APPROACHES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

I. Definitions
I.1. Approach
An approach is defined as ‘the principles or assumptions underlying the process of language
teaching and learning’.
An approach is also defined as “a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of the
language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject
matter to be taught.” (Anthony, 1963:64)

I.2. Method
A method is the application of the principles underlying a particular approach. A method consists of
the use of a number of techniques in a systematic way in order to achieve the aim of language
teaching.
It also includes decisions made about language teaching outside the classroom. All these
components should be in harmony with basic tenets of the selected approach.

I.3. Technique
This is what actually goes on in the classroom as an implementation of a method, which in turn is
an application of an approach. A technique refers to all the activities used by the teacher and
performed by the learners in the classroom. In other words, a technique involves what happens
during a class session. Audio-visual aids such as language labs, tape-recorders, television sets, and
video-recorders are techniques. They are used to achieve an immediate objective.

II. Teaching Methods and Approaches

In language teaching, there are constant changes and developments of teaching methods and
approaches. Each new method or approach is built out of the limitations of the preceding one.

II.1. The Grammar-Translation Method/Approach

II.1.1. Introduction
GTM was also called Classical method since it was first used in the teaching of the classical
languages, Greek and Latin. Earlier in this century, this method was used for the purpose of helping
students read and appreciate foreign language literature. It was also hoped that, through the study of
the grammar of the target language, students would become more familiar with grammar of their
native language and that this familiarity would help them speak and write their native language
better.

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II.1.2. Content and Characteristics
1. Classes were taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.
2. Much vocabulary was taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
3. Long, elaborated explanations of the intricacies of grammar were given.
4. Grammar provided the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focused on the
form and inflection of words.
5. Reading of difficult classical texts was begun early.
6. Little attention was paid to the content of texts, which were treated as exercises in
grammatical analysis.
7. Often the only drills were exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target
language into the mother tongue.
8. Little or no attention was given to pronunciation.

Examples
1. Translation of a Literary Passage
Students translated a reading passage from the target language into their native language.
2. Reading Comprehension Questions
Students answered questions in the target language based on their understanding of the reading
passage.
3. Antonym/Synonym
Students were given one set of words and were asked to find antonyms in the reading passage.
4. Fill in the Blanks
Students were given a series of sentences with words missing.
5. Deductive Application of Rules
Grammar rules were presented with examples. Once students understood a rule, they were asked to
apply it to some different examples.

II.1.3. Criticism
1. This method gave the wrong idea of what language is and of the relationship between
languages. Language was seen as a collection of words which were isolated and
independent, and there must be a corresponding word in the native language for each foreign
word learners learn.
2. This method tended to be a continuous process of memorisation of lists of grammar rules,
vocabulary and of attempts to produce perfect translations of literary extracts. The result was
that the focus was on the form and not on the meaning. Very often students could not
concentrate on the message as they were obliged to read word by word.

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 3. Because this method focused on giving definitions, rules, explanations and exceptions in the
mother tongue, the time necessary for practising the FL was greatly reduced. Moreover, the
technique of giving definitions and rules was very boring and of little benefit to the learners.

II.2. The Direct Approach/Method

II.2.1. Introduction
This approach was developed initially as a reaction to the Grammar-Translation approach in an
attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction. This method became popular
during the early years of the twentieth century. It was called ‘Direct’ because the teaching of the FL
was done without any reference to the mother tongue. The Direct Method was based on the
assumption that one should learn a FL as one would learn one’s mother tongue.

II.2.2. Content and Characteristics

1. Lessons began with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language.
2. The material was first presented orally with actions or pictures.
3. The mother tongue was NEVER, NEVER used. There was no translation.
4. The preferred type of exercise was a series of questions in the target language based on the
dialogue or an anecdotal narrative. Questions were answered in the target language.
5. Grammar was taught inductively –rules were generalised from the practice and experience
with the target language.
6. Verbs were used first and systematically conjugated only much later after some oral mastery
of the target language.
7. Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure. Literary texts were not
analysed grammatically.
8. The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively. Culture is
considered as an important aspect of learning the language.
9. New teaching points were taught through modelling and practice.
10. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, pictures; abstract
vocabulary was taught through association of ideas.
11. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
12. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasised.

