,.\,'.

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19

URBAN PLANNING .11

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.1
THE FUTURE of the landscape archjtecture profession lies in "-taking a leadership rote in the I
stewardship of the environment. and planning walkable. urban communities.

When asked in the December 1999 issue of landscape Architecture Magazine, leading landscape
architects stressed environmental protection. and our sprawfing land development practices as the
most important issues facing the profession.
"The most important issue of the 21st century Will be the condi~n of the gtobaJ environment."...jan
McHarg
'The most important issue facing landscape architects and all environmental planners and dr::!Signers in
the 21st century will be precisely the integration. perhaps by shotgun. of rurrent eoortOmic I political
thinking with ecologi~1 reality.- ~Garrett Eckbo
Without question, urban sprawl- unpfanned, scattered . and disruptive development bursting out from
thus desolated cities into the open countryside . Precluding and remedying this phenomenon can and
must be a central thrust of our future endeavors as a profession, for we are uniquely qualified to deal in
a positive way with this increasingly evident proble m ," -John Simonds
e of the great prospects for the 21st cenwry is the continuation of currenUy tent.ative global trends
I
towards preserving and buifding more livable, more sustainable communities. It means continuing 10
I
move away from the single-purpose, bits--and-pieces mind-set maoong our current nonns, to work with
more integrative approaches to human setttements." -William J . Johnson [,
'"Landscape architects shoufd be in the vanguard of ttle environmental movement. discoverilg ways I!,
to help design environments that at the most fundamental revel 'do no harm' - and beyond that. in ways. 1
large and small. contribute to the renewal of the earth and of the human spirit" - Catherine HoweU.
THE ONLY way to design environments that 'do n.) harm' , and are sustair.able is .,... design
environments that don't require everyone to own and drive a car - since cars EIre the cause d I
the majority of problems at many levels of Society. Cars are rapidly destroying the earth. us.. aid
everything in their path, no matter how nice the TV adds try to make them look. We as a pnAession
need to realize this, and that the only real solution to our pro~s is to design dense, waItabIe
environments where cars are not necessary for everyone.

WE HAVE the knowledge and creativity to design great environments without cars. We hcNe the
influence to persuade our dients to build rompact communities. By joining with the oltter design
professions, we have the power to demand that new, state-of-the-art train systems get buil all over-
America, instead of more highways and roads. Trains soNe problems and enc:ourc.~ oompact I!Ind
development. whi~ cars encourage sprawl and an enormous ;)motJnt of envirormental and cotrWTIUlity
• destruction.
• THE NEW URBANISM movement. made up of many landscape architects, is a large part of the
solution since it has worked out the details of compact town planning, and has started tt.e transition of
the land devek>pment industry. and the outdated zoning laws. New Urbanism should be enc::ot.rcIISJe
• and embraced, and incorpomted into every landscape archftecture practice wof1d-wide. BuJdil1g
compact towns and restoring our cities is a large part of Ule solution to our OJrrent problems, and lays
the foundation for the building of a new modem train system across America.
• THE MONEY we now spend on highways. ~ds, parking lots, and airports is more than enougfllO
build the greatest train system in the wOOd! As more and more trains get built. the problems wII begin
fA· " we commue
•0 ... fsappear... f'lb "" more ro",
0 Ull.i ...s, our ..... .......ems Yo,'n pe!SIS
.................. '100
a grow I ' _ ..
0 enVlrOr1fnel_,

•
devastating proportions. ' • •
• NEW URBANISM promotes the aeation and restoration of compact, walkable, mixecHIse dies.
towns, and neighborhoods that are a pleasure to live in. It promotes Ihe increased use of trains a'ld
, right raj!, instead of more roads and highways. CurrenUy, there are over 500 New Urbanist projects
planned or under construction in the United States alone, half of which are in historic urban cetdefS.
" • NEW URBANISM promotes the creation and restoration of diverse. walkab4e. compact. vbanl
mixed-use communities composed of the same components as conventional development. but
J assembled in a more integrated fashion, in the form of complete rommunities. ~se conta;., hou:Ktg.
work places. shops, entertain:nent, schools, parks, and civic facilities essential to the daity lives of the
residents, all within easy walking distance of each other. New Urbanism promotes the increased use d
bains and light rail, instead of mor~ highways and roads. Urban living is rapidty becoming the new hip
J and modem W<rf to live for people of aU ages. CurrenUy, there are over 500 New Urbanist projects
planned or under construction in the United States akme, half of which are in historic urban centers.

