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Unit-3

QUALITY OF WATER- Objectives of water quality management. Wholesomeness and


palatability, water borne diseases. Water quality parameters-Physical, chemical and
Microbiological. Sampling of water for examination. Water quality analysis (IS: 3025 and IS:1622)
using analytical and instrumental techniques. Drinking water standards BIS and WHO guidelines.
Health Significance of Fluriode, Nitrates and heavy metals like Mercury, Cadmium, Arsenic etc and
toxic/trace organics.

QUALITY OF WATER

OBJECTIVES OF WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT


1. To ascertain the degree of purity in the water supplied to the community
2. To ascertain the quality of the proposed supply to the new consumers.
3. To decide that the water obtained from source additional sources of supply will be pure,
wholesome, not too hard and free from any risk of pollution.
4. To examine the effect of pumping on well waters.
5. To find out the organisms responsible for developing certain diseases and colour, odour and taste
to water.
6. To know the quality of water submitted to various purification process.
7. To know the useulness of water for various industries
8. To suggest the best method of purification.

CONCEPT OF SAFE WATER


Pure water is a chemical compound of 2 hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. It is not
available in nature. The presence of foreign matter in water is a usual thing.
The water which may be chemically impure, but may not contain any harmful impurities to
the human body. Such a water is called as Wholesome Water.
Water which does not contain harmful bacteria, toxic substances and excessive organic
matter and which is palatable is called as “Potable or Wholesome water”.
Such a water should be;
1. Free from harmful and disease producing organisms.
2. Clear, colourless and odourless.
3. Free from all objectionable substances.
4. It should not cause corrosion to the pipes and other fittings.
5. Palatable, i.e., aesthetically attractive
6. Fresh and cool
7. Tasty

Therefore potable water is a safe water, which is fit for drinking, without the presence of
harmful parameters in it, Whereas, Palatable water is one which is aesthetically attractive, without
any undesirable taste, odour, turbidity and temperature. But it may have harmful bacteria and toxic
chemicals which are tasteless, odourless and will not change the aesthetic properties of water.
Thus a palatable water may not be always potable (safe), but a potable water may be
palatable, as palatability is one of the criteria which makes drinking water potable or wholesome.

IMPURITIES IN WATER
For the purpose of classification, the impurities present in water may be divided into the
following three categories;
1. Physical impurities
2. Chemical Impurities
3. Bacteriological Impurities
ANALYSIS OF WATER
In order to ascertain the quality of water, it is subjected to the various tests. These tests can
be divided into the following three categories;
1. Physical Tests
2. Chemical Tests
3. Bacteriological Tests

SAMPLING OF WATER
Sampling is the most important part of analysis because the final results obtained, even from
the most accurate analysis, will be misleading, if the samples on which such analysis is carried out,
are not representative ones of the liquids to be tested.
As matter of fact, it will be ideal to carry out all the analysis immediately after the collection
of samples and the quicker the analysis, the more representative will be the results of analysis of
liquid at the time the samples are taken.
The precautions are as follows;
1. The water should be collected in bottles, especially of white glass, having well-fitted stoppers.
The bottles having holding capacity of about 2 litres of water are necessary for the chemical
analysis. For bacteriological examination, the bottles with smaller holding capacities will be
sufficient.
2. The bottles should be thoroughly cleaned, filled thrice with water and thrice emptied before
collecting the sample. However, it will not be necessary to carry out such process, if the sealed
bottles are directly obtained from the laboratories.
3. When the sample of water is to be collected from a pipe, the water tap should be turned on and
the water should be allowed to go waste for at least 2 minutes so as to prevent the entry of
impurities of the pipe in the sample of water. If the sample is to be collected for conducting
bacteriological analysis, the nozzle of the tap should be flamed and made unbearably hot and then
cooled by the running water before the bottle is filled.
4. For collecting the sample of water from lake, stream, spring or well, the whole bottle with
stopper closed should be suspended well under the surface of water and then only the stopper of the
bottle should be removed by means of a clean piece of string and the bottle is filled. Thus the entry
of floating materials will be prevented in the bottle.
5. The hand should be held as far away from the bottles neck as possible. In no case, the water
entering the bottle should come in contact with the hand.
6. After collecting the sample, the stopper of bottle should be well secured and the bottles
containing samples of water should be labelled stating the source, date and time of collection.

