Conference report
Clean Steel 7
J. W. K. van Boggelen1, K. Tiekink2 and H. H. Visser2
Organised by the Hungarian Mining and
Metallurgical Society (OMBKE), Clean
Steel 7 was held in Balatonfüred,
Hungary on 4–6 June 2007. Seven
sessions in a parallel session format
covered a wide range of cleanness
topics, from clean steel production
practices to improving the fundamental
understanding of inclusion formation,
and from new sample preparation
techniques to data analysis. Good and
open discussion helped to provide
insight into the work presented by the
various researchers.
It is becoming more common to use a
combination of techniques, e.g.
thermodynamic modelling and SEM
analysis, to study inclusions in steels
and their development over the
production process. A general
observation is that many companies
have a lot of work in progress with
respect to development of clean steel
processes and cleanness assessment.
In total almost 60 papers were
presented and about 175 people from
the steel industry and research
institutes around the world attended
the conference.
Invited speeches
Dr J.-L. Delplancke (European
Commission, Brussels) gave an
overview of clean steel research
supported by the Research Fund for
Coal and Steel, describing the history of
the European Coal and Steel
Community (ECSC) and the transfer
from ECSC to RFCS. The research
priorities for the RFCS were discussed.
A change from ECSC is that
participants from outside the EU are
welcome, although they are not eligible
for EU funding. New EC members, like
1 C
Corus RD&T, Teesside Technology Centre,
PO Box 11, Grangetown, Middlesbrough, TS6
6US, UK, email johan.van.boggelen@
corusgroup.com
2
Corus RD&T, IJmuiden Technology Centre,
PO Box 10 000, 1970CA IJmuiden, The
Netherlands, email wouter.tiekink@corusgroup.
com, henk.visser@corusgroup.com
ß 2008 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining
Published by Maney on behalf of the Institute
DOI 10.1179/174328108X269414
Sweden in 1995 had to ‘buy
themselves in’.
In the ECSC and RFCS 188 projects
on clean steel were proposed in the
period from 2002 to 2006, of which
10% were funded as RFCS projects in
committees TGS1, 2 and 3.
In discussion, it was stated that the
J40m per year spent on steel research
(generally 50% funding) corresponds to
J0.20/t steel, although an estimated
J2/t is spent on research in total.
P. Jönsson presented ‘Focus on
clean steel within Jernkontoret’s
research: an overview’, a contribution
co-authored by L. Jonsson (also Royal
Institute of Technology, Sweden),
J. Alexis (MEFOS, Sweden) and
L. Bentell (Jernkontoret, Sweden). He
described the way research is done in
Jernkontoret: work is studied in
committees, which have a chairman
from industry; regular meetings are
held three to four times per year and
two seminars per year are organised.
Ladle metallurgy seminars are
organised with Finland to share
knowledge.
Examples were given of models that
predict inclusion gradients in a ladle and
studies on vibration measurements
that relate to the amount of gas used
for stirring a ladle. Argon stirring at the
bottom of the ladle gives inclusion
content gradients in the steel. Sampling
can thus be done in ‘high’ or ‘low’
inclusion content areas, which can lead
to erroneous conclusions if this
phenomenon is not recognised.
H. Gaye (POSTECH, Republic of
Korea) presented ‘Computational
thermodynamics as a tool for clean
steelmaking’, starting with an overview
of work done on thermodynamic
modelling over the years (e.g.
phosphorus distribution in slags and
desulphurisation during ladle
treatment). The presentation contained
interesting sections on phosphorus
removal and there is an expectation this
will require further research in the
future.
Current work on thermodynamic
models is focusing on more sustainable
steelmaking. For all the ongoing work in
Ironmaking and Steelmaking
this area (e.g. ULCOS), some
thermodynamic knowledge of the
process is needed. Technologies that
could not be studied in the past
because of lack of data should be
revisited as data have become
available. There are also still areas (such
as dioxins) where thermodynamic
knowledge is lacking.
R. Fandrich reviewed ‘Secondary
metallurgy – status 2007’, a
presentation co-authored by H. B.
Lüngen and C.-D. Wuppermann (Steel
Institute VDEh, Germany) with a focus
on practice in Germany. Achievements
with respect to S and H and future
expectations were presented (Table 1).
A fluid flow model of a ladle was shown
as well as optical measurements of the
plume eye (gas bubbling at Saarstahl)
and the ‘new’ AMEPA system to
detect slag carryover from the ladle into
the tundish (TKS) was mentioned. In
discussion is was explained that the
use of Ca in a reducing atmosphere
serves to reduce the contents of Cu,
As, Sn and Pb in liquid steel.
‘Control of steel reoxidation and CC
nozzle clogging’ was reviewed by M.
Nadif in a presentation co-authored by
J. Lehmann, M. Burty and J. F. Domgin
(Arcelor Mittal, France) that contained
much data and interesting discussion.
Some initial remarks were made that
now at Arcelor the total oxygen content
of the steel can be related to defects.
Lanthanum tracing is used to
discriminate between deoxidation and
reoxidation inclusions. Large
Ti-aluminates, which cause clogging
according to Arcelor data, are observed
especially when vortexing occurs
Table 1 Evolution of achievable
residual contents by secon-
dary metallurgy, ppm: after
Fandrich et al., VDEh
1960 1980 2000 Future
250 150 20 10
P 30 150 100(50) 30
S 300 30 10 10
N 150 70 30 20
Total O 30 30 10 10
H 6 6 1 1
Total 1036 436 171 (121) 81
2008 VOL 35 NO 2 81
NEWS AND VIEWS

between ladle and tundish during

casting. Ladle slag killing at the RH
degasser is rarely done with CaC2 and
Al containing slag passivation aids.
Argon is injected in the SES to prevent
clogging and a minimum flow of
5–7 L min21 has to be maintained to
avoid disruptive flows in the SES. A
normal rate is 7–10 L min21 when
casting steel at 4 t min21.
It is thought that traces of metals,
which form very stable oxides, cause
clogging. With FeTi, for example, the
calcium content should be ,0.01 wt-% 1 Dendrites originating from one spot (left) and dendrite growing from spheri-
in the alloy (this is rather low, and cal cluster (right) (after Tiekink et al., Corus RD&T)
measured with special OES
techniques). reaction site, and similar growth ‘Generation of non-metallic
In Ti alloyed steels Ti aluminates products were observed in industrial inclusions in high-cleanliness steel’ was
should be avoided also: therefore Ti/Al samples. Miscellaneous alumina discussed by K. Kawakami, in a
should be ,0.7. Unfortunately, no morphologies have been reported in presentation co-authored by T.