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20
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•
• NEW URBANISM .i, the most important planning movement this century. ~ is about ~ a
• better future for us all. It is an international movement to reform the design of &he buill envio:ment.
and is about raising our quality of life and standard Of living by creating better places to ive.. New .
Urbanism is the revival of our lost art of place-making, and is essentially a re-adering of the bUilt
environment into the form of complete cities, towns, villages, and neighborhoods - the way
• communities have been built for centuries around the worfd. New Urbanism involves fixing and irA ag
citiE>:~. as well as the aeation of compact new towns and Yil~ .
THE PRINCIPLES OF NEW URBANISM
• The principles of New Urbanism can be applied increasingly to projects at the full range of scales from
a single buJlding to an entire community.
1. Wallcabllity
·Most things within a 1O-minute walk of home and woO;
• ·Pedestrian friendly street design (buildings dose to street porches, windows & doors; tree-ined
streets: on street parking; hidden paf1(:jng lots: garages in rear lanp : narrow, slow speed streets)
-Pedestrian streets free of cars in special cases

2. Connectivity
-Intef'connected slreet grid networ1c disperses traffic & eases walking
-A hierarchy of narrow streets, boulevan:ts, and alleys
-High quality pedestrian netv.crk and public realm makes walking plea~ble
!

3. Mlxed-Use & Diversity

·A mix ~~~~ :::Os~ts, and homes on site. Mixed.use wfthin n,eigf1bOrhOoas, wiIhII

-
~!J~'e'! of dasses, curtures, and races
11,
21

4. Mixed Housing
A range of types. sizes and prices in closer proximity

••
II
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~ 5. Quality Architecture & Urban Design

Emphasis on beaut,. a~thetics. human comfort, and aeafing a sense of place; SpeciaJ placement of
civic uses and sites within community. Human scale architecture & beautiful surroundings nourish the

~
human spirit

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~ 6. Traditional Neighborhood StrucbJre
-Discemable center and edge

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-~ic space at center
-Importance of quality public realm; public open space designed as civic art
-Contains a range of U5e-S and densities within 1O-mmute walk
-Transect planning: Hig~St densities at town center: progressively less dense towards the edge. n.e

~ transect is an anatytical system that conceptualizes mutually reinforcing elements. aeating a series of
specffic r:3fural habitats and/or urban lifestyfe settings. The Transect integrates envirormmlal
methodology for habitat assessment with zoning m.e thodology for corrmunity design. The pcufessionat
boundary between the natural and man-made disappears. ena~ing envirormentalist!> to asses the
II! design of the human habitat and the urbanists to support Ihe viability of nature. This tMbaJHo..rutaI
transect hietarchy has appropriate building and street types for each area along the continwm
7. Increased Density
~ -More buildings, residences. shops, and services doser togettler for ease of walking, 10 enable a nore

., efficient use of services and resources, and to create a more oonvenient, enjoyable ptace to We.
-New Urbanism design principles are applied at the full range of densities from smaH towns, to Bge
cities
8. Smart Transportation
·A neIwcfl< of high-quality lrains connecting cities, towns, and neighbortloods together
·Pede&bian-mendly design that encourages a greater use cf bic",'des, !'ODerolOOes. scoote!s. .-xl

",
, walking as daily transportation

~
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 22

9. Sustalnability
-Minmal environmental impact of development and its operations
-E~friendly technoklgtes. respect for ecoklgy and value or natural systems
-Energy efftcieocy - Less use of finite fuets - More local production - More walking. less dfNing
10. Q""lity of Life
Taken together these _ up 10 a higl quality of life weU wor1h living. and create places that earich.
uplift. and inspire the human spirit.