PHYSICAL TEST
Under this category, tests are carried out to examine water for the following;
1. Colour
2. Taste and Odour
3. Temperature
4. Turbidity

1. COLOUR
Colour in water is usually produced by the presence of organic matter, discharge of
untreated and partially treated waste water, presence of iron, manganese etc. the presence of colour
is not objectionable from health point of view, but not accepted due to aesthetic and psychological
point of view.
The colour caused by the suspended matter is known as the apparent colour and the colour
contributed by dissolved solids that remain after removal of suspended matter is referred to as the
true colour.
Colour in water can be detected by naked eye. In laboratory, a TINTOMETER is used for
finding the quantity of colour in water. The instrument has an eye piece with two holes. One hole is
meant for looking a slide of standard coloured water and the other hole is meant for looking a slide
of water to be tested.
The intensity of colour in water is measured on an arbitrary scale. The unit of colour on
cobalt scale is the colour produced by one miligram of platinum cobalt scale in litre of distilled
water. For public water supply, the number on cobalt scale should not exceed 20 and should be
preferably less than 10.

2. TASTE AND ODOUR


The dissolved organic materials and inorganic salts, or the dissolved gases may impart taste
and odour to water. For drinking purposes, the water must not contain any undesirable or
objectionable taste and odour. It is measured in terms of odour intensity which is related with the
threshold number. The threshold number represents the dilution ratio to eliminate the odour water to
be tested in gradually diluted with odour free water and the number of times the sample is diluted
represent Threshold Odour Number (TON).
For public supplies TON should be 1 and never exceed 3.

3. TEMPERATURE
The most desirable temperature for public water supply scheme is 10º C while temperature
of 25º C is considered to be objectionable and above 37ºC are unfit for public water supply
schemes, as they are not palatable.

4. SPECIFIC CONDUCTIVITY OF WATER


The amount of dissolved salts present in water is measured by measuring the specific
conductivity of water. It is expressed in micromhos per centimetre. It is measured using a dionic
water tester.

5. TURBIDITY
The colloidal matter present in water interferes with passage of light and thus imparts
turbidity to the water. The turbidity in water may also be due to clay and silt particles, discharges of
sewage or industrial wastes, presence of large numbers of micro-organisms, etc., and the coudy
appearance developed in water due to turbidity is aesthetically unattractive and it may also be
harmful to the consumers. It also disturbs the disinfection process because the solids may partially
shield the organisms from the disinfectant.
The turbidity is expressed in terms of parts of suspended matter per million parts of water or
shortly written as p.p.m. The expression p.p.m is also equivalent to mg per litre or mg/l. The
permissible turbidity for drinking water is 5 to 10 p.p.m.
The measurement of turbidity is done by means of a turbidity rod (filed test) and is referred
to as the visual method of turbidity measurement. The instrument known as turbidimeter, are used
to measure the turbidity of water, the most common being Jackson turbidimeter, Baylis turbidimeter
and Nepelometric turbidimeter (Laboratory tests).

1. TURBIDITY ROD
The instrument consists of a graduated aluminium rod about 203mm long. A graduated non-
stretchable tape about 122 cm long is attached at the upper end o the aluminium rod as shown in
figure.
At the lower end of the aluminium rod, a screw containing platinum needle and nickel ring
is inserted. The diameter of platinum needle is 1mm and its length is 25 mm. The nickel ring is
provided to insert a stick so that the instrument may be kept in vertical position. On the graduated
tape, there is a mark for eye position.
For measuring turbidity of water, the rod is lowered in water and the depth at which the
platinum wire ceases to be seen under standard light conditions is noted and corresponding reading
on the bar gives the turbidity of water in p.p.m.

