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Driving Force and Logic of Development of Advanced
High Strength Steels for Automotive Applications
Olivier Bouaziz, Hatem Zurob, and Mingxin Huang

The major scientific and technological advances and breakthroughs of advanced high
strength steels (AHSS) were achieved due to the strong demands of automotive
industry. The development of AHSS began in the early 1980s with the aim of improving
passenger safety and weight-saving. The present paper presents the driving forces and
logic of development of various AHSS for automotive applications since 1980s. The
importance of crash performance, weight-saving, formability, and rigidity are critically
reviewed for the development of new steel grades for automotive applications. The
logical sequences of the development of dual phase (DP) steel, transformation induced
plasticity (TRIP) steels, tempered DP steels, complex phases (CP) steels, Ferrite-Bainite
steels, hot-stamping technology, twinning induced plasticity (TWIP) steels, Quench and
Partitioning (Q&P) steels, Medium Mn steels, and steels–polymer composites are
presented.

1. Introduction Partitioning (Q&P) steels,[41–44] Medium Mn steels,[45,46]

Modern advanced high strength steels (AHSS) should com-
bine high strength and formability/ductility. The ultimate
tensile strength of an AHSS grade is in general higher than
600 MPa. These steels are primarily used in the automotive
industry for the fabrication of parts of the body-in-white.
The industrial development AHSS began in the early
1980s with the aim of improving passenger safety and
weight-saving. In the event of crash these steels have
the capacity to absorb the kinetic energy of the crash
and prevent intrusion. Since 1980s, tremendous research
efforts have been put into the development of AHSS.
The AHSS includes dual phase (DP) steels,[1–10] transform-
ation induced plasticity (TRIP) steels,[11–20] tempered
DP steels,[21–23] complex phases (CP) steels,[24,25] Ferrite-
Bainite steels,[26] hot-stamping steels,[27–33] twinning
induced plasticity (TWIP) steels,[34–40] Quench and
and steels–polymer composites.[47–50] The major scientific
and technological advances and breakthroughs of AHSS
were achieved as a result of the strong demands by the
automotive industry. It is interesting to perform an analysis
on such driving force and the resulting logic of develop-
ment of AHSS since 1980s. The present paper aims at
presenting such analysis to provide an overall picture on
the driving force and the logic of developments of AHSS for
automotive applications, which can help both steel indus-
try and automotive industry to predict the trend of the
development of AHSS in the future.
2. Driving Forces
2.1. Safety

Safety issue is the first driving force for the development

[
] Dr. M. X. Huang
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, and use of AHSS in automotive industry. The components
Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China made of AHSS can absorb, in the event of crash, more
Email: mxhuang@hku.hk
kinetic energy of the crash and prevent better intrusion
O. Bouaziz
ArcelorMittal Research, Voie Romaine-BP30320, 57283 Maizières-lès- as compared to low strength steels. Figure 1 illustrates the
Metz, Cédex, France main configurations of crash characterization used by
O. Bouaziz
Centre des Matériaux/Mines-Paristech, CNRS-UMR7633, BP 87, 91003
automakers for the assessment of performance.
Evry Cedex, France The suppliers of high performances steels for automo-
H. Zurob tive applications have developed different laboratory tests
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, McMaster
University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada in order to assess the performance of their products. As
mentioned previously, the capacities for energy absorption
DOI: 10.1002/srin.201200288 and anti-intrusion have to be characterized. To that end,

