Unit - 2

SOURCES: Surface and subsurface sources – suitability with regard

to quality and quantity.

SOURCES
CLASSFICATION OF SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
The various sources of water available on earth can be classified into the following two
categories;

PRECIPITATION

Surface Sources Sub-Surface Sources or

such as Underground Sources such as
1. Ponds and lakes (natural) 1. Springs
2. Streams and Rivers 2. Infiltration Galleries
3. Storage (impounded) reservoir 3. Infiltration Wells
4. Oceans, generally not used for water supplies 4. Wells and Tube Wells (Bore
at present Wells)

SURFACE SOURCES
Are those sources of water in which water flows over the surface of the earth and is thus
directly available for water supplies.

NATURAL PONDS AND LAKES

The quantity of water available from pond or lake is however generally small, though they
are not considered as principal sources of water supply. It depends on the catchment area of the lake
basin, annual rainfall and geological formations.
The quality of water in lake is generally good and does not need much purification. Larger
and older lakes however provide comparatively pure water than smaller and new lakes. Self
purification of water due to sedimentation of suspended matter, bleaching of colour etc makes the
lake water pure and better when compared to stream or river waters.

STREAMS AND RIVERS

The quantity or discharge of the streams is generally low, sometimes even go dry in summer
season. Therefore they may be considered as source of water supply only for small villages. The
quality of water in streams is normally good except the first runoff. But sometimes runoff water
while flowing over the ground is mixed with silt, clay, sand and other mineral impurities. This can
be removed into sedimentation basin upto certain extent.
Rivers are formed when the discharge of large number of springs and streams combine
together. Rivers (perennial) are the most important sources of water for public water supply scheme.
Therefore most of the cities are situated on the banks of the rivers. The rivers may be perennial or
non perennial (seasonal). Perennial rivers flow throughout the year getting their water during
summer from snow and from rain in winter. Perennial rivers may be considered as water supply
sources directly where as non perennial rivers can be used as public water supplies by providing
storage barriers across these rivers.

IMPOUNDED RESERVOIRS
During summer the water which is flowing in the river may not be sufficient to feed the
town and on the other hand during rainy season it may be difficult to operate due to flood waters.
Therefore, hydraulic structures are constructed across these river valleys forming impounded
reservoirs.
 The quality of water in these reservoirs are not much different from that of lake water, while
top waters prove to develop algae, bottom layers of water may be high in turbidity, Iron and
manganese and on occasions H2S.

UNDER GROUND SOURCES OR SUB SURFACE SOURCES

They are nothing but sub-surface sources with regard to their quantity and quality aspect
beyond the reach of vegetation and either ground collecting in underground basins or flowing
under-ground in sub-surface streams constitutes a ground water source.
Generally ground water is clear and colourless but are harder than the surface water of the
region in which they occur. In lime stone formation ground water is very hard and depositive nature
in pipe line. In granite formations, they are soft. The water as it seeps down comes in contact with
organic and inorganic substances. During this passage through the ground and acquires chemical
characteristics representative of the strata it passes. Bacteriologically, ground water is much better
than surface water except where sub-surface pollution exists.

FACTORS GOVERNING THE SELECTION OF A PARTICULAR SOURCE OF WATER

The following important factors are generally considered in selecting a particular source for
supplying water to a city or a town.
1. The quantity of available water
2. The quality of available water
3. Distance o the source of supplying
4. General topography of the intervening area
5. Elevation of the source of supply

1. QUANTITY OF AVIALABLE WATER

The quantity of available water at the source must be sufficient to meet the various demands
during the entire design period of the schemes. Sometimes the water sources may be mobilised for
the present day demand, and extra units added with passage of time. If sufficient quantity of water
is not available in the vicinity of the area, we may have to think of bringing water from distant
sources.

2. QUALITY OF AVIALABLE WATER

The water available at the source must not be toxic, poisonous or in any other way injurious
to health. The impurities present in water should be as less as possible and should be such as to be
removed easily and economically by normal treatment methods.

3. DISTANCE OF THE SOURCE OF SUPPLY

The source of water must be situated as near to the city as possible. Because when the
distance between the source and the city is less, lesser length of pipe conduits and fewer number of
associated appurtenances are required, thereby reducing the cost of the project.

4. GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY OF THE INTERVENING AREA

The area or land between the source and the city should not be highly uneven. In other
words, it should not contain deep valleys or high mountains and ridges. In such uneven
topographies, the cost of trestles for carrying water pipes in valleys and that of constructing tunnels
in mountains shall be enormous.

5. ELEVATION OF THE SOURCE OF SUPPLY

The source of water must be on a high contour, lying sufficiently higher than the city or
town to be supplied with water, so as to make the gravity flow possible. When the water is available
at lower levels than the average city level, pumping has to be resorted to, which involves huge
operational cost and frequent possible breakdowns.

VARIOUS FORMS OF UNDER-GROUND SOURCES

INFILTRATION GALLERY

Fig: Infiltration Gallery

Infiltration gallery or horizontal or horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnels constructed at

shallow depths ( 3 to 5 meters) along the bank of the river through the water bearing strata as
shown in the figure. They are sometimes called as horizontal wells.
These galleries are constructed of masonry walls with concrete roof slab and extract their
water from the aquifer by various drain pipes. These pipes are generally covered with gravel so as
to prevent the entry of sand particles into the pipe. These tunnels are laid at a slope and water
collected in them, is taken into a sump from where it is pumped to the treatment plant and
distributed to the public. These are very helpful when sufficient quantity of water is available just
below the ground level or so.

INFILTRATION WELLS
 In order to obtain large quantity of water, a series of shallow wells are sunk in the banks of
the river. The wells are constructed of brick masonry with open joints and are closed at top and
open at bottom. The water infiltrates through bottom sand bed and gets purified to some extent. For
inspection a man hole cover is usual provided in roof slab.
These various infiltration wells are connected to a common sump well by porous drain
pipes. This sump well is called 'JACK WELL'. The water from the Jack Well is lifted to the
treatment plant.

SPRINGS
A natural outflow of ground water at the earth surface is said to form a spring. A pervious
layer sandwiched between two impervious layers gives rise to a natural spring. The springs are
generally capable of supplying very small quantities (amounts) of water and therefore generally not
regarded as sources of water supply.

FORMATION AND TYPES OF SPRINGS

Springs are usually formed under three general conditions of geological formations. They
are:
1. Gravity Springs
2. Surface Springs
3. Artesian Springs