BENEFITS OF NEW URBANISM

1. BENEFITS TO RESlOENTS
Higher quality of life; Better places 10 live. wort. & pJay; Higher. more stable ptOperty values; less
traffic congestion & k:ss drMng; Heahhier ifesty\e w;th more walking, and less stress; Close proximity .,
to main street retail & setVices; Close pro'ldmity to bike trails . par1ts, and nature: Pedesbian frienfJy
rommunities offer more opportunities 10 gel to know others in the neighborhood and town, resdting in
. meaningful relationships witt. more people, and a frieodlter town; More freedom and independence to
dHldren, efderly, and the poor in being able 10 get to jobs, recreation, and services Mthout the need tor
a car or someone 10 drive them; Great savings to residents and sdlOOI boards in reduced ~ costs
frorn children being able to walk or bicycle to neighborhood schools; More diversity and smaUer,lWliqoo
shops and setVices with IocaJ owners who are involved ... community; Big saving.'J by driving 5ess. 8ld
owning less cars; less ugly. rongested SfX3W' to deal with daily; Better sense d pbc:e and c::Onnuity
identity with mOte ooique architecture; More open space 10 enjoy thal will remain open space; More
effICient use of tax money with 5ess spent on spread out utirrties and rodds.
2. BENEFITS TO BUSINESSES
Increased sales due to more foot traffic & people spending less on cars and gas; More pruits due Ie
spending Jess on advertising and large signs; SeHer lifestyle by JjvilQ above !'hop in Jive-wr;wk uniI5 -
saves the sb'e"\Sfu1 & cosIty commute; Economies of scale in mmtreting due to dose proumy md
cooperation with other Iocat businesses; Smaller spaces promote small local business incubation;
Lower rents due to smaller spaces .& smaller paoong klts; Heatthier lifestyte due to more waI:in~ end
beng near healthier restaurants; More community invofvement from being part ofaxnmutity 8'1d
knowing residents
3. BENEFITS TO DEVELOPERS
More income potential from higher density mixed-ose projects due to more leasab'e square fooCaoe.
more sales per square foot and highar property vafues and seklg prices; Faster approvas in
communities that have adopted smart. growCh principles resulting in cost I time saW1~S; Cost savilgs in
pal1!;;ing facilities in mixed-use properties due to shewing of ·spaces throughout the day and nigllt.
resulting in less duplication in providing parking; Less need for parking taciities due to mix of
residences and commercial uses within walking distance of each other, Less iff1l8d. on ~s IIrafic.
which can result in klwer i~ fees; lower cost d utirrties due to compact nature of New lJrtJaIIist
design; Greater acceptance by the public and less reststance from NIMBYS; Faster sea out due ro
greater acceptance by consumers from a wider product range resulting in wider market share
4. BENEFITS TO MUNICIPAUTlES
Stable, appreciating tax base; less spent per capita on mrastrudure Md utilrties than typical SlIburt:lan
deveklpment due to compact. high-density nature of projects; Increased tax base due to more
buiJdings packed into a tighter area; Less traffic congestion due to walkability of design; L.ess ame md
5ess spent on policing due to the presence of more people day and night; less resistance from
community; Better overall conmunity image and sense of place; less incentive to spftMf when U1'ban...
core area is desirable; Easy to in~ transit where irs nol and improve it where it is; Greater civic
,. , involvement of population leads to better governance
WAYS TO IMPLEMENT NEW URBANISM
The most effective way to implement New Urbanism is to plan for it. and write it into zoning 8KI
development codes. This directs all future development into this form
New Urbanism is best planned at all levels of development:
J -The singl~ building - Groups of buidings -The urban block -The neighborhood - Net\¥orkSof
neighborhoods -Towns - Cities - Regtons
Increasingly. regional planring techniques are being used to control and shape gJ\:.Mth into compa:::t.

J htgh-density. mixed-use neighborhoods, villages. towne;, and cities. Planning new train systeills
(instead of more roads) delivers the best results when designed in harmony...,;th regional land plannilg
- known as Transit Oriented Devefopment (TOO). At the same time, the revitafization at urban aeas
 23

directs and encourages Infill development back into city cenIEf's.Plarving for corrc>aCI growth, _
than letting it sprawl out, has tI1e potentiat to greatty increase the quality 01 tI1e environment. tt also
prevents amgestion probk!rns and the environri ic:ntal degradation normally associated with growth.
OBSTACLES TO OVERCOME
The most important obstacle to overoome is Ihe restrictive and incorrect zoning codes currentty in fofce
in most munidpalmes. Current codes do not aftow New Urbanism to be buil1, but do aIaw
spray.4. Adopting 8 TND ordinance M1d/or a system of 'smart codes' atlows New lkbarrism to be bult
easily without having to rewrite exismg codes.
An equally important obstade is the continuous road building and expansKJrt taking place in every
community across America. This encourages more driving and more sprawl which has a c:IorMlo elred:
increasing traffic congestion across the region . Halting road projects and building new train systems
helps reverse this problematic Itend
"Only when humans are again permiHed to build authentic urbanism - those cities, towns. 8ld

