Lifestyles Related To Eating Habits in Ready Meal Consumption (2014) PDF

FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH
LIFESTYLES RELATED
TO EATING HABITS IN READY
MEAL CONSUMPTION
COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN
SÃO PAULO AND ROME
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FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION
AND HEALTH
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FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH
LIFESTYLES RELATED
TO EATING HABITS IN READY
MEAL CONSUMPTION
COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN
SÃO PAULO AND ROME
PAULETTE SIEKIERSKI
AND
MATEUS CANNIATTI PONCHIO
New York
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CONTENTS
Preface vii
Summary of Abbreviations ix
About the Authors xi
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Literature Review 7
Chapter 3 Methodology 39
Chapter 4 Data Analysis 53
Chapter 5 Final Considerations 71
References 77
Index 89
PREFACE
The pivotal question that this book attempts to answer is: how do lifestyles
influence eating habits associated with consumption of ready meals. It is
known that changes in lifestyle of the western world population have increased
the demand for convenience in meal preparation. Consumers are working
longer hours, spending more time in traffic and they want to maximize leisure
time which has been increasingly limited. As a result, they demand products
and services that facilitate and support their busy lives (Olsen, 2010). In
response to this demand, the food industry has expanded its options for meals
(Geeroms et al., 2008). In this context, the objectives of this research are to
analyze the influence of socio-demographic variables in the choice of the
ready food; study the importance of the factors as health, taste, convenience
and tradition in the consumption of ready meals; and to compare consumption
habits of ready meals related with lifestyles among consumers from São Paulo
and Rome. The literature reviews lifestyle, multiculturalism, food habits and
consumption of ready meals. In this process, the measurement scale developed
and validated abroad deemed most promising for this study were adapted to
the context. Electronic instruments have been set up to collect data which were
accessible via a link sent by email to residents of São Paulo and Rome. We
obtained 200 valid questionnaires in São Paulo and 155 in Rome. According to
the results, consumers in the two cities have different styles in relation to food.
A study from Vanhonacker et al. (2010) indicates that older populations of
southern Europe are traditional in terms of eating habits. Similarly, in this
work, consumers from Rome are more concerned with tradition and health,
compared to consumers from São Paulo. According to Askegaard and Madsen
(1998), the Germanic cultures are more concerned about their health and in
Italy, the sensory element matters the most. This study indicated that in São
viii Paulette Siekierski and Mateus Canniatti Ponchio
Paulo, there is a greater emphasis on convenience and flavor. The flavor

dimension is supported by the anthropologist Da Matta (2001), in the
observation that one of the most important Brazilian social mirrors is food,
with what he calls "food code" which theoretically expresses the society.
According to him, for Brazilians, "knowing how to eat is far more refined than
the simple act of eating" (2001, p. 55). The city of São Paulo is proud to be a
gastronomic hub of social activities and many of those activities take place in
social gatherings that involve food. Therefore, the flavor dimension is easily
explained. Simultaneously, the convenience dimension is supported by another
feature of the city, the fact that it is a large urban center. Maluf (2001)
indicates that the circumstances of contemporary life and the impact of
advertising have changed the acquisition and consumption of food,
highlighting the relevance of prepared foods in São Paulo. The limitation of
this study is the criteria of the convenience sampling. It is believed that these
results may be relevant both for the development of new products and for the
positioning of products and brands active in these markets, or even to identify
new market segments or understand different generations of consumers.
SUMMARY OF ABBREVIATIONS
AIO - activities, interests and opinions

CATI - computer assisted telephone interviewing
FRL - food related lifestyle
MAPP - Centre for Research on Customer Relations in the Food Sector,
Aarhus School of Business, Aarhus, Denmark
LOV - list of values
LTO - long term orientation
RTE - ready to eat
TFC - traditional food consumers
TFP - traditional food products
VALS - values, attitudes and lifestyles
WEB - World Wide Web
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Paulette Siekierski, M.Sc.

Master’s degree in International Management from the Higher School of
Advertising and Marketing of São Paulo (ESPM – São Paulo). Ph.D.
Candidate of the Postgraduate Program in International Management at ESPM.
E-mail: dessi@inwind.it
Mateus Canniatti Ponchio, Ph.D.

Ph.D. in Business from the Getulio Vargas Foundation São Paulo
Business School (FGV – EAESP). Professor of the Postgraduate Program in
International Management at the Higher School of Advertising and Marketing
of São Paulo (ESPM - São Paulo).
E-mail: mponchio@espm.br
Chapter 1
1. INTRODUCTION
Changes in the lifestyle of individuals of the western world have increased
the demand for convenience in meal preparation (Costa et al., 2007).
Consumer work more hours, spend more time in traffic and long to maximize
their leisure which has been increasingly limited; therefore they demand
products and services that facilitate and support their busy lifestyle (Olsen,
2010). As a reaction to this demand, the food industry has expanded their
options of ready meals (Geeroms et al., 2008).
In this context, the issue that characterizes this research is how do
lifestyles associated to eating habits influence the consumption of ready-to-eat
meals. To answer the question a study was conducted about the social
demographic and lifestyle characteristic associated to the consumption of
ready meals with samples of Brazilian consumers of the city of São Paulo and
Italians of the city of Rome.
A Vanhonacker et al. (2010) study with 4,828 people in six European
countries – Norway, Belgium, France, Spain, Italy and Poland - had the
intention of relating lifestyles with eating habits, considering the social
demographic characteristics, the attitudes and the consuming behavior of the
respondents. The study identified that the TFC – traditional food consumers –
are the middle-aged to seniors, concerned with health, feeding, ethnocentrism
and that are more connected to culinary traditions and the pleasure of cooking
more common in the south of Europe. Conversely, it is easier to find the
nontraditional food consumers in the countries of northern Europe and usually
they belong to younger age groups, have a higher level of education and are
single or live in smaller families. The vegetarian are more prone to belong to
this segment. They practice sports more frequently, what probably relates to
their younger age and greater concern with body weight. They also think that
2 Paulette Siekierski and Mateus Canniatti Ponchio
the practicality of the food justifies its costs having in mind that they are
convenience oriented, preferring food easier to buy, preserve, prepare, and
cook. On the other side a study from Askegaard and Madsen (1998)
individuals of the Germanic region were characterized as concerned with
health whereas the highlight given to Netherlands and Flanders was the
relatively traditional standards of eating and strong attitudes regarding what is
good or not. People from the regions of Brussels, Wallonia, and Luxembourg
distinguished themselves for signs of consuming food that come from a
sophisticated culture, appreciating eating out, and attributing great importance
to sensorial pleasure; a similar pattern was also found among the French.
According to what was verified in the studies of Darian and Klein (1989),
Candel (2001), Senauer (2001), Scholderer and Grunert (2005) and Frewer et
al. (2010), the concept of convenience may be applied to different
consumption dimensions: the characteristics inherent to the product itself, to
the process of purchase of the product, to the preparation and also the storage
process. The convenience foods are defined as any food, totally or partially
prepared in which the preparation time, the culinary skills or energetic input
were transferred from the homemaker’s kitchen to the processor and
distributor (Buckley et al., 2005).
Bae, Chae and Ryu (2010) undertook a study about the relation between
lifestyle and the attitude in the face of ready-to-eat food, and identified four
factors regarding this kind of meal: health orientation, taste, convenience and
tradition. Subsequently they held a cluster analysis in which were identified
two clusters aligned with what was found in literature and baptized as
“tradition” and “convenience”.
1.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE AND SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this work is to characterize the influence of
lifestyles on the eating habits of ready meals.
The specific objectives of this research are:
a) Analyze the influence of social demographic variables in the choice of

the ready- to-eat food product;
From the analysis of control variables such as gender, age, marital status,
number of people who live in the house, schooling level, type of family, type
of activity, responsibility for the purchase of food, number of monthly meals
Introduction 3
made with ready-to-eat food and net monthly income of the family, it is
expected to find patterns regarding the reasons that lead people to the choice
of ready meals. People who live alone usually prefer to buy a ready-to-eat
product than cooking only for them. A woman that works full-time is less
available for cooking therefore buys ready meals products because they are
convenient. She arrives home later, tired and with little time to prepare food.
Moreover, her purchasing power allows buying products that may be more
expensive.
b) Assess the importance of the factors of health, taste, convenience, and

tradition in consumption of ready meals;
The orientation to health, taste, convenience, and tradition will be assessed

so it is possible to verify if the consumption of ready meals is related to the
importance that the consumer gives to health and nutritional values of food
products, such as taste and quality, convenience and commodity that the
consumer has in not preparing the meals nor washing up, and tradition (Bae et
al., 2010 and Buckley et al., 2005). A person that is not concerned with not
gaining weight, for example, prefers to buy a food product with less calories,
such as “light” ready meals.
c) Compare eating habits of ready meals of consumers from São Paulo

and Rome.
Even living in different cultural environments, the behavior of individual

may be similar, according to lifestyles (Reid et al., 2001; Buckley et al., 2005;
Scholderer and Grunert, 2005). In this study were used variables that provide
subsidies for this comparison, such as the importance that Brazilians and
Italians give to health, taste, convenience, tradition, time pressure, stress
levels, ways in which they have meals, eating alone, time and method of
purchase, cooking skills, pleasure in preparation of food, washing the dishes,
discarding of ingredients, importance of the price, involvement level with the
convenience products, free time and methods of preparation.
1.2. JUSTIFICATIONS FOR THE STUDY

In the last ten years, the market for ready meals has increased a great deal.
In 2009 the RTE – ready to eat, market in Western Europe was estimated in
US$ 26,149.80 million, volume that would reach 3,745.7 million of kilograms,
having grown 4.3% (in value) and 3.1% (in volume) between 2008 and 2009
(DATAMONITOR, 2009). Namely, the ready meals global market had an
estimated value of US$ 66.3 billion in 2009, with a growth of 4.0% in value
over 2008, and a volume of 11.6 billion of kilograms in 2009, with a growth of
3.0% over 2008 (DATAMONITOR, 2009).
Buckley et al. (2005) believe that there exists a series of factors that
influence the demand for ready-to-eat food: aging of the population, change of
family structure, women’s participation in the workforce, more working hours,
consumer’s prosperity, a progress towards healthy eating, longing for new
experiences and individualism. Besides, a decrease in cooking skills, the
sharing of traditional meals, the desire to spend less time and effort in
activities connected to food, shopping, preparation, and cleaning of the food
also have impact on choice for convenient foods. Other social, economic and
demographic factors that influence this consumption increase, includes the
working hours, family size, level of income, perception of time pressure and
overload of roles (Darian and Tucci, 1992; Verlegh and Candel, 1999), in
addition to internal psychological factors, such as convenience orientation,
lifestyle related to food and lifestyle that leads to a eating option more or less
healthy (Candel, 2001; Ryan et al., 2002; Ryan et al., 2004; Buckley et al.,
2005; Scholderer and Grunert, 2005).
The small amount of academic works on the subject in Brazil is another
reason for the study. On the other side, the amount of articles in other
countries is significantly larger. This means that in Brazil there is room for
publications about the subject with an abundant source of information made
available through international database. In Brazil stands out the works of
Professor Dr. Marcia Dutra de Barcellos, who studies FRL - food related
lifestyle -, cross-cultural instrument developed by Professor Dr. Klaus G.
Grunert at MAPP (Centre for Research on Customer Relations in the Food
Sector – Aarhus University/Denmark). As an example, the author published
studies about lifestyles and obesity from data obtained from five European
countries (Péres-Cueto et al., 2010), and about trends in global food
consumption (Barcellos, 2009).
Even though the eating habits of the Europeans have been studied with
relative frequency, there are few studies carried out in Latin America.
Therefore, we hope to contribute to the literature of consumer behavior by
means of an empiric comparative study between Rome and São Paulo.
Introduction 5
1.3. METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURES

The methodological procedures are presented in details in chapter 3,
divided in six sections: methodological approach; presentation of the study
variables and the binding matrix; data collection instrument; research universe
and sampling plan; data collecting process; and validation of the scales used in
this study by a pre-test conducted with target population both in São Paulo and
in Rome.
The methodological approach is exploratory with a positivist paradigm.
The main theoretical models that inspired this study were: FRL instrument –
food related lifestyle (Reid et al., 2001; Brunso et al., 2004; Kesic et al., 2003;
Fang and Lee, 2009; Ryan et al., 2002; Ryan et al., 2004; Buckley et al., 2005;
Bae et al., 2010); RTE model – ready to eat (Bae et al., 2010); and lifestyle,
eating habits and convenience model (Buckley et al., 2005; Ryan et al., 2002;
Ryan et al., 2004; Scholderer and Grunert, 2005).
The presentation of the study variables was made from a binding matrix in
which are synthesized the used variables, their implementation, and the
questions that correspond to each variable.
The data collection instrument was developed in two sections of the
questionnaire: social demographic characteristics of the respondents and
lifestyles associated to the consumption of ready meals.
The universe of the research and the sampling plan initially defined that
the study would be made with 300 consumers of ready-to-eat meals in São
Paulo and 300 of such consumer from Rome. An email was sent to
approximately 600 people in each location, beside request that the email would
be sent to acquaintances and friends with the described characteristics. The
email contained links for the electronic version in Portuguese and Italian of the
data collection instrument. Were used 200 questionnaires from São Paulo and
155 from Rome.
The procedures for validations of the used scales were based on similar
studies that relate lifestyles and consumption of ready meals in several
countries.
1.4. STUDY STRUCTURE

This study comprises five parts: introduction, theoretical reference,
methodology, data analysis, and final considerations.
Chapter 1, Introduction, comprises four sections: general objective and

specific objectives, justifications for the study, methodological procedures,
and study structure.
Chapter 2, of Theoretical Reference, is divided in four parts: lifestyles;
multiculturalism; culture, lifestyles and eating habits; and relationship between
lifestyles and consumption of ready meals.
Chapter 3 describes the Methodology and elaborates through six steps, as
mentioned: methodological approach, presentation of study variables, data
collection instrument, universe of research and sampling plan, data collection
instrument, and validation of used scales in this study.
In Chapter 4 are presented the Data Analysis, in two parts. The first
characterizes the samples of São Paulo and Rome and both compared in terms
of the social demographic characteristics of the respondents. The second
interprets the results of both cities by comparing the orientations towards
health, taste, convenience, and tradition, according to the specific scales
presented in chapter 3.
Finally, in chapter 5, Final Considerations, are responded the specific
objectives proposed in the beginning of this dissertation, are discussed the
academic and managerial implications, the limitations, and are presented
proposals for future studies.
Chapter 2
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter proposal is to study the relation between lifestyles,
multiculturalism, eating habits and the consumptions of ready meals.
In the first section are presented the main concepts of lifestyles.
In the second section is presented a review about multiculturalism and
how consumer behavior is influenced by their lifestyle.
In the third section is presented an analysis regarding lifestyles, culture
and eating habits.
To conclude, in the fourth section lifestyles and consumption of ready
meals are related.
2.1. LIFESTYLES
Lifestyles are variables that depend on economical, social, nutritional,
educational, historical and climate factors. They are the result of the
globalization of the economies and worldwide trends, such as progress and
technological evolution. The consumer is situated at the centre of the agrifood
chain, formed by farmers, producers, industrials, traders, distributors, media
and State (Kotler and Keller, 2006; Hawkins et al., 2007; Solomon, 2010).
Both Kotler and Keller (2006); Blackwell (2001) define lifestyles as the
manner in which peoples spend their time and money. Sheth et al. (1999), in
turn, defines lifestyle as the way people live.
Considering these trends, according to Dias (2003), the lifestyle reflects
what people think of life and value in it, the way they act and behave in
general. Mowen et al. (1998) introduce the idea that the way of life of a group
of people and not only of one person. Therefore, in the same group it is
possible that values, tastes, and needs will be shared. Such definitions relate
directly to the concept of market segmentation, besides highlighting the social
aspect and the influence of social groups on the individual’s lifestyle.
The lifestyle research is of great importance for the mapping of
consumption preferences of the community, to position not only products and
specific services in different segments, but also understand consumer
behavior, such as those already existent and even wishes and needs.
Solomon (2010), reinforcing what was proposed by Mowen et al. (1998),
refers to lifestyle as a consumption pattern that reflects the choices of a person,
for example, how he spends his time and spends his money. From the
economical point of view, lifestyle represents the way selected to impute
income, not only in terms of allocation related to different products and
services, but as to alternatives in those categories.
For Hawkins et al. (2007), the lifestyle’s determinants are demographic
factors, sub-culture, social condition, motives, personality, emotions, life cycle
of household, culture and previous experiences. In turn, lifestyles determine
activities, interests, likes and dislikes, attitudes, consuming, expectations and
feelings.
A common element to these definitions is AIO – activities, interests and
opinions. Psychographic researches group consumers, according to the
combination of those three categories of variables. Examples of lifestyle
dimensions studied in psychographic researches are activities (work, hobbies,
social events, vacation, entertainment, club affiliation, community, shopping,
sport); interests (family, house, job, community, recreation, fashion, food,
media, accomplishments); options (their own, social issues, politics, business,
economy, education, products, future, culture); and demographic (age,
education, income, occupation, family size, housing, geography, size of city,
lifecycle stage) (Wells and Tigert, 1971). The AIO approach is one of the
more widely known approaches regarding the lifestyle and personality of
people.
According to Wells and Tigert (1971), the usage of psychographic
segmentation is used by Marketing professionals to define target-market,
create a new vision of the market, position the product, better communicate the
product’s attributes, develop a global strategy and position political and social
issues in the market.
Literature Review 9
2.1.1. Lifestyle and Social Conditions
Weber (2004) relates lifestyle to status groups, frame worked in

consumption levels. According to Weber (2005), classes are organized in
accordance to relations of production and purchase of goods, and the status in
accordance to the consumption principles of specific goods, to each lifestyle.
Lifestyles are the result of choices, and this happens due to the consumption
level, that represents an element that reinforces the connection between
sociological and market aspects of the lifestyles. Weber (2005) inserts two
elements that influence lifestyles: the first is the living possibility that limits
the individual’s choices belonging to each social class, the second element is
status itself, that is related to the consumption of specific goods of each
lifestyle.
Bourdieu (1984) reinforces the proposal of Weber (2004) and puts
forward that different social conditions lead to different lifestyles. Therefore,
there is a direct relation between social class and lifestyle. The author also
expresses the idea of personal tastes defining the choice for a particular
lifestyle. These would be limited by living possibilities and influenced by the
social group in which the individual is inserted. Frame 1 synthesizes the
proposal of Weber (2004) and Bordieu (1984).
Frame 1. Lifestyles and Social Conditions
Weber (2004) Two factors influence lifestyles: the first is the living
possibilities that limit the choices of the individuals that
belong to each social class; the second element is the status
that is related to the consumption of specific goods related
to each lifestyle.
Bordieu (1984) Reinforces Weber’s proposal and puts forward that the
different social conditions of classes lead to different
lifestyles. Lifestyles result of choice and personal taste of
individual limited by living possibilities and influenced by
the group in which the individual is inserted. Lifestyles are
made evident and observed through daily activities,
attitudes, values and the behavior of the individual.
Source: elaborated by the authors.
Rokeach (1973) proposes different kinds of values: personal, related to

accomplishment of personal goals; central, compatible between personal and
social goals; and social, related to collective interest. It is a theoretical model

that takes into consideration a relation between values and needs. The basic
values are defined as orientation categories of human needs and the conditions
to fulfill them. These values are classified as: survival, sexual, pleasure,
stimulation, emotion, personal stability, health, religiosity, social support,
social order, affectivity, convenience, success, prestige, power, maturity, self-
direction, privacy, social justice, honesty, tradition, obedience, knowledge and
beauty.
The LOV (list of values) model, also known as typology values of
Schwartz, was developed as an alternative to the VALS (values and lifestyles)
model, by the University of Michigan Survey Research Center in 1992. It is
based on the needs hierarchy of Maslow, however is more intimately related
with values such as marriage, child upbringing, work, leisure, daily
consumption, etc. (Kahle et al., 1986).
There are nine values that constitute LOV: self-respect, safety, warm
relationships with others, sense of fulfillment, self-accomplishment, the
feeling of belonging to a group, being well respected, fun and excitement.
These values may be worked on a grading approach according to which one
the researcher decides is the most important on his list (Tomanari, 2003; Kahle
et al., 1986).
The concept of values of LOV can be used in Social Sciences to
understand the behavior of consumer and comprehend how communication
media may influence human values.
In this study, it is possible to correlate items of the LOV scale. The higher
the correlation is between the values, such as self-accomplishment with safety,
more it will observe the influence that one has over the other. It should be
observed that the opposite correlation is also true. Following the tendency of
the study’s results verified by Kahle et al. (1986), Vyncke (2002) divides the
market in homogenous segments, with needs and desires that will lead to
similar purchase behaviors. The segmentation allows a better understanding of
the market whether at behavior level or distribution and organization. To
segment means find clusters of individuals and objects that share common
characteristics. Through segmentation, the intention is to find different groups
with homogenous characteristics. It helps to accomplish goals, objectives,
action and advertising policies adequate for these consumers.
Dias (2003, p. 23) reinforces the work of Vincke (2002), defining
segmentation as a path to how people think and live their lives. From
segmentation it is possible to study lifestyles, activities, interests, opinions and
values. (Dias, 2003; Kotler and Keller, 2006; Sheth et al., 1999).
Literature Review 11
2.1.2. Lifestyles and Psychological Profiles
Frame 2 synthesizes studies regarding lifestyles and psychological

profiles.
Frame 2. Lifestyles and Psychological Profiles
Wells and Psychological studies may define both lifestyles and product profiles.
Tigert (1971) They are used by Marketing professionals to define the target market,
to create a new vision of the market, position the product, to better
communicate the product’s attributes, develop a global strategy, and
place political and social issues in the market.
Rokeach Basic values are defined as categories of orientation of human needs
(1973) and the conditions to satisfy them. These values may be divided in
three criteria of orientation, each one subdivided in two psychosocial
functions: personal (experimentation and fulfillment), central
(existence and suprapersonal) and social (interaction and normative).
Mowen et al. Introduces the idea of lifestyle of a group of people instead of one
(1998) person only. Therefore, in this same group it is possible that values,
tastes, interests, and needs will be shared: “a group that shares the
same taste and values”; or “three different levels of people
aggregation”.
Kahle (1986); LOV values: self-respect, safety, warm relationships with other, sense
Tomanari of fulfillments, self-accomplishment, the feeling of belonging to a
(2003) group, being well respected, fun, and excitement. These values may
be worked on a grading approach according to which one the
researcher decides is the most important on his list.
Blackwell et al. Define lifestyles as “how people spend their time and money”,
(2001) besides putting social demographic variables as part of a lifestyle
construct.
Sheth et al. Define lifestyles as “the way people live”.
(1999)
Vyncke (2002) Segment the market means to divide the total market into
homogenous segments, with needs and wishes that will lead to similar
purchase behaviors.
Dias (2003) Lifestyle reflects what people think and value in life, the way they act
and general behavior.
Kotler and Lifestyle represents their standard of living, which is expressed by
Keller (2006) their activities, interests, and opinions. Portrays how the person
interacts with his environment. It is the living standard of a person
expressed in terms of activities, interests and opinions.
Plummer (1974) studies lifestyles standards based on the behavior of

people, on their feelings, attitudes, and opinions, causing them to reflect into
behavior profiles and attitudes. From some of the result of studies of Plummer
(1974), Grunert et al. (1993) use methods of data reduction with multivariate
analysis, such as factorial analyzes and multidimensional grading to analyze
group of researched data related to the lifestyle of samples from different
countries, and therefore observe how they influence their eating habits.
Lambin (1998), on the other side, presents a psychographic analysis
methodology to assess lifestyle profiles that consists in defining a set of
propositions and testing them. Whereas Wansink and Park (2000a) conducted
a study about the personality and lifestyle, variables used to differentiate
preferences for soups. People that had active lifestyles, for example enjoying
staying outdoors, getting in shape, loving to work and being socially active
preferred soups with vegetables. People with a family sense that dedicate
themselves a great deal to their families, attend church, and are very traditional
preferred soup with chicken and noodles. Homey people that like to be alone,
cook well and like pets preferred tomato soup. People with intellectual
stimulated hobbies, such as experts in technology, that travel around the world
and love books preferred onion soup. Mentally alert people like intellectuals,
sophisticated, creative, meticulous, witty and that consider nutrition important
preferred soup with clams and vegetables. Social people that like to have fun
at parties are extroverted, not shy, and spontaneous and trendsetters preferred
soups with chili. People that are athletic, practice sports, competitive and
adventurous preferred creamy soups, and free people, with their feet on the
ground, affectionate, fun and optimistic preferred minestrones.
The methodology used in the study from Wansink and Park (2000a) was
clustering, differentiating several user profiles and relating five basic lifestyle
factors (alert, social, carefree, athletic, and stubborn) with six personality
factors (active, witty, homey, with hobbies, lover of television and lover of
animals). There were interviewed 1003 North Americans (602 women and 401
men) between 18 and 72 years old, by telephone, in June of 1999. In the
comparison of means method, the consumers were categorized in three user
groups: high (38% consumed soup more than once a week), average (47%
consumed soup more than once a month), and low utilization (15% consumed
soup once a month). