat of gases.
Ans. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of gas through 1 K is called molar
specific heat. Mathematically, specific heat is described as:
where Q is amount of heat transferred to increase the temperature of n moles of gas through .
Important Note: The gases suffer variation in pressure as well as in volume with the rise in temperature.
Hence, to study the effect of heating the gases, either pressure or volume is kept constant. Thus it is
customary to describe the molar specific heat in two ways separately i.e., at constant volume as well as at
constant pressure.
Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume
It is the amount of heat transfer required to raise the temperature of one mole of gas through 1 K
at constant volume and is symbolized by .
If one mole of gas is heated at constant volume so that the temperature rises by , the heat
transferred must be equal to .
Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure
It is the amount of heat transfer required to raise the temperature of one mole of gas through 1 K
at constant pressure and is symbolized by .
transferred must be equal to .
Q # 27. Determine the consequences by applying its conditions of molar specific heat at constant
volume to First Law of Thermodynamics.
transferred must be equal to . Because at constant volume, and hence the work done is
zero. Applying First Law of Thermodynamics:
Thus, at constant volume, all heat supplied to the system is utilized in increasing the internal energy of
the gas by amount .
12
Q # 28. Prove that
At constant pressure, the First Law of Thermodynamics is described as:
 If one mole of gas is heated at constant pressure so that the

temperature rises by , the heat transferred must be
equal to .
 When one mole of gas is heated at constant pressure, the
internal energy increases by the same amount as at constant
volume for the same rise in temperature i.e.,
 Since the gas expands to keep the pressure constant, so it