•
I villages that nurture us by their comforts ald delights - will we cease the despoiing of NattR by
escaping to sprawt" -Andres Ouany .
Transit Oriented Development Advances
Transrt Oriented Development is spreading across.America in awareness, theory and in practice. More
commonly known as TOO. it is the practice of creating vibrant. walkable. mixed-use c::omrntnlies
surrounding transit stations. The many benefits indude a higher quality of life with better places to !We,
wort. and play; greater rnc..biIity with ease of moving around; increased transit ridership 8f'II1 deaeased
driving and congestion; reduced car accidents and injuries; reduced hous:.ehlld spending on
transportation. resulting in more affordable hou.,:ng; heafthjer lifestyle with more walking. and less
stress; higher. more stabte property values; increased foot traffic and customers for area. businesses;
greatly reduced dependence on foreign oil; greatly reduced potlution alld environmentat destruction:
reduced incentive to sprawl. increased incentive for compact development; Jess expensive than
building roads and spmwt: and enhanced ability to maintain eo.lOOfTlic mmpetitiveness
A recently released study points to the many benefits of TOO. one of the most inportanl being the
great efficiency 01 land and roads, and tI1e huge transportation and tax savings tor residents. The
study looked at the nine stations a.ong the Orange Line of the washington DC Metro sYstem in
Artington County, When the new line was built. county leaders decided to run the first haft or it
underground along an aging suburban conidor, known as ttle Rosstyn.-Ballston Corridor. COsting a kit '
more to build this way. the idea was that it was worth the extra expense because it would help
revitalization the entire corridor. They planned frYe closely spaced Metro stations and enacted what
they called bulls-eye zoning around earn Metro station, ca1ling for the highest density fight at the
station. and tapering down to medium density. and then to lower density to blend in with the
surrounding historic neighborhoods,
The last four stations towards the end of the line were not done like this. but instead buJt the ~
expensive way. down the center of the freeway. Now thirty years later the co.nparison is drastically
different. The first five urban stations have accommodated millions of square feet rI mixecklse
deve40pment in a compact. walkable fOflfl that k>oks and feefs like a city. The last four subu'ban
stations are still surrounded by miles of parting lots. According to the study, 'of the roughly 29,000
passengers boartling daily at tI1e Orange Une's four suburban stations, aboul15 pco:ent get to their
station on fOOL while 58 percent do so by car. By contrast. of the roughly 40,000 passeilgers Iloard<lg
daily at the five urban stations in the Rosstyo--to-Ballston segment, 73 percent arrive at their station on
foot, and 13 percent arrive by car. This shows how beneiidat ft is to build compact cities _ ...
Metro stations and the potential savings. The 73% arriving on foot doo't requlre'8 car, 8 par1dng space,
or a bus to get them to Metro; saving a great deat of money, fuel, poUution, and physical space! 0Iher
The two square miles of the RosslylrBalston corridor, though it constitutes about 8 percent d 1he
county's land area. is home to about 33 percent of its real estate tax base. Arlington ColI1ty has the
lowest real estate property tax of any major jurisdiction in Northern Vrginia
TRANSIT VILLAGES are dense urban communities wen served by transit and high quality train
systems, They make it easy to live without a car - by riding transit and walking tI'lrougJ pleasant utban
en-vironments, Transit Villages have active, vibrant. and strong neighborhood centers focused around
transit. The image above is Portfand. one of the leaders in the development of Transit Villages.
Transit Vitlagos are the coming trend in community planning. and are welcomed by everyone as
offering a higher quality of life for alt.
•

•
Landscape architecture
Ls;:dscape architecture is the art, planning, design, managemen~ preservation and tehabiitation of
• the land and the design of man-made constructs. The scope of the profession includes sn;hitectJlal
design, site planning, estate development. environmental restomtion. town or ulban planning, utban
design, paoo and reaeation planning, regional plaMing, and historic preservation. A practitioner in the

r, field of landscape an:il_1s callecl. landscape .",hitect

..
What is Landscape Architecture?
Activffies of a landscape architect can lange from the creation of /Moo and {)reerM'ays to the site
planning for corporate office lxildings, from the design of residential estates to the design 01 civil
infastruclure and file ~!!meI1t of latge wilderness areas Of reGlamation of degraded landscapes
such as mines or landfills.