clogging versus Ti/Al ratio data were several laboratory studies. Clusters Taniguchi (also Sanyo Special Steel Co
presented. were observed as the result of a Ltd, Japan) and K. Nakashima (Kyushu
In discussion, it was stated that use reaction, but agglomeration of particles University, Japan), beginning with a
of calcium treatment to avoid argon is is also reported very often as a historical overview of oxygen levels
not feasible with IF grades since mechanism for cluster growth (Fig. 1). (Fig. 2). It is known that total oxygen
calcium aluminates are formed which Earlier reports describing the alumina ,5 ppm can be achieved in high carbon
will give product defects. When only a morphology in IJmuiden BOS2 steel chromium containing bearing steels
small amount of Ca is added solid plant strongly suggested that counter- (like SUJ2). Not all mechanisms and
inclusions are formed, leading to diffusion of aluminium and oxygen process steps that contribute to this
clogging: a good Ca-treatment is aiming followed by reaction to form large low level are clearly known and
for liquid inclusions. Low CaO content clusters is the main mechanism when understood. The use of BaO (3 wt-%)
in alumina expands the alumina lattice, deoxidation takes place during the in the ladle slag as a tracer was
resulting in a lower density product, RH-OB process or at the stirring station described in a 150 t EAF with slag
hence increased volume of the by wire injection. Large clusters easily removal and C deoxidation at tap. The
deposits and earlier clogging. float to the slag, which ensures that ladle slag contains 50–55%CaO,
low alumina contents (low total oxygen) 10%CaF2, 10%SiO2, 20–25%Al2O3
Formation of non-metallic can be achieved in the steel. and 3%MgO. After desulphurisation,
inclusions In discussion, it was confirmed that a 2%S is present in the slag. After this
single Al addition is made into the argon the steel is treated at an RH degasser
W. Tiekink presented ‘Initial stages of
plume during stirring in the ladle. for 20 min.
alumina inclusion formation in
Inclusions visible around a cavity may The use of BaO is mainly to study
steelmaking’, co-authored by R. Boom,
A. Overbosch, J. Landskroon (also result from the presence of Al vapour: the mixing of the slag with the steel
Corus RD&T, The Netherlands) and B. precipitation during solidification is during the secondary metallurgy
Deo (Indian Institute of Technology). unlikely. Nucleation of alumina is processes.
Aluminium is the preferred deoxidant in heterogeneous, although SEM images of inclusions were
steelmaking, reacting exothermically homogeneous nucleation in steel is shown from a sample taken at 4 m
with dissolved oxygen to form solid believed to be possible. depth in the ladle. BaO was found in
Al2O3 particles, partly as clusters. In
IJmuiden BOS2 the oxygen activities
before deoxidation are usually between
200 ppm (RH) and 500 ppm (stirring
station). Alumina does not wet easily
and high flotation is observed during
the addition of aluminium under
practical steelmaking conditions.
The morphology of Al2O3 created
during the deoxidation process is
dependent on the amount of available
oxygen and aluminium. Oxygen and
aluminium diffusion may determine the
shape of the reaction products: large
columnar and dendritically grown
reaction products were observed in
laboratory melts, when oxygen and 2 Transition of oxygen content in bearing steels and low alloy carburising
alumina counter-diffused to the steels (after Kawakami et al., Sanyo Special Steel Co. Ltd)

82 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 2


numerous inclusions all over the steel
but its content was much lower than
would be expected from slag–metal
mixing and chemical reactions. Most
inclusions did not contain slag
components such as CaO and SiO2 but
were MgO-aluminates (also showing
some BaO). The stability of BaO and
MgO in steel is close to that of Al2O3:
the dissolved Ba and Ca in the steel
were calculated, and could theoretically
be dissolved at low ppm levels.
Inductively coupled plasma analysis
indicated 2–5 ppm of calcium in the
steel. The low BaO content and
absence of CaO in the inclusions is
attributed to Al reaction with CaO and
BaO, to create (CaO)-alumina/(BaO)-
alumina, and similarly MgO–alumina is
formed.
In discussion, dissolved oxygen in
the tundish was reported as 7–8 ppm,
Ca is 4 ppm.
‘Examination of the development of
non-metallic inclusions depending on
deoxidation and solidification
procedures in certain steels’ by J.
Wiener, co-authored by G. Gigacher
(University of Leoben, Austria),
discussed the relation between alloying
practice and inclusion formation. The
Mn–Al–Si deoxidation reaction had
been studied thermodynamically and in
laboratory experiments. It was found
that in high Mn steels, MnS was
always present around the complex
MnO–SiO2–Al2O3 inclusions.
In discussion it was confirmed that
inclusions which are not
thermodynamically stable are observed
and that the MnS normally precipitates
during solidification rather than
post-solidification: MnS is found on
Al2O3 and SiO2 inclusions.
Microsegregation was not considered
in the thermodynamic model. Sampling
was conducted 30 s after alloying.
The decrease in MnS after Al
addition, contrary to theory, was
attributed to interaction with the
oxygen rich slag.
‘Thermodynamic evaluation for
inclusion formation in high-carbon and
spring steels’ by L. Holappa, co-
authored by S. Nurmi, S. Louhenkilpi
(also Helsinki University of Technology,
Finland) and T. Antola (Ovako Wire Oy
AB, Finland), described the modelling
of inclusion formation in tyre cord and
spring steel. In the MnO–SiO2-Al2O3
phase field, liquid zones (i.e.
deformable inclusions) exist at rolling
temperatures. To achieve the required
compositions, the oxygen in the steel
should be high enough to maintain a
high MnO level in the inclusions, while
at the same time avoiding high levels of
aluminium to prevent high alumina
inclusions.
In the CaO–Al2O3–SiO2(MnO) phase
field a liquid/viscous phase at rolling
temperatures exists (gehlenite).
H. H. Visser spoke on ‘Solid
inclusions in calcium treated
aluminium-killed steel’, a presentation
co-authored by W. K. Tiekink, M.
Koolwijk (also Corus RD&T, The
Netherlands), R. A. L. Kooter, F.
Mensonides and J. P. T. M. Brockhoff
(Corus Strip Products, The
Netherlands). Calcium treatment is
widely used to prevent clogging of
feeder systems by agglomerated
alumina, by transforming the alumina
into non-sticking, liquid calcium
aluminate inclusions. In some steel
grades, calcium addition is also used to
control the morphology of sulphides.
The fact that oxygen and sulphur
compete to react with calcium,
especially in resulphurised grades, is a
complicating factor because solid CaS
can cause nozzle clogging as well as
alumina or alumina rich Ca-aluminates.
Fully liquid inclusions are not
necessary to avoid clogging, and the
optimal inclusion composition has been
shown by Kusano to lie in the solid
range 1,Al2O3/CaO,1.65 for stable
casting of low carbon aluminium killed
(LCAK) steel. Above this range nozzle
clogging will occur; at ,1, erosion of
the alumina graphite stopper was found
owing to reaction of the Ca with the
refractory. Fuhr and Cicutti showed that
nozzle clogging starts when the
amount of solid inclusions exceeds a
critical value of 50 to 60%. The most
common deposits in Ca treated
non-resulphurised steels were calcium
aluminates with variable amounts of
MgO, similar to the non-metallic
inclusions normally observed in such
steels. Pistorius reported that MgO can
contribute significantly to the liquid
fraction of the inclusions in Ca treated
steels so the ternary CaO–Al2O3–MgO
system has to be considered.