Figure: Turbidity Rod

2. JACKSON TURBIDIMETER
It consists of metal stand, standard candle, metal container and graduated glass tube as
shown in figure below. For measuring turbidity of water, some quantity of water is pured in the
glass tube and image of candle flame is observed from the top. The depth of water in glass tube is
gradually increased until the image of candle flame ceases to be seen. The corresponding reading on
the glass tube indicates turbidity of water in p.p.m.
The instrument can record turbidity above 100p.p.m and it based on the principle of light
absorption.
Figure: Jackson Turbidimeter

3. BAYLIS TURBIDIMETER
The instrument consists of a galvanised iron box. On one side of the box, there are two galss
tubes and on the other side is a 250 watt bulb with reflectors as shown in figure below. The glass
tubes are supported at their lower ends by a white opal glass plate and they are surrounded near
their bottom portion by blue cobalt plates.
Out of two glass tubes, one is filled with water whose turbidity is to be determined and the
other is filled with standard solution of known turbidity. The bulb is lighted and blue light from
both the tubes is observed from the top. If colour of both the tubes differ, another tube of standard
solution is inserted and the process is continued until colors of both the tubes are nearly same. The
turbidity of standard solution then corresponds to the turbidity of sample water. This instrument can
record turbidity less than 5 p.p.m.

Figure: Baylis Turbidimeter

4. NEPHELOMETRIC TURBIDIMETER
The nephelometric turbidimeter is based on the principle of the intensity of light scattering
and now-a-days most of the turbidimeter are working on the principle of the intensity of light
scattering. The instrument is in the form of a box with chambers for sample tubes and standard
turbidity suspension tubes.
The data obtained from turbidity measurements are helpful in the following ways;
a. It assists in deciding whether turbidity interference with the photosynthetic reaction in streams
and lakes.
b. It gives indication of the quantity of chemicals required for day to day operatioins of water
treatment works.
c. It helps in determining whether a public water supply requires before use special treatments by
chemical coagulation and filtration.
d. The excess turbidity may seriously affect the functioning of slow sand filters.
e. The optimum dosage of coaglants to treat the domestic and industrial waste can be determined.
f. The performance of water treatment plants can be evaluated.
g. The turbidity measurements of the filtered water are required to check the faulty filter operation.

Effects of Turbidity
Following are the effects of turbidity
1. It causes apparent colour
2. It renders water aesthetically unattractive
3. In water, it shields bacteria and more amount of disinection is required to kill them
4. It prevents the penetration of sun rays through water column and prevents photosnthesis of
aquatic plants.
5. It increases load on sand filters. When turbidity is more than 40mg/l, slow sand filters do not
work.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Important chemical parameters of water are chlorides, dissolved gases, total solids and
suspended solids, pH value, hardness, nitrogen content, iron and manganese, residual chlorine, toxic
metals, etc.

1. TOTAL SOLIDS AND SUSPENDED SOLIDS


The term said with reference to the environmental engineering is defined as the
residue in water left after evaporation and drying in oven at 103° C – 105° C. Total solids consists
of dissolved and suspended matter.
Total amount of solids can be determined by evaporating a sample of water and weighing
the dry residue left. Suspended solids can be found by filtering the water sample and weighing the
residue left. Difference between Total Solids (TS) and Suspended Solids (SS) will give dissolved
solids.
The total permissible amounts of solids in water is limited to 500ppm