Landsca;>e architects worlc on all types of external space - large or small, urban or rural, and with
'hatrJ'l'soft'materials, hydrology and ecological issues. They worlc on:
• . The form, scale and siting of new developments
• The civil design and public infrastructure
• The site design for schools, universities, hospitals and hotels
• Public parks, greenways, !JOI; courses, theme parks and sports taci/i6es
• Housing Bf6dS, industrial paries and conmercial developments
• Highways transportation structures. bridges and corridors
• Urban design, town and city squares and pedestrian schemes
• urge or small urban regeneration schemes
• Forest. tourist or historic landscapes and historic garden appraisal and conservation stu6es
• Reservoirs, dams. power stations, extractive industry applications or major industrial projects
• Environmental assessment, planning advice and land management proposals.
• Coastal and offshote developments
The most valuable contribution is otten made at the earliest stage of a project in genetating
kJeas and brinfing flair and creafMly to the use of $pace. The landscape architect can contribute to the
overall concept. and prepare an initial master plan, from which detailed de.sign$ can subsequenlJy be
prepared. He or she can also let and supetvise contracts for a:mstnJctjon KOdc, prepare design impact
assessments, conduct envirotmental assessments or audits and act as an expert witness at enqUties
on land use. He or she can aI:sG suppotf or prepare appications forcap;tal or tewnue futdng gmnts.
The first person to _ of 'maJcing' a landscape was Jo..,ph Adcfson (rhe term Tandscape
architecture' was invented by Gilbert Laing Meason in 1828 and was first used as a professional title by
Frederick Law Olmsted (in 1863). Lancelot Brown. This use of 7andscape architecr became estabfshed
aner the founding of the American Society of Landscape Architects in 1899 and the e<;tablishmenf 0.'"
the International Federation of umdscape An;hitecls (IFLA) in 1948.
 25

Specializations Within Landscape An:Mecture

Landscape designers and Landscape /echnicans or engineers ate employed ..", Iantbcape
construction and seMce companies. Landscape designers ike garden designers, design . , types of
planting and green spaces. Many landscape engineers ~ in pubflC olTiCes in central and local
government while others wotfr for landscape architecture finns.
Landscape managers use their knowledge of plants and the natural environment to 8dt1ise on
/he long-term care and development of the landscape. They M>rlc in hortiCf.iture. esfare msnBgl!lll'll!l'li.
forestry, nature COfJSetvation and a&'fiaJIture.
Landscape scien6sts have specialist skills such 8$ SOI1 science, hydrology, geomof1)h%9y or
botany that they relate to the ptactical problems of landscape *l'*.
Their proj«ts can range from site
surveys to the ecological assessment of broad areas for planning or management pcuposes. They may
also report on the impact of development or the imporlance of parlicular species in a given area.
Landscape planners are concerned with landscape planning for the location, scenic, ecological
and recreational aspects of urban, IlJral and coastal land use. 1heir worle is embodied in writI.en
statements of policy and MI'Blegy. 800 their remit includes masterpJanning fOr new developments,
landscape evaluations and assessments, and preparing rountryside management or policy plans.
Some may also apply an additional specialism such as landscape archaeology or law to tile process of
L landscape planning.
Gafden designers ate concerned with tile design of new private gatdens and also with historiC
gatrJen conservation
L History
The Romans undertook landscape architecture on an extensive scaJe, and VdnMus wrote on many
topics (eg the layout of towns) which still concem landscape architects. As with the other arts, it was
l.. not until the Renaissance that garden design was revived, with outstanding eK8IJ1)Ies inclucl;rg the
I pleasure grounds at the ViDa d'Este, TIVOli. The renaissance garden developed through the 16th and
I 17th centuries, reaching an ultimate gr:mdeur in the werle of Andre Ie NfJtre at V~ux-le-VJCOnJte and
VersaiHes. .
In the 18th Century, England became the focus of a new style of landscape design. Figures
such as William Kent, Humphrey Repton, and most famously Lancelot 'Cspabl;ty Brown remodelled
the great estate paries of the English gentry to resemble a neat and tidy vefSion of nature. Many of
thes~ parlcs remain today. The term 1andscape architecture' was first used by the Scotsman Gilbert
Laing Meason in the title of his book on The Landscape Atchitecture of the Great Painters Of Italy
(London, 1828). It was about the type of architecture found in landscape paintings. The term
'landscape architecture' was then taken up by JC Loudon and AJ Downing.
Through the 19th century, urban planning became more important and it was the combination
1 of modem planning 'Ni!h the tradition of landscape gardening that gave Landscape AtclJitecture its
unique focus. In the second half of the century, Frederick Law Olmsted c:;onpeted a series of parlcs
which continue to have a huge influence on the practices of Landscape AlChitecture today_ Among