At Corus IJmuiden stable casting of
CaFe treated LCAK steels seems to be
possible with inclusions in the tundish
that on first sight appear to be solid. In
contrast, the presence of (partly) liquid
inclusions of CaSi treated, low (0.1%)
sulphur, high strength low alloyed
grades does not appear to guarantee
an absence of clogging. Clogging
deposits had been examined in
comaprison to the inclusion population
in the tundish.
Ironmaking and Steelmaking
NEWS AND VIEWS
‘Combining thermodynamic models
with SEM analysis: a novel method to
assess changes in inclusion chemistry
through the steelmaking process’, was
discussed by J. W. K. van Boggelen, in
a presentation co-authored by K. G.
Bain (Corus RD&T, UK). In high grade
silicon killed steels, control of inclusion
composition is extremely important.
The size and composition of the
inclusions dictates the quality and
properties of the steel in downstream
processing and end use. Metal samples
were taken at various stages from
tapping the BOF to casting and
relatively large sample areas analysed
for inclusions. The chemical
compositions of the inclusions,
together with data from the
steelmaking slag, were translated,
using a thermodynamics based model,
into an exogenous slag seed and an
endogenous oxide that precipitates out
during cooling and solidification. The
resulting curves, showing the amount
of entrainment versus the amount of
precipitated material, allow comparison
of large amounts of inclusion data,
enable determination of the extent of
slag entrainment and identify process
stages where sudden changes occur.
This information is used to inform
changes to operational practice, chiefly
in secondary steelmaking.
‘Morphology and growth of Al2O3
inclusions in Fe–Al alloys at low oxygen
partial pressure’ was described by
M.-A. Van Ende, in a presentation
co-authored by M. Guo, B. Blanpain,
P. Wollants, R. Dekkers, J. Proost (also
Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium)
and E. Zinngrebe (Corus RD&T, The
Netherlands). Experiments in a tube
furnace (80 g electrolytic Fe, 100 ppm
O (activity ,10–20 PO2 in the argon
shield gas)) were used to study the size
distribution and morphology of alumina
inclusions in steel with up to 3%Al. A
population density function was used
for consistency and to allow linking to
statistical distributions.
Samples were taken from the
bottom of the crucible. The results
suggest that it takes several minutes
for aluminium added at the top of the
tube furnace to disperse and react with
the whole sample.
In discussion, it was noted that the Al
content was still increasing after 1 h
and the question posed of how the
results would differ with more rapid
dissolution. The authors responded that
Al super-saturation would change with
dissolution rate and that more
turbulence would be required to
2008 VOL 35 NO 2 83
NEWS AND VIEWS
increase dissolution. The results
suggest that more aggregates and a
different size distribution would be
observed with more rapid dissolution.
D.-H. Woo presented ‘The formation
behaviour of large Nb–Ti carbonitride
precipitates during unidirectional
solidification of Nb–Ti microalloyed
steel’, co-authored by S.-M. Lee, H.
Gaye and H.-G. Lee (Pohang University
of Science and Technology, Korea).
Directionally solidified and quenched
material had been studied in the
laboratory. Temperature profiles during
solidification were calculated assuming
the dendrite tip is at 1515uC. Images
were shown of the mushy zone with
the dendrites and the calculated
temperatures, together with locations
at which the different precipitates were
found.
In discussion, it was stated that the
Cu level of 0.16% accounted for the
presence of CuS precipitates. Ti(C,N)
can grow in the solid phase following
solidification, depending on
composition. Only particles larger than
,2 mm were considered.
Influence of flow conditions
‘Improvement in steel cleanness in
ladle and slab casting processes by
electromagnetic force’ was discussed
by H. Yang in a presentation
co-authored by A. Thrum (ABB
Automation Technologies, Sweden).
Production of steel with high
cleanliness requires good control of
both chemistry and fluid flow in the
ladle furnace and slab casting
processes. Electromagnetic stirring in
the ladle furnace (LF-EMS) and the
application of dc magnetic fields in the
slab caster (EMBR and FC Mould) have
consistently proved to be effective in
improving steel cleanliness. Plant
results demonstrating the
improvements achieved were
presented.
G. Károly (University of Miskolc,
Hungary) discussed ‘Effect of argon
bubbling on the cleanliness of low
silicon, aluminium killed steels’ in a
presentation co-authored by P. Tardy
(Association Hungarian Steel Industry,
Hungary), Á. Szélig, A. T. Szabó
(Dunaferr Co., Hungary) and S. El-
Ghazaly (Central Metallurgical R & D
Institute, Egypt). As well as
homogenising temperature and
composition, argon stirring has an
important role in the control of
impurities in low Si steel deoxidised by
aluminium, where the presence of the
classic Al2O3 type inclusions is
84 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL
unavoidable. Solutions such as Ca
additions or two-step deoxidation
require precise production control,
posing technological challenges for
quality control. In view of this, use of
argon bubbling was proposed to bring
inclusions to the slag on the surface of
the molten steel in the ladle as quickly
as possible, which requires effective
flow within the ladle and slag that is
both physically and chemically suitable.
J. Park described improvement of the
cleanliness of molten steel in the RH
process, a presentation co-authored by
S. Kang (POSCO, Korea). Gas injection
in RH process is generally done in the
up-leg snorkel, to promote coagulation
and flotation by using the mechanical
energy of the circulated steel. Gas
bubbling in the ladle is practised in
refining to homogenise and remove
impurities (dissolved or second phase).
A trial involving overlap between the
functions of circulation and bubbling in
the RH process was reported, in which
bubbles injected through the down-leg
snorkel are broken up and moved into
the ladle where they assist in transport
of inclusions to the slag.
‘Melt flow characterisation in
continuous casting tundishes’ was
reported by A. Bellaouar (Mentouri
University, Algeria) in a presentation
co-authored by A. F. Boudjabi (Centre
Universitaire Oum-el-bouaghi, Algeria)
and Y. Riquier (Polytechnic of Mons,
Belgium). Flow in tundishes is normally
characterised by combined models, in
which the fluid volume is considered to
consist of plug flow, well mixed flow,
and dead volumes, but these models
are often used incorrectly or with
misleading assumptions. The combined
model was discussed and an improved
approach to tundish melt flow outlined.
Y. Wang discussed the ‘Effect of
SEN clogging on flow transport in
continuous casting mould’ in a
presentation co-authored by Xi Zuo and
L. Zhang (Norwegian University of
Science and Technology). Through
industrial measurements and numerical
simulation, the effect of SEN clogging
on flow transport in continuous casting
strands was investigated. Fluid flow,
inclusion motion and removal, slag
entrainment, heat transfer and possible
breakout induced by SEN clogging
were discussed and means of
prediction outlined. Unbalanced
clogging at the SEN generates
asymmetrical flow in the mould region
and results in more inclusion
entrapment at the side with the less
clogged port, which is characterised by
35 NO 2
a larger flowrate and stronger surface
fluctuation. There is also a higher
probability of breakout at the narrow
face and corner on this side of the
strand.