does work , where is the increase in volume.
Putting values in equation (1), we have:
For one mole of gas, the Ideal Gas Law takes the form:
Where R is universal gas constant and T is absolute temperature. At constant pressure P, the amount of
work done by one mole of gas due to expansion caused by raise in temperature is given by:
Substituting for in equation , we have:
It is obvious from this equation that by an amount equal to universal gas constant R.
Q # 29. Specific heat of a gas at constant pressure is greater than specific heat at constant volume.
Why?
Ans. When a gas is heated at constant pressure, some part of the heat is used in moving the piston and
the remaining heat is used to increase the internal energy of the gas.
Whereas, when the gas is heated at constant volume, whole of the heat is used to increase the
internal energy of the gas.
Hence for equal rise of temperature for both the cases, more heat has to be supplied for constant
pressure than for constant volume.
13
11.6 REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
Q # 30. Differentiate among reversible and irreversible process.
Reversible process
A reversible process is one which can be retraced in exactly reverse order, without producing any
change in surroundings.
In the reverse process, the working substance passes through the same stages in direct process
such that thermal and mechanical effects at each stage are exactly reversed. Some examples of reversible
processes are as follows:
 The processes of liquefaction and evaporation, performed slowly, are practically reversible.
 Slow compression of gas in a cylinder is reversible as the compression can be changed to
expansion by slowly decreasing pressure on the piston to reverse the operation.
Irreversible process
If a process cannot be retraced in the backward direction by reversing the controlling factors, is
called an irreversible process.
All changes which occur suddenly or which involve friction or dissipation of energy through
conduction, convection or radiation are irreversible. An example of highly irreversible process is an
explosion.
Q # 31. Define the term cycle. Also describe the characteristic of a reversible cycle.
Ans. A succession of events which bring the system back to its initial condition is called a cycle. A
reversible cycle is the one in which all the changes are reversible.
11.7 HEAT ENGINE
Q # 32. Write a note on a Heat Engine.
A heat engine converts some thermal energy to mechanical work. Basically a
heat engine consists of three components:
(i) Hot Temperature Reservoir or Source which supplies heat at high
temperature.
(ii) Cold Temperature Reservoir or Sink into which the heat is rejected at
the lower temperature.
(iii) Working Substance which can absorb heat from source, converts
some of it into work W by expansion and rejects the rest heat to
the cold reservoir or sink.
Important Note 1: A heat engine is made cyclic to provide a continuous supply of work.
Important Note 2: The earliest heat engine was the steam engine. It was developed on the fact that when
water is boiled in a vessel covered with a lid, the steam tries to push the lid off showing the ability to do
work. This observation helped to develop a steam engine.
14
11.8 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Q # 33. What is the limitation of First Law of Thermodynamics and significance of the Second Law
of Thermodynamics in order to explain the working of physical systems?
Ans. First law of thermodynamics tells us that heat energy can be converted into equivalent amount of
work, but it is silent about the conditions under which the conversion takes place. The second law is
concerned with the circumstance in which heat can be converted into work and direction of flow of heat.
Q # 34. State and explain the second law of thermodynamics.
Ans. According to Kelvin’s statement of Second Law of Thermodynamics, based on the working of a
heat engine:
It is impossible to devise a process which may convert heat, extracted from a single reservoir, entirely
into work without leaving any change in the working substance.
Explanation
According to Kelvin’s statement, a single heat reservoir, no matter how much
energy it contains, can’t be made to perform any work. So, two bodies at
different temperature are essential for the conversion of heat into work.
Hence for the working of heat engine, there must be a source of heat at a high
temperature and a sink at low temperature to which the heat may be expelled.
Q # 35. Is it possible to construct a heat engine that will not expel heat
into the atmosphere?
Ans. No it is not possible. According to Kelvin’s statement of 2nd law of
thermodynamics, it is impossible to construct a heat engine without a sink. It
means that the heat engine must expel the remaining heat into the sink or atmosphere.
13. Which one is correct relation? 15. The amount of heat required raising the
a) temperature of 1 kg of a substance through
b) 1 K is called
c) a) Specific heat
d) b) Heat capacity
c) Calorie
14. Specific heats of a gas at constant pressure d) Joule
and at constant volume are respectively Cp 16. Which one of the following process is
and Cv : irreversible?
a) a) Slow compression of an elastic spring
b) b) Slow evaporation of a substance in an
c) isolated vessel
d) None of these
c) Slow compression of a gas
d) A chemical explosion
15
11.9 CARNOT ENGINE AND CARNOT’S THEOREM
Q # 36. What do you know about Carnot Engine?
Ans. Carnot Engine is most efficient heat engine that operates in an ideal reversible cycle
between two heat reservoirs at different temperatures. The working substance of Carnot engine
is the ideal gas.
Q # 37. What is Carnot cycle? Also describe the different process in the Carnot cycle which enable
a Carnot engine restores its initial state.
Ans. The operating cycle of Carnot engine is called Carnot cycle. A Carnot cycle consists of isothermal
and adiabatic processes as shown in the PV diagram. It consists of following four steps:
 Isothermal Expansion The gas is allowed to expand isothermally at temperature , absorbing
heat from hot reservoir. This process is represented by the curve AB.
 Adiabatic Expansion The gas is then allowed to
expand adiabatically until its temperature drops to .
This process is represented by the curve BC.
 Isothermal Compression The gas at this stage is
compressed isothermally at temperature rejecting
heat to the cold reservoir. This process is
represented by the curve CD.
 Adiabatic Compression Finally the gas is compressed
adiabatically to restore in initial state at temperature
. This process is represented by the curve DA.
Q # 38. Derive the expression of efficiency of a Carnot engine.
Ans. In a Carnot engine, all the processes are perfectly reversible and the working substance returns to its
initial state after each cycle. Therefore, there is no change in internal energy i.e., . So by First
Law of Thermodynamics,
Thus the net work done during one cycle is equal to net heat absorbed in one cycle. So,
The efficiency of heat engine is defined as:
Efficiency
As the energy transferred in an isothermal expansion or compression turns out to be proportional