2. Hydrogen-ion concentration (pH Value)


pH value of water indicates the logarithm of reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration
present in water. It is thus an indicator of the acidic and alkaline nature of water. Neutral water has
a pH value of 7. As pH value becomes less, water becomes acidic and as pH value increases from 7,
water becomes alkaline.
Alkalinity caused by bicarbonates is called bicarbonate alkalinity, that caused by carbonates
is called carbonate alkalinity, and that caused by hydroxides is called hydroxide alkalinity.
Therefore alkalinity is the after effect of bicarbonates of Na, K, Ca and Mg. Acidity is
caused by the presence of mineral acids, free Co2 , sulphates of Fe and Al, etc.
PH of water is measured using Potentiometer or by dye test. For public water supplies pH
should be in a range between 6.6 to 8.5

3. HARDNESS
It is defined as the ability of the water to cause precipitation of insoluble calcium and
magnesium salts of higher fatty acids from soap. Temporary hardness is also known as carbonate
hardness and is due to bicarbonate of calcium and magnesium. Permanent hardness is also known as
non-carbonate hardness, and is due to the presence of sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium
and magnesium.
Hardness is measured by titration using Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) method.
For drinking purposes, water with hardness between 75-115ppm is generally desirable.

4. CHLORIDE CONTENT
Chlorides in water are mainly due to pollution from sea water, presence of industrial and
domestic wastes, etc.
Chloride content in water may indicate pollution of water due to sewage. Therefore, it is
very important to test the presence of chlorides. It is measured by titrating with standard silver
nitrate (AgNo3) solution using potassium chromate as indicator. Chloride content of drinking water
should not exceed 250 ppm.

5. NITROGEN CONTENT
The presence of nitrogen in water is an indication of organic matter present in water and
they may occur in any of the following
1. Free Ammonia
The presence of free ammonia indicates the direct inclusion of organic matter from urine of
animal and human species or pollutants from gas industries. The free ammonia is measured by
simply boling the water. The ammonia gas is then liberated. The amount of free ammonia should
not exceed 0.15 p.p.m

2. Albuminoid Ammonia
It also derived from the animal and plant life normal to the aquatic environment. Its presence
indicates organic pollution in water supply. It is determined by adding alkaline solutions of
potassium permanganate (KMHO4) to water sample and then boiling it. The amount of free
ammonia should not exceed 0.3 p.p.m

3. Nitrate
The presence of nitrates indicates that the organic matter present in water is fully oxidised
and the water is no longer harmful. For potable water, the highest desireable level of nitrates is 45
mg per litre. If too much of nitrate is present in drinking water, it affects the health of infants
causing a disease called mathemoglobinemia or blue baby disease. Permissible limits of Nitrate is
45ppm.

4. Nitrite
The presence of nitrites indicates that the organic matter present in water is not fully
oxidised or in other words, it indicates an intermediate oxidation stage. The amount of nitrites in
potable water should be nil. It is determined in late by treating with sulphanitic acid and matching
the sample with standard solutions.

6. METALS AND OTHER CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS


Iron in water causes hardness, bad tastes, discolouration of clothes and plumbing fixtures,
etc. Iron content is estimated by colourimeter procedure.
Manganese is estimated by matching pink colour produced on oxidation of permanganate.
Presence of manganese imparts brownish colour to water and laundry and it imparts taste to
coffee.
Iron and manganese concentrations greater than 0.3 p.p.m and 0.05 p.p.m respectively are
therefore undesirable.
Lead is poisonous metal. It's presence can be detected using sulphuric acid which will give a
white precipitate. The concentration of lead should be less than 0.05 mg/lit.
Arsenic is also poisonous and can be determined in trace amounts by colourimeter.
Fluoride content should be there in water for about 1p.p.m. If it is less or if it is more, it is
harmful to human beings.
Iodine content also is required up to 1p.p.m
Barium can have serious toxic effects on heart, blood vessels and nerves. It's concentration
can be checked using colourimeter and titration methods.
Cadmium is highly toxic.
Chromium when inhaled can cause cancer.
Sodium and potassium is permitted in minimal quantities.

