10/16/2017

Construction Technology & Materials

EBB_4_020

Foundations in aggressive ground

conditions

Dr. Joseph Kangwa

Week 4: further reading ‐
foundations in aggressive ground 
conditions

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Piling, concreting 
and foundations in aggressive grounds conditions

 It has long been established that any concrete elements

made from Portland cement are more vulnerable to
degradation and loss of compressive strength when
used in environments known to contain thaumasite
form of sulfate.

 The established research wisdom suggests concrete

contains its key chemical ingredients which come into
conflict with similar but naturally occurring chemicals
found in the ground.

Performance of  concrete elements in aggressive 
ground and groundwater
Aggressive grounds give rise to:

 concerns about the quality of the concrete elements

to below ground level (such as foundations,
concrete pads, ground beams piles as well as the
reinforced concrete slabs)

 Concerns about possible migration of the chemical

impurities that might be aggressive enough to impair and
thus affect the compressive strength properties of the very
structural concrete elements we’ve set out to protect via
design.

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Piling, concreting 
and foundations in difficult and aggressive grounds

If in doubt, it is wise to read more about the following:

 Design Sulphate class (DS class)

 Aggressive Chemical Environment for Concrete Class (ACEC

Class)

 Additional Protective Measures (APMs)

Constituents of cements

 Portland cements are hydraulic cements,

which means they will set and harden by
reacting chemically with water through the
process of hydration.

 The process of hydration is exothermic

(releases heat) and it is this heat production
process that kick-starts the hardening of the
paste of cement.

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• The two common elements within When working in 

aggressive grounds 
Portland cement known to be at odds variations of calcium 
with those inert in the ground are: content and its aggressive 
nature have seen the 
inclusion of other 
additives such as fly ash or 
pulverised fuel ash (pfa) 
and blast furnace widely 
referred to as blended 
cements

Variations 
Calcium aluminate  of Ettringite
and 
gypsum
Resulting in 
+ SRC are Largely of 
a low content in 
calcium
Specification of  aluminates
Calcium  Sulfate Resisting 
hydroxide Portland Cements 
(SRPC)

Cement and its make up 
(chemical constituents)
Hydraulic cements are the binding agents within concrete
and most mortar and are thus common and critically important
construction materials.

Hydraulic cements are of two broad types:

 Those that are inherently hydraulic (i.e., require only the addition
of water to activate the cementation), and

 those that are pozzolanic (cementitious but devoid of the

explosive elements in calcium silicates).

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Cement and its make up 
(chemical constituents)
The term pozzolan (or pozzolanic) refers to any
siliceous material that develops hydraulic
cementitious properties in the presence of lime.

This includes true pozzolans and latent cements.

The difference between these materials is that true

pozzolans have no cementitious properties in the
absence of lime, whereas latent cements already
have some cementitious properties, but these
properties are enhanced in the presence of lime (GYPUSM)

Typical mineralogical  composition of modern Portland cement

Chemical Chemical Description Typical Mineral Function

Formula Notation %

Ca3SiO5 C3S Tricalcium silicate  50‐70 Hydrates quickly and imparts early

(‘alite’) strength and set

Ca2SiO4 C2S Dicalcium silicate  10‐30 Hydrates slowly and imparts long

(‘belite’) term (ages beyond 1 week) strength.

Ca3Al2O6 C3A Tricalcium 3‐13 Hydrates almost instantaneously and very 

aluminate exothermically. Contributes to early strength 
and set of cement.

Ca4Al2Fe2O1 C4AF Tetracalcium 5‐15

0 aluminoferrite Hydrates quickly. Acts as a flux in clinker 
manufacture. Imparts gray‐color.

CaSO4∙2H2O CS H2 Calcium sulfate 3‐7 Inter‐ground with clinker to make Portland 

Dihydrate cement. Can substitute anhydrite (CS ). 
(gypsum) Controls early set.
CaSO4 CS Anhydrous 0.2‐2
calcium sulfate
The 4 major oxides in the cement clinker account for the proportion of what
constitutes cement but whose properties are so diverse they’re dictated by the
amount of LIME or Gypsum that is added to produce various strengths of
Portland cements

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Notable variations in the description of Portland cements

Cement  Standard Clinker mineral Percent Properties of cement

type notation

Type I CEM I 50‐65 10‐30  6‐14 7‐10 General purpose

Portland cement

Type II CEM II 45‐65 7‐30 2‐8 10‐12 Moderate heat of hydration

Moderate Sulfate Resistance

Type III CEM III 55‐65 5‐25 5‐12 5‐12 High early strength

Blast‐furnace cements

Type IV CEM IV 35‐45 28‐35 3‐4 11‐18 Low heat of hydration

Very low heat Pozzolanic cement

Type V SRPC 40‐65 15‐30 1‐5 10‐17 High Sulfate Resisting Portland 

Cement 

If concerns about sulfates persist, 
it is advisable to specify a cement  1. A source of 
that has a very low (C3A)  sulfates, generally 
composition (e.g High Alumina  from sulfates or 
Cement) which accounts for a  sulfides (such as 
high sulfate resistance. pyrite) in the ground

