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Abstract
The increase in the number of seismic events and their devastations in the recent past
has assisted in many developments in seismic codes of various international
standards. Codes adopt conventional elastic methods in the design of structures to
estimate the strength and deformation demand employing seismic design factors to
represent the nonlinear behavior of the structure. Four typical high-rise steel buildings
of 8, 12, 16 and 20 stories are designed and detailed using various seismic codes.
Seismic response of the reference buildings is assessed with detailed fiber-based
models using inelastic pushover and incremental dynamic analyses subject to 20
strong seismic records. The proposed study provides comparisons between different
seismic design codes for the range of the reference buildings at different performance
levels. This study may help the designers in optimizing their design in the seismic
regions and provide an insight to assess the seismic performance and predict the
behavior at different performance levels.
Keywords: High-rise steel buildings; Seismic codes; Seismic design; Seismic performance; IDA
INTRODUCTION
The advent of high-rise buildings due to increase in urban habitat represents
concentrated human and monetary assets posing potential consequences from natural
hazards, particularly from the seismic events. In the recent past, international seismic
codes have witnessed several developments while employing their seismic parameters
in estimating the strength and deformation to represent the nonlinear behavior of the
structures. This emphasizes the need to analyze and design a range of high-rise steel
buildings using various international design codes and assess their seismic
performance using non-linear analysis.
To meet the study objective, five international seismic building codes namely,
European Codes (EN, 2006), International Building Code (ICC, 2012) with American
Society for Civil Engineers code for loads (ASCE 7, 2010), National Building Code
of Canada (NBCC, 2005), New Zealand Code (NZS, 2004) and Uniform Building
Code (ICBO, 1997) are selected in the present study. Seismic performance of the
reference high-rise buildings is assessed through the fragility relationships. To
provide the most realistic option for the study region, analytical simulations are
adopted to generate the damage data required for the fragility functions.
The aim of the present study is to analyze and design a range of high-rise steel
buildings with various international design codes, assess the seismic performance and
compare their behavior between various international codes. Detailed three-
© ASCE
dimensional (3D) simulation models are designed and developed covering a wide
range of high-rise buildings with varying heights using selected international codes.
Inelastic static pushover analyses (IPAs) and incremental dynamic analyses (IDAs)
under the effect of 20 selected natural and artificial seismic records representing the
study region (Dubai) are presented to derive the vulnerability relationships.
Performance limit states are evaluated and assessed using fragility curves by the IDAs
to provide insights to the seismic response of the reference structures up to collapse.
Four regular steel buildings of 8, 12, 16 and 20 stories are considered and fully
designed to meet the objective of the current study. All the selected reference
buildings are conceptualized on a similar layout as shown in Figure 1, representing a
typical footprint of high-rise buildings in the study region. These buildings measure
30m x 30m horizontally on either direction laid over a seven grid system of six equal
sized bays of 5m each. The system selected in the present study represents a typical
frame structure that resist horizontal loads efficiently from lateral forces by providing
higher stiffness for the number of stories considered (e.g., Ali and Moon, 2007). Each
building comprises of a ground story and typical upper stories. The typical height of
all floors is 3.3 meters except for the ground story, which is 4.5 meters. The total
heights for the four buildings are 27.60, 40.80, 54.00 and 67.20 meters, respectively.
Self-weight of structural members along with the uniformly distributed load of 4.0
kN/m2 on slabs accounting for partitions and floorings, etc., are considered as the
permanent loads while designing the selected buildings. A live load of 4.8 kN/m2 on
the stair and exit ways and 2.0 kN/m2 on the remaining floor areas is distributed
uniformly in all the selected buildings. The lateral force resisting system of each of
the four reference buildings consists of columns, braces and beams which are
modeled using structural steel I-sections braced in the central span with constant yield
strength of 350 MPa along the height of the structure to effectively resist the lateral
actions. Cast-in-situ slabs of 0.16m thickness reinforced to prevent undesirable failure
modes are placed over the I-sections forming the floor slab system. Lateral actions
generated due to seismic forces are considered in the design of floor slabs. 40 MPa
concrete cube strength and 420 MPa steel reinforcement yield strength is used for the
cast-in-situ floor slabs.
Detailed 3D models are developed using the structural analysis and design program
ETABS (CSI, 2012) in the design of the four reference buildings using all the selected
design codes. The buildings are designed for residential use and founded on a dense to
very dense soil with a peak ground acceleration (PGA) of 0.15g representing the
selected region (Dubai, UAE) with a 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years.