7. BACTERIAL AND MICROSCOPICAL CHARACTERISTICS


Microbiological examination of water includes both bacteriological and biological
examinations. Bacteria are very small organisms which grow by cell division. Bacteria which are
harmful to mankind are called 'Pathogenic Bacteria' and that which is harmless are called non-
pathogenic bacteria.

Most of the bacteria present in water require oxygen for their survival. Such bacteria is
called as Aerobic Bacteria.
Those Bacteria which flourishes and thrive in the absence of free oxygen are called as Anaerobic
bacteria.
Some bacteria can live and multiply with or without oxygen are called 'Facultative Bacteria'.

Bacteriological examinations is conducted to detect and assess the degree of excremental


pollution in the source and to ascertain the efficiency of purification treatment at various stages.

Pathogenic bacteria are difficult to detect because of their small numbers.


The indirect evidence of presence of the pathogenic bacteria in water is obtained by testing the
water for indicator organisms.
Coliforms and Escherichia Coli (E-Coli) are such indicator organisms.
Coliforms are non-pathogenic bacteria which habitats in the region of humans and animals.
Coliforms which are available in Human Feces are called Fecal Coliforms.
Total coliform group is widely used as the indicator organism. E-coli is a also predominant number
of the fecal coliform group.
E-coli is a parasite living only in the human or animal intestines.
Detection of E-coli is taken as evidence of recent pollution of water with human or animal feces.
Since the harmless bacteria live longer in water and be in more number than pathogens, it is
generally presumed that the water will be safe and free from pathogenic bacteria.

Therefore an indicator organism would be


a) Applicable to all types of water
b) Always be present when pathogens are present
c) Always be absent when pathogens are absent
d) Tend itself to routine quantitative testing procedures without interference from extraneous
organisms and
e) Not be a pathogen itself (for safety of laboratory personnel).

The term “BACTERIUM-COLI' (B-Coli) used to indicate a group of organisms that include
the whole “Coli-Aerogens” group.

TEST OF BACTERIA
1. Total Count or Agar Plate Count Test
2. B-Coli Test

1. Total Count OR Agar Plate Count Test


In this test, the bacteria are cultivated on specially prepared medium agar for diffrent
dilutions of sample of water with sterilised water. The diluted sample is in an incubator for 24 hours
at 37º (i.e blood heat) or for 48 hours at 20º C. These represent the so called hot counts and cold
counts respectively. The bacterial colonies which are formed, are then counted and the results are
computed for 1 c.c. For potable water, the total count should not exceed 100 colonies per c.c.

2. B-Coli Test
This test is divided into the following three parts;
i. Presumptive Test
ii. Confirmed Test
iii. Completed Test
The presumptive test is based on the ability of coliform group to ferment the lactose broth
and producing gas.
The confirmed test consists of growing of other organisms.
The completed test is based on the ability of the culture grown in the confirmed test to again
ferment the lactose broth.

i. Presumptive Test:
Following procedure is adopted in this test:
a. The definite amounts of diluted smaples of water are taken in multiples of ten, such as 0.1c.c,
1.0c.c, 10c.c, etc.
b. The water is placed in standard fermentation tubes containing lactose broth.
c. The tube is maintained at a temperature of 37º for a period of 48 hours.
d. If gas is seen in the tube after this period is over, it indicates presence of B-Coli group and the
result of test is treated as positive. If reverse is the case, it indicates absence of B-coli group and the
result of test in treated as negative.
e. A negative result of presumptive test indicates that water is fit for drinking.

ii. Confirmed Test:


This test is carried out in one of the following ways:
a. A small portion of lactose broth showing positive presumptive test is carefully transferred
to another fermentation tube containing brilliant green lactose bile. If gas is seen in the tube after 48
hours, the result is considered positive and the completed test becomes essential.

b. A small portion of material showing positive presumptive test is marked on the plates
containing Endo or eosin-methylene-blue agar. The plates are kept at 37º for 24 hours. If colonies of
bacteria are seen after this period, it indicates positive result and the completed test becomes
essential. The colonies are prominent by metallic brightness and dark spots.