‘Experimental modelling of the
interfacial and bulk flow in two
immiscible fluids’ was discussed by P.
R. Scheller, a presentation co-authored
by B. Sahebkar and O. Volkova
(Freiberg University of Mining and
Technology, Germany). Laboratory
experiments using various liquids at
room temperature were reported to
simulate mass transport in thin liquid
slag layers in continuous casting. The
velocity of volume elements next to the
interface due to disturbances of
interfacial tension was shown to be
dependent on liquid layer thickness and
the physical properties of the liquid
phase. A new dimensionless number
was introduced to describe convective
flow and its effect on the bulk flow in
thin liquid layers.
‘Steel/slag interaction in a gas stirring
ladle by numerical simulation and
physical modelling’ was described by
D.-Y. Sheng (Mefos, Sweden).
Mathematical and physical models built
to describe the interaction between
steel and slag in a gas stirring ladle
were used to study ‘open eye’
formation and slag entrapment under
different process parameters. For slag
entrapment at the steel/slag interface
in a 120 t ladle, a critical flowrate of
100 L min21 was reported.
In discussion, it was said to be
difficult to assess how the oil/water
interface used in the physical model
relates to surface tension in steel, since
the position of the steel/slag interface
is difficult to determine due to
instabilities. The residence time of slag
droplets in the liquid steel was
calculated by using particle tracking and
concentration.
Ladle metallurgy
‘Steel cleanliness during secondary
metallurgy of high-grade quality steels’
was discussed by R. Dekkers in a
presentation co-authored by B.
Blanplain, P. Wollants (also Catholic
University of Leuven, Belgium), N.
Jokanovic and A. Rombout (Nedstaal
BV, The Netherlands). The effect of
steelmaking parameters on spinel
formation, total oxygen and hydrogen in
the steel was discussed, using a
relatively simple statistical analysis that
appears to highlight several important
parameters.

In discussion, it was indicated that
the effect of Ca treatment on spinel
formation was not investigated. The
correlation between Al at tap and final
level is not fully understood and may
require further study.
Variables affecting inclusion
cleanliness in the ladle furnace at
Ternium Steel were considered by
A. Martı́n in a presentation co-authored
by E. Brandaleze, J. Madı́as (also
Instituto Argentino de Siderurgia),
R. Donayo, A. Gómez and J. Pérez
(Ternium Siderar, Argentina).
Operations at Ternium regarding
steel cleanliness have been revised. A
SEM–EDS study on inclusions .2 mm
in size was reported that had led to
adjustments of stirring time in the ladle
and the Al shot addition to the slag. In
discussion, it was said that P reversion
to reduce inclusion cleanness was
applied in the plant rather than slag
treatment so that slag analysis is not
required. Heats are 190 t in weight and
the steels are mainly low carbon
(0.08%) grades.
‘A study of slag/steel inclusion
interaction during ladle treatment’ was
reported by J. Björklund, in a
presentation co-authored by M.
Andersson and P. Jönsson (Royal
Institute of Technology, Sweden).
Samples were taken at Ovako Hofors
and Uddeholm Tooling at various
stages of steelmaking and the results
compared with theoretical calculations.
It was found that no equilibrium exists
between the bulk of the top slag and
the bulk of the steel melt during ladle
refining with respect to O activity. The
inclusion composition in the steel is
affected principally by the top slag
composition.
In discussion, it was asked if it is
possible that slag pushed down during
sampling has affected the formation of
inclusions in the sample. The author
responded that Ar flushed samplers are
used: with manual dips initially, but
later automated sampling. It is possible
slag was picked up in the samples, but
there was no evidence of that. A
synthetic slag containing 10–16%MgO
was used. The O activity is calculated
from the average inclusion
composition. The inclusions are in
equilibrium with the steel. For
calculations, the average compositions
of multiphase inclusions were used.
A companion paper, ‘Effect of
temperature on oxygen activity during
ladle treatment’, was presented by
T. Miki, co-authored by J. Björklund, M.
Andersson and P. Jönsson (Royal
Institute of Technology, Sweden).
Oxygen activity measured in a Si killed
steel was found to be lower than the
theoretical level because the steel was
not saturated in Si (in theory, O activity
should increase with temperature). The
Si/SiO2 equilibrium controls the oxygen
activity (or the Al/Al2O3 equilibrium for
Al killed steels).
In discussion, it was stated that the
slag was sampled but the activities
obtained were not used since they did
not match those from the steel.
‘Sulphide solubility limit in
multicomponent slag system and its
influence on the desulphurisation rate
in steelmaking’ was discussed by
M. Al-Harbi in a presentation
co-authored by H. V. Atkinson and
S. Gao (University of Leicester, UK). A
model study into desulphurisation in
vacuum was described, but no
validation against actual plant
measurements has been performed.
The model links the software packages
Fluent and MT Data to combine fluid
flow calculations for a gas stirred ladle
with slag–metal reactions.
In discussion, it was confirmed that
increased flowrates were employed to
give the greater anticipated turbulence.
At present it is assumed the slag is
liquid, but the next step is to include a
solid phase which may reduce the
desulphurisation capability. To model
15 min of process takes about 5 days
of calculation time.
Evolution of cleanness during
continuous casting and
solidification
This session began with a presentation
on ‘Effects of the use of umbrella
design submerged entry nozzles on
steel cleanliness’ by J. Pindor (Trinecké
Železárny as, Czech Republic)
co-authored by K. Michalek (VŠB
Technical University, Czech Republic).
A submerged entry nozzle for
continuous casting of square/round
blooms has been designed based on
mathematical and physical modelling.
The termination of the nozzle is
designed such that the steel flowing
out of it is directed neither towards the
body of the bloom, nor to the
solidification front, but rather towards
the steel level surface in the mould,
which helps to float out the inclusions
(Fig. 3). Operating results for steel
cleanliness in casting of 410 mm
diameter round blooms were given.
In discussion, it was indicated that
the umbrella SEN is used for ,0.3%C
grades where cleanliness is vital. For
Ironmaking and Steelmaking
NEWS AND VIEWS
3 Characteristics of flow through
outlets of umbrella design SEN
(after Pindor et al., Třinecké
Železárny as)
.0.3%C grades, a ‘straight through’
SEN is used, giving macro-inclusions up
to 300 mm in size. The umbrella SEN is
not used for clogging critical grades.
‘Deoxidation practice in twin-roll-
casting of aluminium-killed carbon
steels’ was discussed by A. Grosse in a
presentation co-authored by D. Senk
(RWTH Aachen, Germany). Strip
casting tests at Krefeld Nirosta on
sequences of steel (90 t heats,
1450 mm strip width, usually Si killed
stainless steel grades) were reported.