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Figure 1. Main configurations of crash characterization used by
automakers for the assessment of crash performance: a) Front
crash b) Lateral crash.
two main tests are performed as illustrated in Figure 2.
Statistical analysis of thousands of tests have led to the
development of performance index to describe materials
performance. For energy absorption performance, the
relevant performance index (Fav) is related to the average
force and is expressed as:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Fav ¼ K UTSt2 (1)
where UTS is the ultimate tensile strength, t the thickness
of specimen, and K a constant depending on the sample
geometry.
Dr. M. X. Huang obtained his BSc
and MSc degrees from Shanghai
Jiao Tong University, China, in
2002 and 2004, respectively. Then
he obtained in 2008 his PhD degree
from Delft University of Technology,
the Netherlands. From 2008 to
2010, he worked as a researcher
at the global research centre of
ArcelorMittal in Maizieres-les-Metz, France. Since
2010, he has been working in The University of Hong
Kong as an assistant professor. His current research
interests are focused on the mechanical properties–
microstructure relation of various advanced high
strength steels (AHSS) including first generation of
AHSS, TWIP steels and third generation of AHSS.
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Figure 2. Main tests for the laboratory assessment of crash
performance.
For the anti-intrusion performance, the relevant per-
formance index (Fmax) is related to the maximal force (i.e.,
buckling force of the structure) and is expressed as:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Fmax ¼ K YSt1:75 (2)
where YS is the yield stress. Figure 3 shows examples of
parts designed mainly for energy absorption and for anti-
intrusion applications.
2.2. Lightening
The performance indexes defined in Equation 1 and 2
indicate, respectively, the necessity to increase the
ultimate tensile strength and yield stress for a given thick-
ness in order to optimize the crash performance.
Alternatively, the above equations demonstrate that by
increasing the tensile and yield stresses the thickness of a
component may be reduced without compromising crash
performance. This, in fact, is the second driving force
for the development of AHSS. ‘‘Lightening’’ refers to
the reduction of the weight of a component through
the use of a thinner section of a steel with a higher yield
or tensile strength. Ultimately, lightening is driven by the
need to reduce CO2 emissions, which translates into
the need to achieve excellent crash performance with
minimal vehicle weight.
The urgent needs for weight reduction in automotive
industry is highlighted in Figure 4 which shows the com-
parisons of CO2 emissions of major automotive fleets to
the European regulation targets for 2015.[51] It is observed
that, in the majority of cases, the emissions in 2009 are
significantly higher than the ones required for 2015. Failure
to comply with the above European regulations carries
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Figure 3. Examples of parts for energy absorption and anti-intrusion: a) the crash box is designed to absorb kinetic energy during a
crash while minimizing the stress exerted on the passengers; b) the B-pillar prevents intrusion into the passengers’ space.

financial penalties that are proportional to the gap between For anti-intrusion applications, a similar analysis
actual and target emissions. The penalties can be of the leads to:
order of millions of Euros.
Using Equation 1 and 2, one can express the relationship 1 DYS Dt
þ 1:75 ¼ 0 (5)
between the relative increase in strength and the lightening 2 YS t
potential. For a constant performance index (i.e., dFav ¼ 0),
Equation 1 can be rewritten as: and

1 DUTS Dt DM 2 DYS
dFav ¼ þ2 ¼0 (3) ¼ (6)
2 UTS t M 7 YS

As the mass M of a part is proportional to its thickness,

based on Equation 3, the relative weight saving can be
expressed as: 2.3. Formability

DM 1 DUTS The previous analysis of materials performance for safety

¼
M 4 UTS
Figure 4. CO2 emission in 2009 as a function of the mean
weight of the fleets of major automakers as compared to
European regulation targets for 2015.
(4) and lightening has ignored a major constraint for AHSS,
which is the formability. The newly developed steels need
to be formed into potentially complex parts before finding
applications in the automotive industry. For example, thin
strips are usually formed by stamping at room tempera-
ture. In order to assess the formability of a given material,
the concept of forming limit diagram (FLD) has been
introduced in automotive industry. These diagrams define
the domain of admissible plastic strains that the material
can undergo without any localized necking. As illustrated
in Figure 5, the FLD is determined by measuring the
localized necking strain along several strain paths.
Successful forming can only be carried out below the
critical strains defined by the FLD. Concerning material
properties, the forming limit is mainly controlled by the
strain-hardening of the steel. One can consider the simple
case of Hollomon’s behavior law as:
s ¼ k"n (7)