Iii. Completed Test:


This test is made by introducing or inoculating bacterial colonies into lactose broth
fermentation tubes and agar tubes. The incubation is carried out at 37º for 24 hours to 48 hours. If
gas is seen after this period , it indicates positive result and further detaield tests are carried out to
detect the particular type of bacteria present in water. The absence of gas indicates negative result
and the water is considered safe for drinking.

MEMBRANE FILTER TECHNIQUE


This method consists of filtering the sample of water through a filter membrane of uniform
microscopic pores small enough to retain all the coliforms and other bacteria. The membrane filter
paper used is 5micon in dia and 150 μ thickness and is made of biologically inert cellulose. The
filter holding assembly consists of a funnel which fastens to a receptacle bearing a porous plate for
support of the filter membrane. Filtration procedure consists of passing the measured quantity of
sample through the membrane under partial vaccum. Funnel is reused using sterile buffered dilution
water after filtration. Membrane is later lifted gently rolled, grid side up, onto the surface of an
absorbent pad containing M-Endo medium and cultured in an inverted position. Colony counting
exhibit a mettalic appearing surface luster. Colony counting is helped with help of microscopic.
Coliform density is calculated as

Coliform Colonies / 100 ml = Coliform colonies counted x 100


Volume of Smaple Filtered

MOST PROBABLE NUMBER [MPN]


It is defined as the bacterial density, which if it had been actually present in the sample
under examination, would more frequently than any other, have given the observed analytical result.
Most Probable Number (MPN) is that number of organisms per unit value that, in
accordance with statistical theory would be more likely than any other number to yield the observed
test result with the greatest frequency. Expressed as density of organisms per 100 mililitres. Results
are computed from the number of positive findings of Coliform group organisms resulting from
multiple-portion decimal dilution plantings.
In this method Mc Conkey’s broth is prepared and transferred to a 250 ml flat bottom plate
and dissolved in distilled water. The pH of water is adjusted at 7.4. Bromocresol Purple, a dye is
added to the above at the rate of 2ml/lit. This is distributed to 10ml culture tubes and placed inside
each one Durham Tube and the mouth is plugged with non-absorbant cotton and sterilized in the
autoclave.
The sewage sample of different dilutions is fed to 3 rows of test tube consisting of 5 test tubes in
each row containing Mc Conkey’s broth and Durham Tubes. Test tubes without being disturbing
the rows are kept for incubation at 35° C. Coliform percent at any test tube will produce gas in the
Durham Tube and the colour of the broth change. This will be considered as positive tubes and the
unchanged as the negative ones. After 24 hours of incubation the result obtained is presumptive test,
where as 48 hours result is known as confirmed test.
Sometimes, incubation is done for 72 hours and the result obtained is known as Completed
test from the number of positive tubes in different rows, with the help of statistical table. The Most
Probable Number [MPN] is found. Water quality is classified on the basis of coliform count as

Groups Quality Colifrom Count/100 ml


Class I Excellent 0
Class II Satisfactory 1-3
Class III Suspicious 4-10
Class IV Unsatisfactory >10

In order to arrive the number of coliforms in a water sample, it is necessary to know the positive
results from various size portions of a sample. The MPN of coliforms in the water is obtained by
applying the laws of statistics to the results of test.

DEFINITION
MPN of colifomrs or B-Coli is defined as that bacterial density which if actually present in
the sample under examination would frequently give the observed analytical results.
In other words MPN indicates the bacterial density which is most likely to be present in
water.
The standard sample for a potable water is 5-10 ml portions. If all these are negative the
MPN is zero. If only 1 out of 5 is positive then MPN is 2.