to Kelvin temperature. So and are proportional to Kelvin temperatures and . Thus,
16
This expression tells that efficiency of Carnot engine depends upon the temperatures difference
of two reservoirs. The larger the temperature difference, the greater is the efficiency. But it can never be
100 % unless the cold reservoir is at absolute zero temperature ( . Such reservoirs are not
available and hence the maximum efficiency is always less than one.
Q # 39. Describe that the efficiency of a Carnot engine is independent of the properties of working
substance.
Ans. The efficiency of a Carnot engine is described by formula:
This expression tells that efficiency of Carnot engine depends upon the temperatures of hot and cold
reservoirs and not on the properties of working substance.
Q # 40. State and explain the Carnot theorem.
Statement:
No heat engine can be more efficient than a Carnot engine
operating between the same two temperatures.
The Carnot’s theorem can be extended to state that:
All Carnot’s engines operating between the same two temperatures have the same efficiency,
irrespective of the nature of the working substance.
Explanation:
In most of practical cases, the cold reservoir is nearly at room temperature. So the efficiency can only be
increased by increasing the temperature of hot reservoir. All real heat engines are less efficient than
Carnot engine due to friction and other heat losses.
Q # 41. The turbine in a steam power plant takes steam from a boiler at and exhaust into a
low temperature reservoir at . What is maximum power efficiency?
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: As
Q # 42. A steam engine has boiler that operates at 450 K. the heat changes water to steam, which
drives the piston. The exhaust temperature of the outside air is about 300 K. What is the maximum
efficiency of this steam engine?
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: As
17
Q # 43. A heat engine performs 100 J of work and at the same time rejects 400 J of heat energy to
the cold reservoirs. What is the efficiency of the engine?
Given Data: , Let

To Determine:
Calculations: As
Now
Q # 44. A Carnot engine utilizes an ideal gas. The source temperature is , and the sink
temperature is . Find the efficiency of the engine. Also find the heat input from source and
heat rejected to sink when of work is done.
Given Data:
,
To Determine: , ,
Calculations: As
Also
As
Q # 45. A reversible engine works between two temperatures whose difference is . If it
absorbs 746 J of heat from the source and rejects 546 J to the sink, calculate the temperature of the
source and the sink.
Given Data:
To Determine: ,
Calculations: As
Also
Putting Values in (1):

Q # 46. A Carnot engine whose low temperature reservoir at has an efficiency of 50%. It is
desired to increase the efficiency to 70%. By how many degrees the temperature of the source be
increased?
Given Data:
Let
And
To Determine:
Calculations: For 50% Efficiency
For 70% Efficiency
So
18
Q # 47. A mechanical engineer develops an engine, working between and and claims to
have an efficiency of 52%. Does he claim correctly? Explain.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: As
His claim is not correct.
11.10 THERMODYNAMIC SCALE OF TEMPERATURE

Q # 48. Write a note on thermodynamic scale of temperature.
Ans. The scale of temperature which is independent of the nature of working substance is called
thermodynamic temperature scale. The Carnot cycle provides the basis to define a temperature
scale because it is independent of material properties.
Generally a temperature scale is established by two fixed points. The thermodynamic scale of
temperature is defined by choosing 273.16 K as the absolute temperature of triple point of water as one
fixed point and absolute zero, as the other.
For a Carnot cycle, the relation between the heat energy transfers to the temperatures of
reservoirs is described by relation:
The ratio of two temperatures can be found by operating a reversible Carnot cycle between
these two temperatures and carefully measuring the heat transfers and .
If heat is absorbed or rejected by the system at corresponding temperature when the system
is taken through a Carnot cycle. And is the heat absorbed or rejected by the system when it is at the
temperature of triple point of water, then unknown temperature is determined by the relation:
Since this scale is independent of the property of the working substance, hence, can be applied at very
low temperature.
Q # 49. What is the unit to measure the temperature on thermodynamic scale of temperature?
The unit of thermodynamic scale of temperature is Kelvin. 1 K is defined as of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water.

Q # 50. What is triple point of water?
It is a state in which ice, water and vapour coexist in equilibrium and it occurs uniquely at one particular
pressure and temperature.
19
11.11 PETROL ENGINE
Q # 51. Write a note on Petrol Engine.
A typical four stroke petrol engine is based on the principle of Carnot cycle, which undergoes four
successive processes in each cycle.
(i) Intake Stroke The cycle starts on the intake stroke in which piston moves outward and petrol air
mixture is drawn through an inlet valve in to the cylinder from the
carburetor at atmospheric pressure.
(ii) Compression Stroke On compression stroke, the inlet valve is closed
and the mixture is compressed adiabatically by inward movement of the
piston.
(iii) Power Stroke On power stroke, a spark fires the mixture causing rapid
increase in pressure and temperature. The burning mixture expands and
forces the piston to move outward. This is the stroke which delivers
power to the crank shaft to drive the flywheels.
(iv) Exhaust Stroke On the exhaust stroke, the outlet valves opens. The residual gases are expelled
and piston moves inward.
The cycle then begins again. The actual efficiency of properly tuned engine
is usually not more than because of friction and other heat losses.
Q # 52. Write a note on Diesel Engine.
Spark Plug is an important component of a Petro Engine, but no Spark Plug is
needed in the Diesel Engine. Diesel is sprayed into the cylinder at maximum
compression. Because air is at very high temperature immediately after compression,
the fuel mixture ignites on contact with the air in the cylinder and pushes piston
outward. The efficiency of a Diesel Engine is about .