Since the PGA of NBCC is based on 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years, its
value is enhanced by 1.5 times (Ellingwood, 1994) to unify with other codes to a
10% probability of exceedance in 50 years for the sake of comparison. Accordingly,
the spectral acceleration values from smith river case (P. W. Basham, D. H.
Weichert.) representing the study region are selected for the design for NBCC. For the
sake of brevity, the seismic design parameters adopted in the design for the five
selected international codes are presented in Table 1. Four reference steel buildings of
8, 12, 16 and 20 stories are analyzed and designed to various load combinations based
on the design provisions recommended by the respective five selected international
codes using ETABS and detailed accordingly.
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Figure 1. Typical building layout for the reference buildings (8 story, 12 story, 16 story and 20 story)
Linear or elastic static and dynamic analyses are performed on the reference buildings
using Equivalent Lateral Force Analysis (ELFA) method and Modal Response
Spectrum Analysis (MRSA) method under the selected codes. Preliminary design and
three-dimensional response characteristics of the reference buildings under various
seismic codes are assessed using equivalent lateral force analysis. The design and
detailing of the selected steel buildings using various codes are done using the modal
response spectrum analysis. Accordingly, the elastic dynamic 3D seismic response
characteristics of the reference buildings are compared with various codes analysis.
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Table 1. Summary of seismic design parameters of all the selected design codes
Seismic Soil/Site
Seismic Design Parameters
Codes Class
Ground acceleration, ag = 0.15g
EN, 2006 B Spectrum type = 2
behavior factor, q = 4 and Correction factor, λ = 1
Importance factor, I = 1
Non-linear or inelastic static and dynamic analyses are performed in this study by
adopting the fiber-based idealization approach using ZEUS-NL (Elnashai, et al,
2012). As a conservative approach, the most optimistic building model generated
from the selected seismic design codes are considered from each of the four reference
buildings for the inelastic analysis. Actual material strengths are employed in the
analysis of the ZEUS-NL models. Seismic performance is assessed on the selected
buildings for their respective heights through the fiber modeling approach. The
section is subdivided into different fibers and non-linear stress-strain response of the
member is integrated and monitored at two sections. This approach provides an
explicit platform accounting for the entire dimensions of the section and its
inelasticity, covering both geometric nonlinearities and the material inelasticity.
Modeling uncertainty is reduced by this idealization and moment-curvature
relationships are avoided. Each structural member is modeled using several number of
cubic elasto-plastic elements that are capable of representing the spread of yielding in
the member. The present study adopts this modeling approach based on the practice in
large research projects in the previous studies covering multi-story buildings and
complex bridges (e.g., Jeong et al, , 2012; A. Mwafy, 2012). This idealization is
adopted to evaluate the limit states and develop the fragility relationships in the
present study. Since 3D analysis is computationally demanding while covering wide
range of reference buildings and seismic records, Incremental dynamic analyses
(IDAs) are performed using the two-dimensional (2D) analysis approach. Five
framing systems are assumed to resist the seismic forces in each horizontal direction.
Each of the framing systems is loaded with 20% of the total mass of the building.
Accordingly, the governing frame as shown in Figure 1(a) is considered in the present
study based on the results obtained from 3D ETABS models to reduce the number of
IDAs.
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It is worth noting that the elastic periods resemble a fair similarity for the respective
story heights with most of the selected international codes except the NBCC. The
drifts in the buildings designed with the NBCC illustrate a lower value with lower
fundamental periods in comparison with the other codes. Thus, making the buildings
with NBCC more stiffer than the buildings designed with other codes. Whereas, the
buildings designed with IBC and NZS indicate a higher period justified with a larger
drift as compared with the NBCC.