II.2.3. Grammar-Translation Method Vs Direct Method

Whereas the material and the language of the Grammar-Translation class had been based upon great
literature and high principle, the Direct Method based material on ordinary situations in which the
learner might expect to find himself/herself on going abroad – a lesson on the bank, the restaurant,

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or the hotel- or on subjects of ordinary conversation – geography, money, the weather. There was
little attempt to construct a grammatical syllabus, and if there was any grammar teaching, it was
inductive.
In Grammar-Translation, the activities of the learners had been limited to learning by heart, and
to translating either from the foreign language into the mother tongue, or vice versa. In the Direct
classroom, no translation was allowed. Instead, the learner was expected to listen, to answer
questions, to work in pairs or groups on conversations, to write down dictations, once the written
tongue had begun to be an object of study, and to write short passages. One of the driving ideas was
to put the learner in situations in which s/he was expected to produce the language.

II.2.4. Criticism of the Direct Method

1. In this method, all the language activities were related to classroom context and not to real
life situations.
2. This method can also be criticised for being time consuming because it is not easy to explain
the meaning of difficult words through pointing at objects and dramatisation, especially in
the case of abstract words.
3. This method requires a native speaker to teach the target language or a highly competent
teacher who is very fluent in the foreign language.
4. The Direct Method also requires a great number of class hours as most of the work is done
in the classroom.
5. It is better suited to beginners than to more advanced learners.

II.3. The Audio-Lingual Method

II.3.1. Introduction
This method was developed in the 1960s. It was first developed in the United States during the
World War II. At that time many soldiers needed to learn a foreign language for immediately
military purposes; therefore, this method was called the Army Method. The purpose of this method
is to better students’ pronunciation and train their ability in listening.
The Audio-Lingual Method is based on the belief that language is essentially acquired through
habits, and that responses must be drilled until they become natural and automatic. This reinforces a
behaviourist view of language learning influenced by the psychologist Skinner (stimulus, response,
reinforcement).
This approach to language learning was similar to the Direct Method. Like the Direct Method,
the Audio-Lingual Method advised that students be taught a language directly, without using the
students’ native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike

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the Direct Method, the Audio-Lingual Method didn’t focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the
teacher drilled students in the use of grammar.

II.3.2. Principles
1. Language is speech not writing.
2. Language is a set of habits. This principle means that language is acquired by imitation and
practice. Habits are established by stimulus, response, and reinforcement.
3. Teach the language, not about the language. This means that we must teach pupils ‘a set of
habits’, not a set of rules, to enable pupils to talk in the language and not to talk about it.
4. A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say, we
should deal with language as it is and not prescribe what other people say.

II.3.3. Characteristics
1. New material was presented in the form of a dialogue.
2. Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fostered
dependence on mimicry, memorisation of set phrases over learning.
3. Structures were sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns were taught using
repetitive drills.
4. Little or no grammatical explanations were provided; grammar was taught inductively.
5. Skills were sequenced; listening, speaking, reading, and writing were developed in order.
6. Vocabulary was strictly limited and learned in context.
7. There was an abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids.
8. Great importance was given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue
by the teacher was permitted, but discouraged among and by the students.
9. Successful responses were reinforced; great care was taken to prevent learners’ errors. There
was a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and
meaning.

Examples
Let’s go through the experience of the Audio-Lingual Method. The teacher first will give students a
dialogue which is for everyday usage. S/he will read the dialogue and act out the action to let
students understand. During this time, students could not hear any language from their native
language. The teacher would convey through his/her body language.

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Conversation
Bob: Hi Alice. How are you?
Alice: I’m fine, and you?
Bob: Not very good. I want to play online and chat with my internet friends.
Alice: Well, why don’t you go online then?
Bob: I can’t. My mom wants me to go outside and play more.
Alice: My mom is like your mom. She thinks it is good to go outside and play.
Bob: Really? Then how about going outside to play with me after school today?
(From EZ Basic, March 2003)

Later on, the teacher will ask students to repeat after him/her. For those difficult lines, the teacher
will use a backward build-up drill to train these students. The purpose of this drill is break down the
difficult sentences into small parts.