(At Nucor Crawfordsville carbon steels
are cast using a transition piece and a
delivery nozzle 1600 mm wide. The
6–8 mm holes in this nozzle are prone
to clogging when casting aluminium
killed steel. However, the Eurostrip
caster at Krefeld is more conventional
and it should be possible to cast Al
deoxidised steel.)
Aluminium deoxidation may give such
fine inclusions that they can be ‘hidden’
in the 8–30 mm secondary arm spacing
found in strip cast steel (solidification
time is 0.25 s). Any gradient in the flow
may cause macro-inclusions. In certain
stainless steels MnSi deoxidation is not
allowed and it would be very convenient
to use Al, but there is a risk of clogging
when processing these steels on a strip
caster.
Tests at Aachen were reported with
‘pre-deoxidation’ in the ladle with Al to
100 ppm O (dissolved aluminium is
then 60 ppm). Soft bubbling is applied
to reduce some of the total oxygen,
after which the Al content is adjusted to
0.040%. In the strip caster oxygen
activity is reduced from 10 to 3 ppm by
adding extra aluminium wire to the
steel just before solidification
(micro-inclusions are formed). It was
found that mainly large clusters are
formed in pre-deoxidation, which can
be floated out of the steel, and later
additions mainly give small inclusions.
This should help to avoid clogging.
In discussion, it was noted that the
Alsol/Altotal ratio is 92–94%.
2008 VOL 35 NO 2 85
NEWS AND VIEWS
4 Comparison of conventional and molten mould flux feeding technique (after
Park et al., Posco)
Desulphurisation can be done in the
first step, followed by soft stirring, then
alloying. Al is added as wire in the
‘tundish’. At 12 s steel residence time
and 1 g s21 addition, sufficient
distribution time is available.
Initial solidification behaviour under
molten mould flux feeding technology
in the continuous casting mould was
reported by J.-K. Park in a presentation
co-authored by J.-W. Cho, K.-H. Moon,
S.-H. Lee, K.-H. Kim and H. S. Jeong
(Posco, Korea). A new liquid mould flux
practice (Fig. 4), now being
commercialised, was tested at the
Posco 5 m radius trial caster (12 t
heats). LCAK steels are usually cast
without argon injection as an anti-
clogging measure (so no argon escapes
in the mould to create surface
turbulence). Testing was done with
standard mould flux (viscosity 2.3 P at
1300uC) and with powders of 5.3 and
10 P viscosity. The consumption of the
standard mould powder was twice
those of the others, which led to poor
surface quality: very deep oscillation
marks and cracks (OSM 0.25, 0.18,
0.21 mm for the standard, 5 P liquid
and 10 P liquid respectively). An
advantage is the elimination of carbon
pick-up from the mould slag, since
there is no carbon in the liquid flux, and
this method does not generate dust.
In discussion, it was confirmed that
the composition of the molten slag is
the same as conventional powders
except for the C content. A small
change in viscosity is observed but the
crystallisation behaviour of the slags is
different. Friction was not found to
increase at high casting speeds. As
there is no rim, the total thickness of
86 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL
the flux layer between the mould and
steel shell was found to be twice that in
normal casting (,1.2 mm).
Inclusions, lining materials and nozzle
clogging during continuous casting of
medium (0.45%) carbon steel billet
were discussed by S. Liu (Beijing
University of Science and Technology,
China) in a presentation co-authored by
X. Zuo, Y. Wang, L. Zhang and X. Wang
(Norwegian University of Science and
Technology). Tests were conducted on
a billet caster with 60 t charges and a
casting speed of 2 m min21. Large
defects started to appear after the
lining of the tundish was changed to a
high MgO material. The composition of
these defects was MgO–Al2O3,
sometimes accompanied with 5%CaO.
Oxides in the defects with similar
composition showed different
morphologies and Fe droplets between
the oxides were often observed. The
most likely explanation is that these
defects originate from dislodged
clogging. Agglomerates may sinter to
more compact deposits and the steel
flow cannot apparently break up these
aggregates. About 30% of the
inclusions collide with the nozzle. Most
will collide at the bottom, also observed
in the nozzle practice, and deposit on
the underside.
Assessment of clean steel
This session began with a presentation
on ‘Ideas for standardised sampling
routines – some thoughts about the
necessity of developing adequate
routines for durable sampling
procedures’ by T. Hansén (Mefos,
Sweden), co-authored by G. Runnsjö
(Outokumpu Stainless AB, Sweden),
35 NO 2
H. Hägglund (Heraeus Electro-Nite,
Sweden) and P. Jönsson (Royal
Institute of Technology, Sweden). A
general overview was given on
sampling, possible problems and
solutions. In chemical analysis, round
robins and certified samples can be
used to check routines and values.
Sampling in a steel plant and sample
handling may give rise to errors, e.g.
from moisture or the type of sample;
especially when C segregation is
expected in the sample itself.
OES–PDA and automated SEM are
surface techniques and it is important
to know at which surface the data are
measured (top, middle of sample,
ground or polished etc).
Filling a sample chamber may entrap
the ambient atmosphere which will
dissolve into the steel; laminar filling is
recommended to improve protection of
the sample from the atmosphere. In all
cases manual sample taking should be
avoided – ideally the sample position
(and angle) should always be the same
– and samplers should be stored dry to
avoid humidity problems (humidity may
lead to slag entrapment or even
refractory entrapment from the
sampler itself). The protective cap on
the sampler itself may influence the
results. Argon flushed samplers are
preferred when H has to be measured
in a sample.
‘Experience with an innovative online
inclusion determination system for
liquid steel’ was described by R. P.
Stone in a presentation co-authored by
C. C. Liu (Heraeus Electro-Nite Co.,
USA) and P. C. Glaws (Timken Co.,
USA). At the Timken Harrison plant
data were generated on a three-strand
bloom caster (2806375 mm) using
the online inclusion measurement
system ESZ–PAS. Liquid metal
passes through a narrow tube,
around which an electromagnetic
sensing system (Coulter counter
principle) detects disruptions in the
metal. About 50 g of metal is sampled;
the lower detection size limit is 25 mm.
Argon bubbles can be electronically
separated from inclusions as bubbles
change their size when passing through
the tube.
The results indicate that in bearing
steels inclusions can be measured well,
but problems arise during transient
conditions (very low tundish levels,
reoxidation during ladle changes) which
are registered as much higher inclusion
levels. In discussion, it was indicated
that liquid and solid inclusions can be
distinguished from their deformation

behaviour, but no compositional
information is available.
‘Simulation of inclusion inspection
methods to obtain their statistical
properties’ was discussed by E.
Hénault (Ascometal-CREAS, France).
An automated FE-SEM method was
applied to steel products in which each
inclusion (.5 mm) is photographed at
high resolution; 45 s per inclusion is
required for photographic and
composition determination; the method
does not have a standard. A simulation
with a virtual sample was shown,
introducing inclusions with specified
size distributions generated using a
Monte Carlo method for location and
diameter. Extreme values statistics
were applied on this virtual sample.