For sulfate attack to 
occur leading to the 
formation of ettrigite
and gypsum in  2. Mobile 
concrete the  Groundwater Alkali 
+
following must be 
sulfates soil
present

React with (C3A) 
disruptive 
compound
3. Calcium 
hydroxide and 
Carbonation 
calcium aluminate 
4. Calcium  takes place
hydrate (carbon) in 
carbonate
the matrix.

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Aggressive grounds: some general site 
considerations
 Thaumasite form of sulfate attack on concrete (TSA)

 TSA is a form of sulfate attack, distinct from the

'conventional/ettringite' form, in that it requires the presence of
carbonates in the concrete as well as sulfates in the groundwater.

Carbonates + Sulfates + Groundwater = TSA

 TSA occurs at low temperatures (below

15 C) and significant damage is
persistent where there is constantly very
wet ground, and where there is high
migratory water or mobile water.

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Thaumasite Sulfate:attacks concrete

containing a wide range of different
cements including those that are resistant
to the conventional form of sulfate attack .

 This point would explain why other

additional measures might come into
contemplation in order to provide
maximum protection of the concrete
structures

Effect of Alkalinity vs Sulfate’s acidity on overall resistance 

to concrete

If Alkalinity of water (say sea water) is said 
Alkalinity is the measureable  to be acidic then its pH value is likely to be < 
capacity of any water to  than 7 (pH 7 is neither alkaline nor acidic)
neutralize its own acidity.

However ground water is never  Drinking water is non acidic i.e. pH value is > 
devoid of impurities  and  than 7 and therefore has a higher capacity to 
moreover water is added to the  neutralize any acids contained there‐in. It 
cement/concrete paste to  follows, therefore that the lower the pH value 
engage the process of cement  the more acidic the water becomes. 
hydration. Accordingly, water with a pH4 value is more 
acidic compared to one with a value of pH8.

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Effect of Alkalinity vs Sulfate’s acidity on the overall 

resistance of concrete to carbonation ‐ a form of sulfate
attack

Ordinary 
Portland 
Cement

In the more acidic solution, after 12 months the thaumasite mineral forms and 
gradually replaces the cement paste matrix of the concrete, causing the concrete 
surface to soften and eventually to disintegrate.

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Ordinary Portland Lime Based Cement

TSA occurred within 5 months in concrete tubes stored in sulfate solution at 
4.5 C at pH of 12. Cubes in acid (as above) suffered considerable damage to 
within 12 months.

Even after 12 months the Cubes immersed in acid (as above) showed mild signs 
of carbonation and even those in alkaline only  suffered minor  discolouration 

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Performance of  concrete elements in aggressive 
ground and groundwater
Additional Protective Measures (APMs) may have to be taken
when establishing concrete structures in aggressive ground and
ground water

 APMs are associated with highly aggressive chemicals found

in the grounds especially those known to contain hydrated
calcium sulfate or gypsum.

 Other chemicals such as magnesium, sodium sulfates may

also be present in isolation or combination.

 The severity of these impurities becomes worse where the

water table is very high and in soils with a high drainage run
(high porosity)

Precautions against 
Where the ground is susceptible heave
to heave precautions should be
taken.
Backfill
Voids should be left below floor
slabs and compressible material
should provide a barrier
between the soil and foundations
Void 125 –300mm
Slip liner can
Compressible material or void
be used
former to the inside face and around pile
underside of the ground beam,
this prevents the beam lifting or
moving when the clay expands

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Precaution against heave in a 
trench fill foundation

Where the ground is susceptible to heave Void 125 –300mm

precautions should be taken.
Backfill Backfill
Voids should be left below floor slabs and
compressible material should provide a
barrier between the soil and foundations

Where trench fill is greater than 1.5m deep

a compressible material or void former
should be used against the inside face of the
foundation, positioned in accordance with
manufactures instructions

Prevents the foundation being pushed

outwards
500mm

Precautions against 
Where the ground is susceptible heave: option1
to heave precautions should be
taken.
Backfill
Voids should be left below floor
slabs and compressible material
should provide a barrier
between the soil and foundations
Void 125 –300mm
Slip liner can
Compressible material or void
be used
former to the inside face and around pile
underside of the ground beam,
this prevents the beam lifting or
moving when the clay expands

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Precaution against heave in a trench fill foundation: option 2

Where the ground is susceptible to

heave precautions should be taken.