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Figure 5. Determination of the Forming Limit Diagram (FLD).
where s is the flow stress, " the plastic strain, and n is
the strain-hardening parameter. Figure 6 shows that the
lowest point on FLD occurs at a plastic strain equal to n,
thus highlighting the key role of this parameter on the
formability under stamping conditions.
Other formability criteria are necessary for other forming
operations. In the case of bending, the minimum bending
radius is not controlled by strain-hardening but rather by the
fracture strain as measured by the Reduction Area (RA) of
tensile samples. An empirical relationship links the mini-
mum radius and fracture strain as[52]:
R ð1  RAÞ2
¼ (8)
t 2RA  RA2
where R is the minimum bending radius of the specimen.
This relationship is illustrated in Figure 7.
Figure 6. Effect of strain-hardening parameter n on the
Forming Limit Diagram.
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60
50
40
R/t
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
RA (%)
Figure 7. Evolution of the minimum bending radius as a func-
tion of fracture strain. Experimental points are represented by
the black circles. The solid line is based on Equation 8 and the
experimental data (dots) are obtained from the literature.[52]
3. Metallurgical Responses
3.1. Dual-Phase Steels
Dual-phase (DP) steels are the most developed and widely
used AHSS in automotive industry. Their industrial pro-
duction began in the 1990s. A DP steel is composed of two
phase, namely a hard phase, known as martensite, which is
embedded in a soft matrix phase, known as ferrite, with a
low strength and a high ductility. A typical microstructure
of a DP steel is shown in Figure 8. Ferrite is soft and its
Vicker’s hardness is typically between 100 and 150 Hv.
Martensite is hard phase and its hardness increases with
the increase of carbon content as shown in Figure 9. The
figure highlights the large difference between the behaviors
of the soft and the hard phases in DP steels. This type of
Figure 8. Typical microstructure of a Dual-Phase microstructure.
Ferrite appears gray and martensite appears black.
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1000 16
900 15
YS
800 14 UTS
700 13
Hardness (Hv)

600 12

UEl(%)
500 11
400 10
300 9
200 8
100
7
0
6
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
C (wt%) Stress (MPa)

Figure 9. Vicker’s hardness of martensite as a function of car- Figure 11. Attainable combinations of strength and uniform
bon content. elongation of DP steels. Dots are experimental data obtained
from the literature.[56,57]
microstructure is usually obtained by an intercritical treat-
ment where austenite and ferrite are stable followed by a
fast quench, resulting in transformation of austenite into
martensite. Such heat treatment is shown schematically
in Figure 10.
This particular microstructure combination provides a
low yield stress compared to the ultimate tensile strength
and good strain hardening. Figure 11 illustrates the
uniform elongation (UEI) as a function of yield stress
and ultimate tensile strength for a range of DP steels. In
order to highlight the role of reinforcement of the marten-
sitic phase in this composite microstructure, the strength
of a DP steel is plotted in Figure 12 as a function of
martensite volume fraction and of carbon content.
The combination of high strength and strain-hardening
is the key advantage of DP steels. Limitations, however,
have appeared because an important decrease in fracture
strain is observed with the increase in martensite volume
fraction as shown in Figure 13. In addition, some appli-
Figure 12. Schematic evolution of strength of DP steels as a
cations require higher strain-hardening, which could not function of martensite volume fraction and carbon content.
be achieved by DP steels. In order to overcome these
limitations, two approaches have emerged as shown
in Figure 14. The first approach leads to the development

85

75

65

55
RA (%)

45

35

25

15
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9
Martensite volume fraction

Figure 13. Evolution of Reduction Area (RA) as a function of

Figure 10. Schematic presentation of the typical heat treatment martensite volume fraction for DP steels. Dots are experimental
utilized to produce DP steels. data obtained from the literature.[56–66]

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a) 1200
1100

1000

900

MPa
800

700

600
UTS
500 YS

400
20 70 120 170 220 270 320 370 420 470
Figure 14. Motivations for the development of other types of Tempering temperature (°C)
multiphase advanced high strength steels.
b) 50
45
40
of TRIP steels which offer a better combination of strength
35
and strain-hardening than DP steels. The second approach
results in the development of microstructures with better 30
RA