17. An ideal reversible heat engine has 19. Triple point of water is.
a)
a) 100% efficiency
b)
b) Highest efficiency
c) An efficiency which depends on the c)
nature of the working substance d)
d) None of these
20. Working cycle of a typical petrol engine
18. Unit of thermodynamic scale of consists of:
temperature is: a) Two strokes
a) Kelvin b) Four strokes
b) Centigrade c) Six strokes
c) Fahrenheit d) Eight strokes
d) Celsius
20
11.12 ENTROPY
Q # 53. Define the term Entropy.
Entropy is the measure of disorder or randomness of molecular motion of a system.
If a system undergoes a reversible process during which it absorbs quantity of heat at
absolute temperature , then increase in entropy of the system is described mathematically as:
It is a thermal property of a system which

 Remains constant as long as no heat enters or leaves the system
 Increases if heat flows into the system
 Decreases if leaves the system at constant temperature
Important Note 1: The entropy of a system is a state variable like potential energy of internal energy.
Important Note 2: The concept of entropy was introduced in the study of thermodynamics by Clausius
in 1856 to give quantitative basis of Second Law of Thermodynamics.
Q # 54. State and explain the Second Law of Thermodynamics on the basis of Entropy.
Statement:
In any thermodynamic process, that proceeds from one equilibrium state to another,
the entropy of the system + environment either remains unchanged or increases.
Explanation:
For reversible process, the entropy does not change. For irreversible processes (i.e.,
natural processes), the total entropy of the must increase. It is
possible that the entropy of system might decrease, but entropy of environment shows increase
of greater magnitude, so that the total change in entropy is always positive.
Example 1. Suppose an amount of heat Q flows from a reservoir at temperature through a conducting
rod to the reservoir at temperature when .
 The entropy of the reservoir at temperature , which loses heat, decreases by
 The entropy of the reservoir at temperature , which gains heat, increases by
 As , so the net change in entropy is positive
It follows that in all natural process where the heat flows from one system to another there is always net
increase in entropy.
Example 2. An irreversible heat flow from a hot body to a cold body of a system increases disorder
because the molecules are initially sorted out in hotter and cooler regions. Addition of heat to a system
increases its disorder because of increase of average molecular motion and therefore, the randomness of
molecular motion.
Example 3. Free expansion of the gas increases disorder because the molecules have greater randomness
of position after expansion than before.
21
Q # 55. Why the meaning of increase in Entropy is taken to be Degradation of energy? Explain.
Every time entropy increases, the opportunity to convert some heat into work is lost. For example there is
increase in entropy when hot and cold waters are mixed. There has been no loss of energy in this process
but some of the energy is no longer available for conversion into work.
Therefore, increase of entropy means degradation of energy from a higher level where more work can be
extracted to a lower level at which less or no useful work can be done. The energy in a sense is degraded,
going from more orderly form to less orderly form, eventually ending up as thermal energy.
Q # 56. What happens to the temperature of the room, when an air conditioner is left running on
the table in the middle of the room?
Ans. As the air conditioner is running on a table n the middle of the room, it absorbs and rejects the heat
in the same room. So there will be no change in the temperature of the room.
Q # 57. Does entropy of a system increases or decreases due to friction?

Ans. Since heat increases due to friction, so according to the relation , entropy also increases, as
it varies directly with the heat.
Q # 58. Give an example of a natural process that involves an increase in entropy.
Ans. When ice melts by taking heat from surroundings, then according to the relation , entropy
also increases, as it varies directly with the heat.