One result was that 11% of
measurements were mistaken and
would lead to a wrong conclusion.
‘Ultrasonic testing for the evaluation
of macro inclusions’ was discussed by
I. Takasu in a presentation co-authored
by K. Sato and Y. Unigame (Sanyo
Special Steel Co. Ltd, Japan). In 1970,
15 ppm total oxygen was considered
clean for bearing steels, whereas now
5 ppm is common. Nevertheless, large
inclusions may still deteriorate end
product quality. The SNRP (Sanyo New
Refining Process) was introduced in
1993 to attempt to reduce the number
of these occasional large inclusions.
The 15 and 50 MHz ultrasonic tests
were described for 10–100 mm
inclusions. The middle of round billet
samples showed indications of porosity
in some instances.
In discussion, it was indicated that it
is difficult to distinguish between
inclusions and porosity. The approach is
to try to exclude areas where porosity
may occur. The equipment is calibrated
using a sample 1.5 mm from the
bottom of a billet. The standard
procedure is to test rolled material. and
a heat treatment is applied before
testing.
‘Classification of complex aluminate
inclusions’ was presented by A. Szabó,
a presentation co-authored by Z. Szabó
(Dunaferr Co, Hungary). Optical
microscopy with image analysis was
used to classify complex calcium
aluminate inclusions based on how the
inclusions deform in, for example, a hot
rolled product. The results were good
and ideas were advanced for future
work using optical microscopy.
‘Metallurgical expertise for base
determination of nature of defects in
metal products’ was discussed by
A. Kazakov in a presentation
co-authored by P. Kovalev and S.
Ryaboshuk (St Petersburg State
Polytechnic University, Russia). Defect
failure analyses were presented for
several products of Severstal, leading
to suggestions for process
improvements. A very high resolution
optical microscope (Thixomet) was
used together with SEM.
In an IF steel (0.10–0.16%Mn,
0 09–0.012%Ti, low Si, 60–100 ppm C)
. sequence of heats having clogging.
a sliver defect was studied; the images
showed a small crack or a bubble
(lamination), Ti oxide/nitride was found
to be present (10–20%) but also
FeO.Al2O3. It was concluded that it
was a combined hot strip mill/cold strip
mill defect and suggested that a narrow
stability region exists in the Al–Ti–O
phase field for FeO.Al2O3, but that
FeO.Al2O3 will not be present in Al
killed steel, unless FeO.Al2O3 was a
non-equilibrium phase.
In Si Al killed steels pure Al2O3 and
hercynite type slivers were detected. A
solution was to change the deoxidation
practice: first Si alloys then Al instead
of first Al (‘dirty steel’) and then Si (Ca).
Ten times better properties and 50%
lower Al fades were claimed.
In certain cases a high melting point
defect, e.g. CaO depleted alumina, will
mix with Fe from the steel base in the
hot strip mill furnace or during rolling
because Fe will sinter with the particles
to create Fe impregnated defects. In
another test it was concluded that the
refractory lining of a steel ladle can
cause spinel inclusions if aluminium is
added during ladle treatment near the
lining; an Mg level of 5 ppm provokes
spinel formation.
Defects in high Si (Al) electrical steels
were discussed: AlN particles (10 mm)
and mullite (Al2O3–40%SiO2). Stability
graphs showed that during steelmaking
at high Al (,0.3%) mullite can be
reduced to (harmless) Al2O3 but AlN
will be formed at ,0.2%Al (at 57 ppm).
Thus, an operating window to avoid
both cannot be found, but at levels of
40 ppm it becomes rather wide
(0.27–0.33% will reduce mullite and
avoid AlN).
A ‘Study of cleanliness and castability
in Ti-stabilised ultra-low carbon steels
using automated SEM inclusion
analysis’ was discussed by S. R. Story
in a presentation co-authored by G. E.
Goldsmith and G. L. Klepzig (US Steel
Corp., USA). Alloying procedures for
making IF steel were studied in two US
steel plants: Gary and Great Lakes.
Automated SEM software was used on
an SEM, capable of dealing with six
Ironmaking and Steelmaking
NEWS AND VIEWS
samples at once, although
12–15 samples is also possible; 1000
inclusions/indications are normally
evaluated per sample. The PSEM is a
workhorse for studies in US Steel, the
focus being on inclusions smaller than
10 mm.
On one occasion a Ti addition was
‘forgotten’ in a TiSULC sequence and
that heat showed no clogging in a
This raises the questions:
N does Ti induce enhanced sintering of
alumina?
N does Ti change the Al2O3
morphology/composition and what
effect do these have on clogging
tendency?
N does the Ti induce better wetting
with the steel and are inclusions
thus more difficult to remove
(currently the favoured explanation)?
It was noted that studies of build-ups
from TiSULC casts show more
Al2O3.TiOx compounds when clogging
is more severe.
Differences were tested in the time
between Al and Ti addition. Circulation
for 2 min before Ti addition gave
significantly less Al2O3.TiO2
compounds than no pre-Ti circulation. A
2 min circulation time after Ti addition
gives less Al2O3 than 0–1 min and the
result after 7 min appears to be even
lower. Adding Ti later (2 min after Al)
also improved Ti recovery by 3%.
Together with improved steel
cleanliness, surface quality increased
from 0.6 to 0.1 at Gary and from 0.9 to
0.3 at Great Lakes.
Late FeP additions gave very bad
inclusion results and this is now
considered bad steelmaking practice in
US Steel. The tundish flux was changed
to another basic flux using the area
fraction of Al2O3 from inclusions in
tundish samples as the main criterion
for cleanliness.
In discussion it was stated that some
improvements are seen in SEN tube
life; when the SEN is not partially
empty an influence of wetting by Ti can
be observed from the SENs. No total
oxygen data are available, it is
considered better to know the inclusion
composition. Locally the Ti
concentrations are sufficient during
alloying for TiOx to form; after some
time the TiO(Al2O3) disappears. It is
important to remove TiOx as fast as
possible after the Ti addition.
‘Assessment of non-metallic
inclusions in sheet metals by computer
analysis’ was described by P. Peetsalu
in a presentation co-authored by M.
2008 VOL 35 NO 2 87
NEWS AND VIEWS
Saarna and V. Mikli (Tallin University of
Technology, Estonia). The M and K
methods (DIN 50 602) were applied to
assess cleanliness. The M method is
easier and gives information on the
biggest non-metallic inclusions. The K
method is harder, especially with
unclean steels, but shows quantities of
sulphides and oxides. To describe fully
the inclusions it is necessary to use
both methods. Although more rapid,
computer analysis experiences
problems in recognising non-metallic
inclusions, therefore different
preparation techniques are used to
obtain a ‘clear’ picture; an Omnimet
system was used to measure sulphides
and oxides in the steel.
‘Some aspects of boron
determination in micro-alloyed steels’
by L. Kovács (University of Miskolc,
Hungary) described a specialised
sample preparation and wet analysis
method to distinguish between
dissolved and undissolved boron for a
specific steel grade. The method does
not seem directly transferable to other
grades at the moment. In discussion it
was stated that spectroscopy had been
tried but did not give very good results.