1 these were Central Park in New Yolk, Prospect Park in Brook/yn, and Boston's :;:0 called Emerald
NecJdace park system.
Landscape Architecture continues to develop as a design discipline, and has responded to
many of the movements of design and architecture through the 20th century. Today, a healthy level of
innovation continues to provide: challenging design solutions for streets:capes. paries and gatdens. The
wodr of Martha Schwarlz in the US, and in Europe designs such as the Schouwbulgplein in RottenJam
are just two examples.
Landscape architecis are considered proiessionais on par with architeds, en~neefS, doctors
and IawyelS, because they are usually required to obtain similarly spec:lafzed education lind
profiessional licensure. In many countries, a professional institute, comprised of members of the
profies.sional community, exists in otrJer to protect the standing of lIJe profession and {JfOf'!KJIe its
interests, and sometimes also regulate the practice of landscape arr;hitecl.ure. The standard and
strength of legal regulab'ons governing landscape architecture practice varies from nation to nation,
wnh some requiring licensure in order to practice; and some having /it/Je or no regulation.. For a
landscape architec~ obtaining licensure or membership :Jf a professional in.WIum requires advanced
education and/or oontinuing training and work eX{Jerience. Full tnembefShip or licensure ol'fen dt!pends
on the outrome of examinations in professional practice matters, and/or an interview with senior
members of the profession .
•

• URBAN PLANNING
THE BEGINNINGS
• SETTLEMENT DESIGN

-
, o Agricultural Societies ,,
o Rectilinear Plotting

• LAYOUT
o Grid (or Rectilinear) - product of the farmer §I AMT'S I.E¥&. 6A I
o Circular (Fencing) - ~roduct of the herdsman
-- defensive role
'Ii '""'"t-
ID_
o Radiocentric - when circular settlements enlarge
-- fortress cities (i.e. Paris)

ANCIENT GREECE
o THE ACROPOLIS
o THE AGORA
o GREEK TOWNS

• LANDSCAPE - powerfully assertive

• HIGH PLACES - fortified hilltop
- sacred precinct
• TOWN DESIGN = SENSE OF THE FINITE
- Aristotle's ideal size of city = 10,000 - 20,000 people
- never attempted to overwhelm nature
- buildings give a sense of human measure t" landscape
• THE STREET - not a principal element but as a leftover s:>ace for circulation
• PLACE OF ASSEMBLY - mal'1<e( (agora)

THE ACROPOLIS
• LAYOUT
D Once thought to lack visible design
relationships - no geometrical axial relationship
o BUT, a veri definite visual relationship
• DESIGN
D Built and rebuilt over a long period of observation
a nd reflection
- to be seen by human eye
- to be experienced by people moving on foot
D Visual sophistication
- panoramic view of the surrounding
- resulted into sacred character

I
 THE AGORA
DACROPOLlS: masses arti";;lating space
AGORA: buildings served as facades to
form an enclosed urban space

• BUILDING~
- are grouped around a central open space
- are low - comfortable sense of spatial enclosure
,. •..-1_., A..w..
ku-
ft • •
•• M~" ..... ( .....
I f>_ A <:.......-,·..