%
combinations of strength and fracture strain, but reduced 25 UEl

strain-hardening, resulting in the development of CP 20

steels,[24] tempered DP steels,[21–23] and Ferrite-Bainite 15

steels.[26] 10
5
0
20 70 120 170 220 270 320 370 420 470
3.2. Tempered Dual-Phase Steels
Tempering temperature (°C)

A tempering treatment is a heat treatment which is usually
applied to martensite in order to enhance its toughness.
Common examples include the tempering of spring
steels and construction steels. Tempering temperatures
are, typically, in the range between 200 and 4008C and the
duration ranges from few minutes to several hours. The
industrial application of tempering of DP steels for automo-
tive applications is more recent and has been motivated
by the improvement of the combination of strength and
fracture strain (i.e., RA). As illustrated in Figure 15, temper-
ing of a DP steel containing 62% martensite with a nominal
carbon content of 0.15%, results in:
- decreasing of UTS,
- increasing of YS,
- significantly increasing of the fracture strain,
- and leaving the uniform elongation essentially unchanged.
Alternatively, the same effects can be obtained, without
the need for tempering, if the martensite is partly replaced
by bainite. This approach leads to the development of CP
steels,[24] and Ferrite-Bainite steels.[26]
3.3. TRIP Steels
In Dual-Phase steels a soft phase (ferrite) and a hard phase
(martensite) have been combined; this kind of steel could
be considered as a composite material. To a first approxi-
Figure 15. Evolution of mechanical properties of a DP steel con-
taining 62% of martensite as a function tempering temperature:
a) UTS and YS versus tempering temperature; b) Reduction
Area (RA) and uniform elongation (UEI) versus tempering
temperature. In this example, the tempering time is 4 min for
all tempering temperatures. Dots are experimental data
obtained from the literature.[63]
mation, the strain-hardening rate (ds=d") of a two phases
material is expressed as:
ds ds 1 ds 2
¼ ð1  FÞ þF (9)
d" d" d"
where ds 1 =d" and ds 2 =d" are, respectively, the strain-
hardening rates of the soft and hard phases, respectively;
F is the volume fraction of the hard phase.
In the case of TRIP steels, plastic strain induces the
transformation of the soft phase (austenite) to the hard
phase (martensite) as shown in Figure 16. This transform-
ation has the effect of increasing the macroscopic strain-
hardening rate. This type of microstructure is usually
obtained by an intercritical treatment where austenite
and ferrite are stable, followed by a holding in the
bainitic region where austenite is enriched in carbon
(i.e., stabilized) and finally a quench to room temperature
(Figure 17). Thus, TRIP steels are composed of four
phases, namely ferrite, bainite, retained austenite, and
martensite.

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Figure 16. Schematic evolution of the martensitic transformation of a retained austenite island. During the deformation, the
retained austenite transforms to martensite.

As the volume fraction of austenite evolves during the rate, Equation 9 can be modified to:
mechanical loading, TRIP steel can be considered as a
‘‘dynamic composite’’ material. To capture the contri- ds ds 1 ds 2 dF
¼ ð1  FÞ þF þ ðs 2  s 1 Þ (10)
bution of the phase transformation to the strain-hardening d" d" d" d"

The additional term, ðdF=d"Þðs 2  s 1 Þ, captures the addi-

tive contribution to the strain-hardening as a function of
the phase transformation kinetics and is proportional to
the difference between the flow stresses of the hard phase
(martensite) and the soft phase (austenite). Figure 18 com-
pares TRIP steels and DP steels and illustrates that TRIP
steels have a better combination of uniform elongation and
strength than DP steels.