Teacher: friends
Class: friends
Teacher: internet friends
Class: internet friends
Teacher: my internet friends
Class: my internet friends
Teacher: with my internet friends
Class: with my internet friends
Teacher: chat with my internet friends
Class: chat with my internet friends

II.3.4. Criticism
1. Habit formation takes a long time, and the drills were insufficient. Making them long
enough to the job would render them dreadfully boring.
2. The inductive learning – drills, then the rules- does not suit all learners.
3. Students just repeat the drills without understanding them – they are not communicative.
Dissatisfaction grew. This led to a number of different approaches, most of which can be looked
upon as basically communicative. That is, the fundamental idea is that a language can only be
learnt if it is used in a meaningful way.

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II.4. The Communicative Approach
The communicative approach could be said to be the product of educators and linguists who had
grown dissatisfied with the Audio-Lingual and Grammar-Translation methods of foreign language
instruction. They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language. They did not
know how to communicate using appropriate social language, gestures, or expressions; in brief,
they were at a loss to communicate in the culture of the language studied. Interest in and
development of communicative-style teaching flourished in the 1970s; authentic language use and
classroom exchanges where students engaged in real communication with one another became quite
popular.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) makes use of real-life situations that necessitate
communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real-life.
Unlike the Audio-Lingual Method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the
Communicative Approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise,
which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life simulations change from
day to day. Students’ motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful
ways about meaningful topics.
Historically, CLT has been seen as a response to the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM), and as an
extension or development of the Notional-Functional Syllabus.
The Notional-Functional Syllabus
A Notional-Functional syllabus is more a way of organising a language learning curriculum than a
method or an approach to teaching. In a notional-functional syllabus, instruction is organised not in
terms of grammatical structure as had often been done with the ALM, but in terms of “notions” and
“functions”. In this model, a “notion” is a particular context in which people communicate, and a
“function” is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. As an example, the “notion”, or
context, shopping requires numerous language functions including asking about prices or features
of a product and bargaining. Similarly, the notion party would require numerous functions like
introductions and greetings and discussing interests and hobbies. Proponents of the notional-
functional syllabus claimed that it addressed the deficiencies they found in the ALM by helping
students develop their ability to effectively communicate in a variety of real-life contexts.

II.4.1. Principles
1. It is assumed that the goal of language teaching is learner’s ability to communicate in the
target language.
2. It is assumed that the content of a language course will include semantic notions and social
functions, not just linguistic structures.

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 3. Students regularly work in groups or pairs to transfer (and, if necessary, negotiate) meaning,
in situations where one person has information that the other(s) lack.
4. Students often engage in role-play or dramatisation to adjust their use of the target language
to different social contexts.
5. Classroom materials and activities are often authentic to reflect real-life situations and
demands.
6. Skills are integrated from the beginning; a given activity might involve reading, speaking,
listening and perhaps also writing.
7. The teacher’s role is to facilitate communication and only secondarily to correct errors.
8. The teacher should be able to use the target language fluently and appropriately.

II.4.2. Classroom Activities used in CLT

Example Activities
- Role-play
- Interviews
- Information gap
- Games
- Language exchanges
- Surveys
- Pair work
- Learning by teaching
However, not all courses that utilise the Communicative Language Approach will restrict their
activities solely to these. Some courses will have the students take occasional grammar quizzes, or
prepare at home using non-communicative drills, for instance.
Example
The following exercise is taken from a 1987 workshop on communicative foreign language
teaching, given for Delaware language teachers by Karen Willetts and Lynn Thompson of the
Center for Applied Linguistics.
Instructions to Students: Listen to a conversation somewhere in a public place and be prepared to
answer, in the target language, some general questions about what was said.
1. Who was talking?
2. About how old were they?
3. Where were they when you eavesdropped?
4. What were they talking about?
5. What did they say?

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 6. Did they become aware that you were listening to them?

The exercise puts students in a real-world listening situation where they must report information
overhead. Most likely they have an opinion of the topic, and a discussion could follow, in the target
language, about their experiences and viewpoints.
Communicative exercises such as this motivate the students by treating topics of their choice, at an
appropriately challenging level.