- are regular and architecturally horizontal

- sense of stable repose
AGORA as an urban space:
-- buildings are constantly being changed
to alter the character of the space
- BUT the space prevailed

GREEK TOWNS
• HIPPODAMUS
- a lawyer, from Miletus
-lived in S" century B.C.
- inspiration was probably derived
from alicient Babylonia ·r/"
I- .r -
• GRIDIRON LAYOUT n.c- c....,t coIM, 1JcI..OIl . , /tIlkf
- Plan·of Athens' harbor, Piraeus ,I<f ~i..rlt>kl "Imp"'--'"
was attributed to Hippodamus ""Ito/f~ """r &<1,'Ir .fl ,u",r.
- Areas of finite size, comprehensible
to the eye, and politically workable
-- Neopolis. When a town reaches
its maximum size, a -n.ew town- is built
- Paleopolis. Old town
- Other examples:
Miletus, Priene, and Alexandria
--~
r .. c.-t ...,...,w _~ o/~."""-"
~ ~., H"".,.... ...
• IJRBAN DESIGN - Greek: sense of the fin~e _ , . . _ -Irff A:I " -.
- Romans: polittcal power and organization
• ~SE OF SCALE - Greek use of scale is based on human measurements
- Romans used proportions that would relate parts of building instead d human measure
• ~ODULE - Greek use of house as module for town planning
- Roman use of street pattem as module
- to achieve a sense of overpowering grandeur
- made for military government
• !HE STREET - Greeks: as a leftover space for circulation
- Romans: street are built first; buildings came later
• I=LACE OF ASSEMBLY - Greeks: mart<et (agora)
· - Romans: market, theater, and arena
2
 :\

ANCIENT ROME
o THE REPUBLICAN FORUM ,- ,
.~----.----~--.-'
o THE IMPERIAL FORUM

THE REPUBLICAN FORUM

o FORUM a Latin word meaning open
0

space or marKet place

7'1... U~"I./.Ii(:n" (lncl Im~rif11 Fonnns u~.IJI'"

the administrative & corporate heart of Rome

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In Rome, there were several forums. Generally this word referred to the open
o

space in any Roman town where business, judicial, civic, or religious activities
i. were conducted .
o THE REPUBLICAN FORUM - or "The Roman Forum", the most famous foru",
owas designed by the architect Vitruvius who felt the proportions needed to be
3:2 (tength to width) .
- level area is small, about 6 acres

• THE IMPERIAL FORUM

o THE IMPERIAL FORUM
1 architectural or urban masses
were made subordinate to spaces
composed of plazas formed by
colonnades .

i COlonnades act as transition and

link to plazas

1
,
• BUILDINGS
- a development of steadily increasing political power (509 B.C. - 27 8.Q.)

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- buildings have no formal relationship between each other
- Curia - Senate's assembly house; Forum's most important building
- Successive buildings are I than their predecessors
REPUBLICAN FORUM IMPERIAL FORUM
CHA.RACTER Architectural Masses Urban Space

LAYOUT Fun of odd corners, infc!'ma:! Spacious, open, sense of order

o PIAZZA DEL CAMPO. SIENA

• DeCLINE OF ROME - "Dark Ages·, but not for urban design
• URBAN SEITINGS - Military strongholds, caslles,
monasteries, towns
• MILITARY STRONGHOLDS - Acropolis &Capitoline Hill
• CASTLES - built atop hills, endosed by circular walls;
radiocentric growth
• MONASTERIES - citadels of leaming, laid
out in rectilinear pattern 3
 RENAISSANCE ERA
• ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF EARLY RENAISSANCE
- Public Wor1<s
- Civic impr:ovement projects
• REBUILDING FERRARA
- Palazzo Oiamenti - most famous structure
- Biaggio Rossetti - archilecl and lown planner
regarded as one of Ihe world 's earliest modem
urban designers
- Rossetti's rlan :
1. Street widening, new buildings, wall improvement
2. Enlarge Ihe lown
3. Carry on wilh Ihe plan I'

• LESSONS FROM ROSSETTI'S EFFORT

- Repair an exisling cily Viennna University Town
- Plan for enlargemenl
- Decide which 10 concenlrale effort
- Lay down a plan Ihal is logical and realizable
- Provide framewor1< for others 10 build upon

ARCHITECTS IN URBAN PLANNING

" Ferrara is Ihe first MODERN city in Europe"
Jacob Burckhardt, 1860

• EUEL SAARINEN
- Prize-winning plan for Helsinki in 1911
-- "The Cily" published in 1943