4. Recent Developments and Outlook

4.1. Hot Stamping

In order to use steels with increasingly higher strength for

vehicles, while avoiding the problems of formability, steel-
Figure 17. Typical heat treatment procedure employed to pro- makers have implemented the hot stamping technology.
duce TRIP steels.
The development of this strategy has rapidly increased in
the last decade. The principle of hot stamping is described
in Figure 19. A blank is heated in a furnace at a temperature
where the microstructure is fully austenitic. In a second
step this blank is transferred into a press where it is
24
22
stamped and rapidly cooled leading to a martensitic steel
20
TRIP steels at room temperature. In this way, complex parts with
DP steels
18 strengths in excess of 1500 MPa can be produced, which
16 is not possible by direct stamping at room temperature.
UEl(%)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
UTS (MPa)

Figure 18. Comparison between the combinations of strength Figure 19. Thermo-mechanical treatment for hot stamping
and uniform elongation for TRIP steels and DP steels. technique.

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An additional advantage of this technique is to decrease

the spring-back which is one of the main problems for
the forming of steels with strengths in excess of 1200 MPa.
The evolution of the magnitude of this spring-back is
illustrated in Figure 20 as a function of forming tempera-
ture. Figure 21 shows some automotive parts which have
been produced or are expected to be made by hot stamping
technique.

4.2. TWIP Steels

In order to reduce weight without compromising safety

and in order to be able to perform stamping at room
temperature, steel-makers developed in the 1990s a family
of fully austenitic steels. The austenite is stabilized down
to room temperature by additions of carbon and manga-
nese (15–25% of manganese). As shown in Figure 22, these,
so-called TWIP steels exhibit an impressive tensile behav-
ior with tensile strengths higher than 1000 MPa and
uniform elongations larger than 50%. These properties
allow the fabrication of very complicated parts at room
temperature with very high strength as illustrated in
Figure 23. These attractive properties have stimulated
Figure 22. Engineering stress–strain curves a TWIP steel as a
function of grain size for a chemical composition Fe–0.6%C–
22%Mn.
intense developments in the last 10 years (see a review
paper[35]). The mechanism explaining this high level of
strain-hardening rate is the occurrence of an intense
mechanical twinning during deformation. Mechanical
twins act as obstacles for gliding dislocations, leading to
an effect which is similar to a continuous grain size refine-
ment. This effect is often referred to as ‘‘dynamic Hall-
Petch effect’’ and is illustrated in Figure 24.

4.3. Third Generation Steels

It has been previously showed that TWIP steels offer an

excellent combination of strength and uniform elongation.
Despite these advantages, limitations arise due to their
high cost which is due to the high manganese content.

Figure 20. Evolution of spring-back as a function of stamping

temperature.[67]

Figure 21. Parts that have been produced or are expected to be Figure 23. Example of a complex part made of a TWIP steel
produced by hot stamping (grey). formed at room temperature.

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quenched to 2808C and then re-heated and held at a par-
titioning temperature of 3508C for 10 s and quenched again
to room temperature.[55] For medium Mn steels, a typical
chemical composition is Fe–5Mn–0.2C (in wt%). The
typical process is described as follows. The steels are firstly
austenized at 7508C for half and then quenched in oil
followed by intercritical annealing at 6508C for various
and finally air cooled to room temperature.[45] The volume
Figure 24. Schematic presentation of the ‘‘dynamic Hall-Petch’’ fraction of retained austenite can be as high as 20% in
effect in TWIP steels. The formation of mechanical twins intro- medium Mn steels. Both Q&P and medium Mn steels also
duces fresh obstacles to dislocation glide and has the same employ TRIP effects as the main mechanism for improving
effect as a continuous refinement of grain size. work hardening.
These Q&P and medium Mn steels offer combinations
of strength and ductility that are somewhat inferior to
those of TWIP steels but significantly superior to those
24 of first generation high strength steels (e.g., DP and TRIP
22 steels). The key motivations for the development of the
20 1st generation 3rd generation third generation of steels are:
18 advanced high advanced high
strength steels strength steels
16
- to maintain the possibility of stamping complex shapes
UEl(%)