THOMAS EQUATION OF DETERMINTATION OF MPN


Thomas has suggested the following approximate equation for calculation of MPN
MPN = 100 x Number of Positive Portions
√(ml in all negative portions) x (ml of all portions)

PROBLEMS
1. If 1 out of 5-10 ml portions is positive and 1 out of 5-1 ml portions is positive, calculate MPN
SOLUTION
MPN = 100 x (1+10)
√(40+4) x (50+5)
MPN ≈ 4

2. Calculate the MPN for the following tabular columns. Comment on the result
Sample Size 10 ml 1 ml 0.1 ml 0.01 ml
Portions 5 5 5 5
Positive Number 5 4 2 1

SOLUTION
MPN = 100 x (5+4+2+1)
√(1+0.3+0.04) x (50+5+0.5+0.05)
MPN = 139.087

COMMENT

Water-Borne disease
Water borne diseases are those diseases which spread primarily through contaminated
waters. The important water-borne diseases are;
1. Bacterial Diseases

a. Typhoid Fever- It is caused by a bacteria-salmonella typhi. It is usually transmitted through


contamination of surface sources by human feces or urine

b. Para typhoid fever- It is due to ingestion of contaminated food like milk, eggs and other dairy
products. It is caused by salmonethen paratyphi.

c. Cholera- It is caused by vibrio cholerae. The infection is contracted by ingestion of water


contaminated by infected human excreta. It is a more violent disease on it onset.

d. Bacillary Dysentry- It is caused by the bacteria of the following types- Shiga bacillus, sonne
bacillus, shiga dysentrial etc. It is mainly contracted due to ingestion of food contaminated by flies
or by unhygienic food handlers.

2. Protozoal Diseases
Amoebiasis and amoebic dysentery are caused by a protozoa- Entamoeba histolytica. They
live in human large intestines and ingestion takes place if their cysts are carried by water or flies.

3. Viral Diseases
Polio virus, coxsackie virus, ECHO virus, hepatitis virus, adenovirus etc are the usual
disease causing organisms.
4. Helminthic Diseases
Worm infections occur due to mismanagement of sewage disposal system. The common
diseases that are spread are Schistosomiasis.

The following precautionary measures can be adopted to control the water borne diseases.
a. Water supply of the cities must be thoroughly checked and disinfected before supply
b. Water pipe lines should be frequently tested, checked and inspected to detect leakage and
possible source of contamination from nearby surroundings. Leaking joints must be properly sealed.
c. Sewer lines and water lines should be laid as far as possible
d. In case of any chance of outbreak of diseases extra dose of chlorine should be added and public
should be warned to use boiled water.
e. Encourage people to use hot and fresh foods rather than stale and raw foods.
f. Habit of cleanliness should be inculcated among the people.
g. Fly nuisance in the city should be checked.
h. Immunisation against the disease should be given

CHEMICAL CONTAMINATIONS
Natural mineral contaminants include the elements fluorine, selenuim, arsenic, boron etc.
Fluorine which is more commonly encountered in natural water, cause dental fluorosis (mottled
teeth) non-availability of fluorine to human bodies causes dental caries (broken teeth) and other
abnormalities in skeletal problems.

Arsenic is a toxic material. Hyperkeratosis and hyper pigmentation in palms and soles
arsenical dermatosis etc are common. Nausea, abdominal pain and diarrhoea are the predominant
gastrointestinal symptoms. Skin cancers and arsenicosis are detected in some patients.

Excess amount of nitrates cause methaemoglobinaemia in infants.

Cyanide, hexavalent chromium, alkylbenzene sulfonate, phenolic compounds, mercury is


extremely hazardous. Methyl Mercury is a highly toxic substance which causes neurological
damage, chromosomal aberrations and has teratogenic effect.

Manganese in higher concentration will cause nervous system disorder and cirrhosis of lever
cadmium causes cardiovascular disease and hypertension head poisoning leads to brain damage,
convulsions, death and behavioural diseases.

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