Q # 59. Calculate the entropy change when 1.0 kg ice at melts into water at . Latent heat of
fusion of ice .
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: As
So
Q # 60. 336 J of energy is required to melt 1 g of ice at . What is the change in entropy of 30 g
of water at as it is changed to ice at by a refrigerator.
Given Data:
To Determine:
Calculations: As
So
22
11.13 ENVIRONMAENTAL CRISIS AS ENTROPY CRISIS
Q # 61. Describe the Environmental Crisis as Entropy Crisis. What are the causes and the
consequences of this crisis on our environment?
Ans. Environmental crisis is an entropy or disorder crisis. According to which, any increase in the order
in a SYSTEM will produce an even greater increase in ENTROPY OR DISORDER in the
ENVIRONMENT.
Causes
 The energy processes we use are not very efficient. As a result most of the energy is lost as heat
to the environment.
 The most energy transformation processes such as heat engines used for transportation and for
power generation causes air pollution.
Consequences
The increase in thermal pollution will result in enormous change in temperature which is matter
of great concern. It is because of the reason that even for small changes in temperature, the environment
can have significant effects on metabolic rates in plants and animals. This can causes serious disruption
of the overall ecological balance.
21. The increase in the entropy means the 23. When heat is added to the system, the
increase in: entropy change is:
a) Disorder a) Positive
b) Unavailability of energy b) Negative
c) Randomness c) Zero
d) All of these d) None
22. Mathematically, entropy is represented
by: 24. If the temperature of the sink is decreased,
a) the efficiency of Carnot engine:
a) Decreases
b) b) Increases
c) c) Remains the same
e) d) First increases and then decreases
23

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F.Sc.

Physics (1ST Year) COMPLETE BOOK

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

Q # 1.Define Physics? Describe its main areas of research.

2. The sciences which deals with non-living

1.2 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Q # 8.Differentiate among the base and derived quantities.

Q # 9.How the base quantities are measured?

1.3 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

Q # 13.What do you know about international system of units?

Ans.In 1960, an international committee agreed on a set of definitions

Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol

Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol

(v) Steradian: It is the 3D angle subtended at the center of the sphere

Q # 18.What do you mean by scientific notation?

Q # 19.Describe the following numbers in scientific notation.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1.4 ERROR AND UNCERTAINITIES

Q # 20. Define error. Also describe possible causes of error.

1.5 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

The final result up to appropriate precision is . It is because of the reason

The final result up to appropriate precision is . It is because of the reason

1.6 PRECISION AND ACCURACY

Q # 33. Differentiate among precision and accuracy.

(ii) The length of object is measured as 0.45 cm using vernier calipers.

1.7 ASSESMENT OF TOTAL UNCERTAINTY IN THE FINAL RESULT

Calculations:By Ohm‟s law:

Therefore with uncertainty OR

1.7.4 UNCERTAINTY IN AVERAGE VALUE OF MANY MEASUREMENTS

Calculations:Average diameter of wire =

Deviation of each measurement from average value are

Thus uncertainty in mean value of diameter

1.7.5 UNCERTAINTY IN TIMING EXPERIMENT

Calculations:Time Period = Time for 1 Vibration s

Length of simple pendulum , Time for 20 vibrations . Length was measured

To Determine: Gravitational Acceleration

Uncertainty in time Period =

1.8 DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Q # 43.Write down the dimensions of velocity, acceleration and force?

Q # 44.What are the dimensions of (i) Pressure (ii) Density

Q # 45.Determine the dimension of following physical quantities?Nuclear Energy, Angle (θ)

(ii) We know that

Therefore, angle is a dimensionless quantity.

Given Data: Formula

Q # 48.What are the advantages of dimension analysis?

As Hence, the equation is dimensionally

Putting values in (1): √

Putting values in (1): √

Q # 53.What is homogeneity principle?

Q # 54.Show that the expression is dimensionally correct, where is the velocity at

a stretched string of tension F, length l and mass m.

Hence, the equation √ is dimensionally correct.

Q # 56.Write down any two drawbacks of dimensional

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

VECTORS AND EQUILIBRIUM

2.1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF VECTORS

Q # 1. What do you know about vectors? How a vector is represented graphically?

 The direction of position vector of point P in a plane is

Q # 3. Describe the Head to Tail rule.

The vector sum ⃗ ⃗ and ⃗ ⃗ has the same resultant

So vector addition is commutative.

Q # 4. Is it possible to add a vector quantity to a scalar quantity?

Q # 5. Can you add zero to a null vector?

Q # 6. What do you know about the Resultant Vector?