14
at room temperature,
12
- sustain the continued lightening of vehicles, and
10
- reduce cost and processing problems associated with
8
TWIP steels.
6
4
As shown in Figure 25, it has been determined that the
2
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
added value (lightening/safety) for these new steels is
UTS (MPa) interesting for UTS higher than 1200 MPa and uniform
elongation >12%. The aim is to have metallurgical
Figure 25. Positioning of targeted properties for the third gener- solutions that would lead to additional lightening of 15%
ation of advanced high strength steels.
compared to the AHSS of first generation. The chemical
composition and the microstructures of third generation
In addition, certain difficulties exist for the industrial pro- steels should be developed rapidly and they should pro-
duction and upstream processing of these steels. gressively take a significant part of the market in near
Steel-makers have recently defined a domain of devel- future. Various metallurgical and economic considerations
opment of new steels, so-called ‘‘third generation’’ steels. limit the C and Mn contents of these steels to 0.3 and
Some examples are Quenching and Partitioning (Q&P) 7 wt%, respectively.
steels proposed by Speer and others[42,53,54] and medium
Mn steels.[45,46] A typical Q&P process employed to pro-
duce a multiphase microstructure containing a consider- 4.4. Improved Rigidity Solutions
able amount of retained austenite (12% in volume fraction)
is briefly described as follows. A typical chemical compo- In Section 1, the lightening potential of vehicles through
sition is Fe–0.22C–1.40Si–1.8Mn (in wt.%). The steel is an increase in YS and UTS has been quantified. So far,
firstly austenitized at 8608C for 5 min, and then cooled no mention has been made of elastic rigidity, which is
slowly at a rate of 58C s1 to 7258C (ferrite þ austenite also required for automotive structures as illustrated
regime). After cooling to 7258C, the steel was then rapidly in Figure 26. If a thin plate is considered in bending, its

Figure 26. Examples of global rigidity requirement for vehicle in torsion a) and in bending b).

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Figure 27. Examples of parts made of sandwich structures,
steel/polymer/steel, for improved rigidity solutions: a) hat-
shaped part b) hood part.
deflection (d) is proportional to:
E
d/
t3
where E is the Young’s modulus. Equation 11 shows that an
increase in YS or UTS has no effect on the required rigidity.
The rigidity only depends on material’s Young’s modulus
and the plate thickness. This means that, in some cases, the
weight-saving strategy based on the reduction of thickness
is limited by the decrease in rigidity. This constraint is
increasingly encountered in the automotive industry. For
this reason, new solutions are in progress in order to
improved rigidity as shown in Figure 27, which is an
example of a sandwich solution (steel/polymer/steel)
which has been recently proposed to car-makers.
5. Conclusions
The driving forces linked to the requirement of lightening
of vehicles and of the improvement of safety have made the
design of AHSS a very active field of research and develop-
ment, especially during the last 20 years. In this publi-
cation, the performance indexes related to weight-saving
for these structural materials for automotive applications
have been highlighted. The emphasis is placed on the
global context and the various metallurgical solutions that
steel-makers have proposed. In addition to structural
properties, it is worth to mention that other requirements
for structural materials have to be taken into account
including:
- weldability,
- coatability,
946 steel research int. 84 (2013) No. 10
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- processability,
- cost, and
- recyclability.
These additional constraints make the challenge more
difficult and offer new opportunities for future optimizations.
Finally, several very important changes have been
observed in the last decade such as hot stamping, the devel-
opment of TWIP steels and third generation AHSS. Most of
these innovations are presently at the level of laboratory
research, but some industrial trials are in progress at major
steel-makers. Furthermore, car-makers are preparing for
the integration of these new solutions into vehicles. In
many cases, the co-development agreements between
steel-makers and auto-makers will accelerate the incorp-
oration of these new materials solutions.
Acknowledgments
M. X. Huang gratefully acknowledges the financial support
from the University Research Committee of The University of
Hong Kong (Project code: 201111159053) and the Research
Grants Council of Hong Kong (Project number: 719712).
(11) Received: October 31, 2012;
Published online: June 11, 2013
Keywords: first generation AHSS; TWIP steels; third
generation AHSS; crash performance; lightweight
materials
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