·LE CORBUSIER
- Fused ideas of modem archileclure and cily form
- "Une Ville Conlemporaine" - 1922
- traceable 10 Henard's and Gamier's ideas Scamozzi's Palmanov8 Italy
"Plan Voisin" (Neighbortlood Plan) - 1925
"La Ville Raclieuse" -1935
- "Le Plan de Paris" - 1937
- Spokesman for the -intemationai Movement"
Chandigarh, India - designed Ihe enlire cily

• LOUISKAHN
- Made important designs for central Philadelphia •
• KENZO TANGE
- Plan for Tokyo
- Cir!:ulation as detenninant of uman form
-- New Tokyo over Tokyo Bay, hung on bridges

4
• FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
- Followed Howard, Geddes and social reformers
-·The Disappearing C~y" - published in 1932
-·Broadacres· - every family on an ayre of land
- Marin County Civic Center north of SF, Calif.
- Changed scheme - Full Mile High Superskyscraper
ARCHITECTS IN URBAN PLANNING

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• CONSTANTIN;;; DOXIADIS

- Addressed the urban problem on a worldwide scale

• Major designs are made for countries where economy &
productive system can be coordinated by policy & decree
Best work is in newly developing nations of Africa & Middle East
"Architecture in Transijion" (1963) - explains Doxiadis's total view
Magazine "Ekistics" - shows Dixiadis's many plans and programs

, -Ekistics grid~ - system for recording planning data and ordering planning process

, • Town planning as a science which includes planning & design,and contribution of

sociologist, geographer, economist, politician, anthropologist, ecologist etc.
- EKISTICS - the science of human settlements

URBAN MORPHOLOGY
The internal organization or "anatomy" of a city, including the pattern of land u:;es, ethnic
and income groups, infrastructure, housing types, industrial types, and so on.

ETHNIC AND ECONOMIC SEGREGATION

Despije laws prohibiting racial segregation by realtors and investors, American
cijies remain racially divided because of the interaction of the following:
" the income differential between different groups
" the segregation of neighborhoods by income
" zoning laws that protect high-income neighborhoods from "incompatible land uses"
like apartments and duplexes
• perception of higher land as "bette~'
• inertia created by segregation established by realtors and lenders in earlier decades

6
• perception of social distance between groups "
URBAN ETHNIC ENCLAVES ;
Ethnic enclaves in the city expand and contract over time 'I
Commonly minority populations struggle for access to a limited supply of affordable housing
This keeps some groups in older, central parts of the city
Zone Model I
• Ernest Burgess, 1920s a Sociologist at the University of Chicago
• Invasion and succession drove formation of concentric rings
• An ecological model, with ethnic groups as the species
• His model included "Little Sicily,' Chinatown, Deutschland, "underworld roomers,' "single-
family dwellings: and "bungalow section"
• Pertained to early 20th c. Chicago in time of European immigration

CSD (central bu\il\e~\

district)
Sector Model

2 Transilion lone
3 Blue-collar residential
4 Middle·income re~idenli <,1

.s COmm u(N r('\identi,ll

• Homer Hoyt, 1930s

wedges form along transportation
corridors
• railroads & canals lined by indust,;al
districts
• main roads & some waterfronts lined by
houses of the wealthy
• Households of different income and elhnic
group.s filter towards outer edge in the
pre-esiablished direction
• Freeways do not follow this pattern

• (SO «('olrill bu~jness dislrict)

• High-rent ~e(lor
• Middle-ren t ~e(lor
h't}! low-rent sectof

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.Multi-Nucleated Model
• Chauncy Harris and Edward Pullman, dominant in the 1990s and 2000s
• Majority of commutes are edge-to-edge rather than edge to center
• Majority of new office space is at the edge
• Sectoral pattern breaks down because of leapfrog development
• CBD is only the center of a very particular range of services (e.g. bars l )
Factors affecting where the richest famities wifllive
• lower cost of land
• newer infrastructure
• access to desired facilijies and geographical locations (what are these?) negative
perception of certain social groups (racism and classicism)
• • status-seeking behavior
• willingness and ability to commute

Factors affecting where the poorest families will live

• scarcity of affordable housing

• inability to avoid inadequate or decaying infrastructure
• inability to maximize acoess to desired facilijies
• spatial avoidance by those in more favored groups ability/inability to commute
(creatp.s two zon~s of low-income housing