Voids should be left below floor Void 125 –300mm

slabs and compressible material Backfill Backfill

should provide a barrier between
the soil and foundations

Where trench fill is greater than

1.5m deep a compressible material
or void former should be used
against the inside face of the
foundation, positioned in
accordance with manufactures 500mm
instructions. Prevents the
foundation being pushed outwards

Sulfates

The level of protection to the concrete elements 
below ground level changes relative to what is in 
the ground; if sulfates are present then Additional 
Protective Measures –APM have to be considered

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Precautions against heave Option 3

Additional Protective Measures -APM
Where the ground is
susceptible to heave due to
high presence of sulfates then Backfill
APM as precautions should be Void former
taken.

Voids should be left below floor

Void 125 –300mm
slab: best still if compressible Taken up by void
material is provided as a former
void former and barrier
between the soil and Slip liner can be
foundations used around pile

Compressible material such Expanded Polystyrene - EPS or

void former to the inside face and underside of the ground
beam:- this prevents the beam lifting or moving when the clay
expands.

Where water is present then APM (BRE CPD1 must be

complied with.

Precaution against heave option 4

Additional Protective Measures -APM
Where the ground is
susceptible to heave due to
sulfates the extra APM should
be taken. Void 125 –300mm

Backfill Backfill
Voids should be left below
floor slabs and compressible
material should provide a
barrier between the soil and
foundations
Where trench fill is greater than
1.5m deep a compressible
material or void former should be
used against the inside face of the
foundation, positioned in
accordance with manufactures
instructions. 500mm

This prevents the foundation being

pushed outwards

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Precaution against heave

Where the ground is
susceptible to heave
precautions should be taken.
Void 125 –300mm
Voids should be left below
Backfill Backfill
floor slabs and compressible
material should provide a
barrier between the soil and
foundations

Where trench fill is greater than

1.5m deep a compressible
material or void former should be
used against the inside face of the
foundation, positioned in
accordance with manufactures
instructions. 500mm

This prevents the foundation being

pushed outwards

Voids should be left below floor slabs and compressible material should
provide a barrier between the soil and foundations

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Terminal 2B London
Heathrow Airport Partially
completed pour with fibre
spaces maintaining the
necessary cover

Why is ‘Percafil’ below left in place permanently?

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Controlled Permeability Formwork used in the construction 
of a raft foundation ensuring that the concrete is kept well 
away and off any filled soils or ground. 

Piled foundations, rafts and slabs

can be affected by ground
movement caused by volume
changes in swelling clays due to
clay type and moisture variation.

Changes in the weather and

vegetation often affect the ground
moisture levels.

Some proprietary systems –

Pecafil (note void at sofit) are
now available to minimise
exposure of concrete structures
to any chemicals in aggressive
grounds

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Provision of spaces to concrete elements
Spacers with increased acid resistance
These are often manufactured from a special material
composition that increases their resistance to acid attack.
Fibre concrete spacers are more resistant than
conventional spacers and protect the reinforcement
against acid attack for a longer time period and
considerably extend the design life of structures.

Spacers with increased sulphate resistance

Some special grade spacers made from sulphate resisting
cement (SRPC) or a cement combination have increased
sulphate resistance for structures exposed to aggressive
chemical environments. In accordance with EN2006-1
these spacers may be used for exposure classes where
chemical presence may be considered to be high. The use
of this type of spacer considerably extends and improves
the design life of all structural elements in aggressive
sulphate environments.

Special spacers must be used in 
ground conditions proven to have  
impurities or deleterious 
materials that may be harmful to 
concrete. It is not unusual to 
increase the depth of the spacers 
to accommodate the concerns the 
engineer may have! 

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Provision of spaces to concrete elements

Spacers with high compressive strength

Spacers with high compressive strength may be required
for structures subject to high loads during installation and
concreting.

 Spacers with increased resistance to frost / de-

icing agents
For structures such as bridges exposed to extreme
environments it is not untypical to specify high grade
spacers that are highly resistant to freeze/thaw
cycling and de-icing agents.

References
BRE (2016) Soils, ground investigation and foundations - a collection of BRE expert
guidance on ground assessment, design and movement of foundations, and ancillary works:
A collection of BRE expert guidance on ground assessment, design and movement of
foundations, and ancillary works HIS/BRE Press

Emmitt S and Gorse C (2014) Barry’s Introduction to Construction of Buildings, 3rd edition
Oxford, Wiley and Blackwell

Emmitt S and Gorse C (2014) Barry’s Advanced Construction of Buildings, 3rd edition,
Oxford, Wiley and Blackwell

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