‘Use of surfactant aggregates for the
analysis of high-purity iron’ was
described by H. Masataka in a
presentation co-authored by M. Hiraide,
H. Matsumiya and T. Kika (Nagoya
University, Japan). To avoid
interference, trace elements must be
separated from the matrix signal. A
method was described to separate the
trace elements from an aqueous
solution using surfactants. With this
method very low concentrations can be
determined, although the extraction
methods appear to be very laborious
and complex. In another example
ad-micells were used to remove Fe
from the aqueous solution, leaving a
solution of the trace elements. In some
cases 0.001 mg/g can be detected. The
separation procedure takes 1 h, and
,30 min for the emulsion method.
Product related technologies
‘Improvement of inclusion cleanness in
bearing steel and Ca treated steel’ was
discussed by F. Ruby-Meyer in a
presentation co-authored by E. Hénault,
M. Rocher-Bakour and F. Merchi
(Ascometal-CREAS, France). In bearing
steels inclusions 10–20 mm in size are
harmful for fatigue properties and
therefore must be avoided. These
larger inclusions are detected using
ultrasonic techniques. Analysis is done
using SEM-EDS. Critical defects were
88 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL
caused by exogenous inclusions and
sometimes agglomerated inclusions.
Thermodynamics combined with
SEM analysis of subcritical inclusions
are used to determine the endogenous
inclusion composition. Thermodynamic
calculations on slag entrainment show
very good agreement with detected
slag based inclusions. The processing
of bearing steels has been improved by
taking more care during casting to avoid
slag entrapment.
In discussion it was stated that the
bearing steels are not given a Ca
treatment, so the 10–20%Ca levels in
inclusions originate from CaO in the top
slag. Inclusion density is determined
from longitudinal samples; spinel and
alumina inclusions do not elongate in
rolling.
‘Developments in the production of
high quality ingot casting bearing steels
and their influence on steel cleanness
and fatigue life’ was discussed by
I. Calderón in a presentation
co-authored by R. Elvira, A. Garcı́a de
Andoin and J. Albarrán (Sidenor IzD
SA, Spain). A project to improve the
cleanliness properties of bearing steel
at Sidenor found that process
improvements should be focused on
limiting the Al2O3 population to avoid
formation of the alumina clusters
.20 mm in size responsible for fatigue
failures.
In discussion, it was stated that the
initial O activity of the steel from the
EAF is 150 ppm in the ladle.
‘Removal of hydrogen, nitrogen and
sulphur from tool steel during vacuum
degassing’ was discussed by
K. Steneholm in a presentation
co-authored by M. Andersson,
M. Nzotta (Uddeholm Tooling AB,
Sweden), P. Jönsson and A. Tilliander
(Royal Institute of Technology,
Sweden). Models to optimise ladle
metallurgy in a vacuum tank degasser
were presented.
In discussion it was stated that
during degassing there always is an
open eye; it is not possible to define a
reaction surface. N, H and S use
different reaction areas in the model.
The argon flowrate is 80–100 L min21.
Slag entrainment cannot be used to
improve desulphurisation since the slag
CaO level is too low, though improving
this is being considered.
‘Development of inclusion
determination method for spring steel
by PDA–OES’ was discussed by Y. T.
Shin in a presentation co-authored by
J. D. Seo, S. W. Choi and J. S. Lee
(Posco, Korea). The fatigue life of
35 NO 2
spring steels, used for engine valve
springs, is sensitive to inclusions
.15 mm in size. OES–PDA data giving
indications about the presence of
elements associated with the large
inclusions were correlated with optical
microscopy data.
‘The effect of ladle vacuum treatment
on inclusion characteristics for tool steel
production’ was discussed by K.
Steneholm in a presentation co-
authored by M. Nzotta (Uddeholm
Tooling AB, Sweden), M. Andersson
and P. Jönsson (Royal Institute of
Technology, Sweden). The inclusion
characteristics were studied during ladle
vacuum degassing, by changing the top
slag composition and evaluating
samples collected before and after
vacuum degassing. It was found that
the number of ‘small’ inclusions
decreased and the number of ‘large’
(.11 mm) inclusions increased or was
not changed during vacuum treatment.
A participant in the discussion
commented that slag composition
strongly affects the efficiency of Ar
stirring: electromagnetic stirring is not
efficient for slag interaction. Trials at
Dillinger had optimised slag
composition and argon flowrate.
‘The effect of chemical content on
MnS inclusion morphology in sulphur
bearing steel’ was discussed by T. Nishi
in a presentation co-authored by T. Kato
(Sumitomo Metal Industries Ltd,
Japan). Results on the effect of steel
composition on the number and
morphology of MnS inclusions were
presented. Unidirectional solidification
experiments under controlled cooling
conditions were conducted. Ca and O
are assumed to affect the interfacial
energy between MnS and the melt and
to influence morphology. It was found
that the morphology of eutectic MnS in
sulphur bearing steel is affected by the
Ca and O content, but hardly influenced
by the C content.
In discussion, it was stated that in
0.5–1.5%Mn steel almost all sulphides
are MnS; only small amounts of FeS
were found. The MnS inclusions were
found in the interdendritic space in the
microsegregation. The cooling rate of
5 K min21 applied in the work
corresponds, in a bloom CC mould,
with a location 100 mm or more below
the meniscus.
‘Cu enrichment behaviour at the
steel/scale interface in Cu containing
steel’ was discussed by S.-W. Kim in a
presentation co-authored by H.-G. Lee
(Pohang University of Science and
Technology, Korea). When iron scrap is
 NEWS AND VIEWS

used as a raw material, tramp elements

such as Cu accumulate because of
difficulty of removing them during
steelmaking. Tramp elements may be
enriched at the steel/scale interface by
preferential oxidation of Fe, leading to
liquid embrittlement or surface cracking
during hot working. The effects of Ni
and Sn concentration, temperature and
oxidising gas composition on Cu
enrichment at the steel/scale interface
were investigated and interpreted from
thermodynamic and kinetic viewpoints.
T. Mattar discussed the ‘Role of
refining in improving the properties of
new grades of maraging steels’ in a
presentation co-authored by A. Fathy,
M. Eissa, M. Kamal and F. Nassar
(Al-Azhar University, Egypt). Cobalt
free, low nickel maraging steels,
recently introduced as economical high
strength steels, include titanium as a 5 Experimental apparatus for production of very small inclusions in steel
basic alloying element. The new steels (after Jang et al., Nagoya University)
possess high strength but their
elongation, and consequently ductility vapour’ was discussed by J. Yang in a equilibrium content of nitrogen as a
and toughness, are poor, presumably presentation co-authored by function of nitrogen partial pressure
because of non-metallic inclusions and M. Kuwabara and T. Yamasaki (Nagoya (0–1 atm) and steel chromium and
non-optimised chemistry. It was shown University, Japan). A way to make very nickel content was defined. This
that both increased titanium content small inclusions in steel (,1 mm, equation will be used as a boundary
and electroslag refining improve preferably 0.5 mm) was described condition in the eventual mass transfer
hardness and strength and greatly (Fig. 5). First, Al is added for modelling of the AOD process.
enhance the ductility of these steels. deoxidation and argon stirring is ‘Reduction of turn down oxygen
performed for 60 min to remove content in basic oxygen furnace
Special problems and clusters. Then pellets of MgO or Mg through lance tip modification and
solutions may be introduced. The MgO will software prediction of oxygen required’
slowly react with aluminium, thereby was discussed by P. Kumar Sen in a
R. Hasenhündl discussed ‘Behaviour of
releasing Mg vapour which can react presentation co-authored by R. Gupta
non-metallic inclusions in managing
elsewhere in the melt with small and S. Rao Chodisetty (Visakhapatnam
steels during the VIM-VAR process
alumina particles to create MgO- Steel Plant, RINL, India). Reduction of
route’ in a presentation co-authored by
aluminates which stay small and do not turn-down oxygen at the end of
R. Tanzer, G. Reiter, W. Schützenhöfer
agglomerate. converter blow, on the basis of a
(Böhler Edelstahl GmbH, Austria),
In discussion, it was stated that tests charge balance model, was described
J. Korp and A. Graf (University of
with Ti additions to give very fine TiOx (previously the plant used fixed oxygen
Leoben, Austria). Böhler makes
speciality steels for aerospace particles are in progress. amounts). The BOF does not have
applications using the VIM–VAR ‘A computational study on the bottom blowing or bath agitation, but
process. The inclusions in these nitrogen content of liquid stainless the lance tip was modified to optimise
steels tend to be sulphides and steel in equilibrium with Ar–N2- the end point equilibrium. The blowing
carbo-nitrides (TiCN), and S content can atmospheres’ was discussed by pattern is controlled manually by an
be high, so MgS particles are observed. E.-P. Heikkinen in a presentation operator who has standard ladders as a
Oxides are rarely encountered in co-authored by J. Riipi and T. guide. The reduction of turn down
automated SEM–EDX studies. Though Fabritius (University of Oulu, Finland). oxygen has led to a reduction of total
the area fraction of inclusions does not A computational model based on the oxygen in the steel. The plant produces
change much during remelting, their mass transfer equations has been tyre bead and aims for spessartite
diameters increase, with an created to optimise blowing practice inclusions by reducing Al2O3 formation.
accompanying decrease in inclusion in AOD and to define the nitrogen ‘Optimisation of scrap charge in
number density, especially in the content of the stainless steel melt as a terms of impurity requirements of
centre of the ingot. function of blowing time. The produced steel’, presented by Z.
In discussion, it was stated that equilibrium compositions of stainless Taszner and co-authored by O. Grega
Böhler’s customers require a test for steel melts containing 15–20%Cr and (University of Miskolc, Hungary) and A.
mechanical properties and a cleanness 8–12%Ni in contact with Ar–N2 Ender (ThyssenKrupp Steel, Germany),
test that does not include TiCN. TiO2 atmospheres were defined using a described dynamic updating of scrap
and CaO are not observed, despite Ti computational thermodynamics compositions in the charge balance
additions. software package. model to ensure optimum scrap charge
‘Characteristics of inclusions in Based on the thermodynamic at ThyssenKrupp Bruckhausen. The
deoxidation of molten steel with Mg calculations, an equation describing the main products of this plant are flat

Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 2 89

NEWS AND VIEWS

products and hot rolled coated coils for

automotive applications.
A mixture of steel scraps that do not
exceed the exact metallurgical
requirements would be preferred for
economy. The aim of the research is to
produce an algorithm for scrap quality
determination which can be integrated
online into the combined process
model. Evaluation of the applied
methods and results confirm that the
unknown composition of obsolete
scrap is a real problem, but use of this
material has economic potential to
increase the level of process
optimisation. Experience with scrap
6 Confocal scanning laser microscopy video images showing variation of par-
use in converter steel production was
ticle size with dissolution time of Al2O3 and MgO inclusions in various
reported.
CaO–Al2O3–SiO2 slags (after Park et al., Posco)
‘Physico-chemical properties of
slags: interfacial tension measurement
between liquid iron and slag using
‘Study of inclusion interaction on occur during argon bubbling in the ladle
synchrotron and dissolution behaviour
molten REM–Al deoxidised 20%Cr or tundish as well as on the free
of Al2O3 and MgO in the slags’ was
stainless steel surfaces’ was reported surface of the molten steel in the
discussed by S.-C. Park in a
by N. Kojola in a presentation stopper rod/seat region of a continuous
presentation co-authored by H.-G. Lee
co-authored by M. Andersson, caster. This presentation focused on a
(Postech, Korea), J.-H. Park (Posco, P. Jönsson, K. Nakajima (Royal comparison between the capillary
Korea) and I.-H. Jung (RIST, Korea). The Institute of Technology, Sweden), behaviour of alumina inclusions (light
removal of inclusions by slags involves H. Shibata and S. Kitamura (Tohoku particles) and REM oxide inclusions
three steps: transport to the slag/metal University, Japan). Rare earth metal (heavy particles).
interface; separation; and removal of (REM) killed steels suffer more severe ‘Thermodynamics of titanium,
inclusions from the interface by clogging problems than Al killed steels. nitrogen and oxygen in liquid alloy
dissolution. The dissolution Clusters of Ce and La oxides steels’ was discussed by Jong-Oh
behaviour of Al2O3 and MgO particles surrounded by solidified metal suggest Jo in a presentation co-authored
in various CaO–Al2O3–SiO2 slags at that REM oxides adhered to the by Wan-Yi Kim, Jin-Goo Kang,
1550uC was investigated using surface of the nozzle promote the Dong-Hyuk Shin and Jong-Jin
confocal microscopy (Fig. 6). Several nucleation of delta ferrite. REM Pak (Hanyang University, Korea).
dissolution mechanisms were inclusions reduce the degree of The thermodynamics of Ti, N and O
identified for different slag undercooling of iron more than in liquid iron was studied to
compositions. alumina (3 and 14 K respectively). establish a database for the
In discussion, it was indicated that Clogging can be solved by using an prediction of TiN and TiOx formation in
an influence of the metal phase oversized nozzle equipped with a liquid steels as a function of
would be anticipated, although it was stopper rod, since the nozzle outlet temperature.
not studied specifically in this work. would then be adjustable. In discussion, it was stated that
Work to investigate BOF conditions Nevertheless, accretion of oxides is no reaction was found between Ti
with lime dissolution is under way found both in the SEN and between the and the crucible to form Ti3O5.
while synchroton studies of the steel– stopper rod and stopper seat. Capillary Equilibrium is obtained after ,1 h in
slag interaction are planned. interaction causing agglomeration may an induction furnace.

90 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 2