Table 2. Elastic periods of the reference buildings with various international codes
Elastic Period, secs
Building Code
Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4 Mode 5 Mode 6
EN 1.121 0.963 0.931 0.363 0.323 0.308
IBC 1.115 1.044 0.958 0.368 0.349 0.323
8 Story NBCC 0.794 0.761 0.719 0.261 0.260 0.242
NZS 1.154 1.073 0.984 0.373 0.356 0.328
UBC 0.880 0.841 0.754 0.299 0.287 0.260
EN 1.534 1.308 1.271 0.524 0.459 0.444
IBC 1.763 1.620 1.459 0.564 0.532 0.487
12 Story NBCC 1.235 1.221 1.137 0.408 0.402 0.376
NZS 1.785 1.644 1.478 0.568 0.536 0.490
UBC 1.220 1.207 1.064 0.423 0.416 0.363
EN 1.691 1.687 1.482 0.605 0.604 0.540
IBC 2.316 2.171 1.934 0.710 0.678 0.620
16 Story NBCC 1.660 1.574 1.476 0.573 0.520 0.495
NZS 2.205 2.018 1.876 0.679 0.678 0.590
UBC 1.693 1.651 1.489 0.567 0.554 0.499
EN 2.130 2.079 1.848 0.736 0.713 0.655
IBC 2.963 2.797 2.434 0.912 0.872 0.786
20 Story NBCC 2.053 1.973 1.809 0.697 0.652 0.611
NZS 2.387 2.300 2.003 0.786 0.759 0.676
UBC 2.164 2.102 1.879 0.715 0.702 0.634
Figure 2(a) compares the base shear of the reference buildings along the weaker axis
using various design codes. NBCC and IBC have similar base shear coefficients for
the respective building heights. EN and NZS codes govern for buildings up to 12
stories with EN being the most optimum design, while NBCC and IBC govern for
buildings greater than 12 stories with IBC being the most optimum design as shown in
Figure 2(a). The values of the base shear coefficients reduce with increase in building
height under all codes. Comparisons of these parameters of the reference structures
with the selected international codes are presented in the subsequent sections. The
most optimum code designed building from the selected codes is considered for each
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story height category and assessed for the seismic performance using the IPAs and
IDAs.
0.02
0.01 0.03
0.00 0.02
8 Story 12 Story 16 Story 20 Story 8S 12 S 16 S 20 S
Storey Story
(a) (b)
Figure 2 . (a) Elastic Base shear and (b) Governing base shear comparison of 8, 12, 16 and 20 story
buildings with various international codes
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braces (IO), significant yielding or damage (LS), and extensive yielding resulting in
failure (CP), respectively. CP performance level of 2.0% is adopted based on the
above code provisions.
IPAs are conducted for the reference steel structures in estimating the different
performance limit states. Lateral capacity curves are monitored and the sequence of
yielding is traced along the curve of each building to estimate the IO and LS limit
state up to progress of the CP performance limit state. Uniform and the inverted
triangular lateral load distributions patterns are employed in the IPA based on the
recommendations of the modern design guidelines (ASCE, 2006). Initial stiffness and
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lateral capacity is estimated in the present study using uniform lateral load distribution
as it has more conservative values than the inverted triangular load distribution pattern
for high-rise buildings (e.g., Mwafy et al., 2006). Envelopes showing the lateral
capacity of the reference buildings of varying story heights along the weaker direction
are shown in Figure 4. It is worth noting that the first indication of yielding in all the
reference structures is witnessed in the braced members followed with the horizontal
members and then in the vertical members and finally the global yield. This is in
good agreement with a strong column and weak beam theory.
16 Storey
20 Storey
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.0 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.3
Roof Drift (%)
The IO performance limit state is considered at the first indication of yield when the
strain of the structural steel exceeds the yield strain of the member. The structure at
this state remains in elastic range so that the non-structural parts of the structure are
not significantly damaged and the building can be occupied immediately after the
earthquake with little or no repair. The IDRs for different story heights at the first
indication of yield in all reference structures are witnessed initially in the bracing
members defining the IO performance limit of the respective buildings as 0.78%,
0.68%, 0.64% and 0.51% for the 8, 12, 16 and 20 story, respectively. These values are
employed in the present study as they are the most conservative values obtained from
both the IPAs and IDAs.
The LS limit state in the present study is considered at the global yield threshold,
which is witnessed with the starting point of the post-elastic branch in the capacity
curve. This limit falls between the IO and CP limits representing a significant damage
sustained by the structure accounting for a reasonable margin of safety against
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collapse whose margin is considered in ASCE-41 (2006) as 50% of the CP limit state.
This value is evaluated as 1.14%, 1.04%, 1.03% and 1.00% for the 8, 12, 16 and 20
story buildings, respectively. The adopted values of IO, LS and CP limit states are
found consistent with earlier studies and closer to FEMA limits (1997). These
performance limit state values are used in deriving the fragility curves by performing
extensive IDAs under 20 selected ground motions as described in the following
sections.
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due to different input ground motions prior to its yielding. The probability of
exceeding limit states increases with an increase in the height of the building under all
the limit state cases.
Moderate
R² = 0.7948 Minor
7 0.8
P(Limit State|GMI)
Severe
6
0.6
5
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Collapse
4
0.4
3
CP : 2.0% IO
2 0.2 LS
LS : 1.00%
1 CP
0 IO : 0.51% 0
0.00 0.16 0.32 0.48 0.64 0.80 0.96 1.12 1.28 0 0.16 0.32 0.48 0.64 0.8 0.96 1.12 1.28
PGA (g) PGA (g)
Figure 5. IDA results and fragility relationships of 20 story building
0.6 16 Story
20 Story
0.6
Moderate 0.4
0.4
8 Story
0.2
0.2 12 Story
16 Story
20 Story Moderate
0.0 0
0.00 0.16 0.32 0.48 0.64 0.80 0.96 1.12 1.28 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
PGA (g) PGA (g)
20 Story
Moderate
0.6 0.6
Severe
Severe
0.4 0.4
Collapse
8 Story
0.2 12 Story 0.2
16 Story
20 Story
0.0 0.0
0.00 0.16 0.32 0.48 0.64 0.80 0.96 1.12 1.28 0.00 0.16 0.32 0.48 0.64 0.80 0.96 1.12 1.28
PGA (g) PGA (g)
For the sake of brevity, four PGA levels, namely 0.16g, 0.24g, 0.32g, and 0.64g are
considered to determine the limit state probabilities by calculating the differences
between them as shown in Figure 7. It is observed that at the design PGA of 0.16g,
the probability of moderate damage to the buildings is in the range of 3% to 45% from
8 story to 20 story, while the probability of severe damage to the buildings is less than
20% and collapse is almost negligible. At the design intensity level, ordinary
buildings are usually designed with a certain level of damage, hence the performance
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Minor Damage State Moderate Damage State Severe Damage State Collapse Damage State
Damage State Probability of Exceedance - 0.16g Damage State Probability of Exceedance - 0.24g
1.00 0.60
Probability of Exceedance
Probability of Exceedance
0.80
0.40
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.20
0.00 0.00
8 Story 12 Story 16 Story 20 Story 8 Story 12 Story 16 Story 20 Story
Reference Buildings Reference Buildings
The reference buildings are compared and their impact on the design safety is
assessed with respect to the governing design code on each of the reference buildings
as shown in Figure 8. Eurocode governs for buildings lower than 13 stories as
observed from Figure 2(b), hence used to assess the seismic performance of 8 and 12
stories, respectively. IBC governs for buildings higher than 13 stories as observed
from Figure 2(b), hence used to assess the seismic performance of 16 and 20 stories,
respectively. It can be concluded from the above that the buildings performed fairly
well over the design PGA and their performance was acceptable. Based on the above,
comparison is made with the other codes in each of the respective building as shown
in Figure 8. A design margin of 47.4% and 32.6% is observed in excess for the
buildings designed with UBC in comparison with EN for 8 and 12 story buildings,
respectively. Whereas, a design margin of 27% and 42% is observed in excess for the
buildings designed with UBC and NZS in comparison with IBC for 16 and 20 story,
respectively. This may provide a significant reduction in the use of structural steel in
the respective buildings designed between different codes with an acceptable seismic
performance level and safety margin.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper investigated on the seismic design of a range of high-rise steel buildings
under various international design codes and its performance. The study included the
detailed structural design and numerical modeling of four contemporary high-rise
steel buildings with varying heights, ranging from 8 stories to 20 stories designed
under five international seismic codes. Detailed fiber-based simulation models and 20
© ASCE
earthquake records were used in carrying out extensive IPAs and IDAs. Local and
global response were utilized in evaluating and verifying the limit states and deriving
the vulnerability relationships of the reference structures. Statistical distributions
obtained from the IDA results were utilized in evaluating the probabilities of
exceeding different limit states at different ground motion intensity levels.
8 story 12 story
0.10 0.08
45.6% 47.4%
Base shear coefficient, V/W
32.6%
00.0%
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.00 0.00
EN NZS IBC NBCC UBC EN NZS NBCC IBC UBC
Codes Codes
16 story 20 story
0.06 0.06
27.9%
Base shear coefficient, V/W
0.02 0.02
0.01 0.01
0.00 0.00
IBC NBCC EN NZS UBC IBC NBCC UBC EN NZS
Codes Codes
Figure 8. Overall impact on design safety margin in the reference buildings with respect to the
governing design code
The reference buildings were compared and their impact on the design safety was
assessed with respect to the governing design code on each of the reference buildings.
Eurocode for buildings lower than 13 stories and IBC for buildings above 13 stories
governed the design of the reference buildings and the selection criteria for seismic
performance was made accordingly. A design safety margin of 47.4% and 32.6% was
observed in excess for the buildings designed with UBC in comparison with EN for 8
and 12 story buildings, respectively. Whereas, a design safety margin of 27% and
42% was observed in excess for the buildings designed with UBC and NZS in
comparison with IBC for 16 and 20 story, respectively. This provides a significant
reduction in the use of structural steel in the respective buildings designed between
different codes. The seismic performance of the reference structures was comparable
and acceptable at both the design PGA and 1.5 times the design PGA levels.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council
(NSERC) of Canada through Discover Grant.
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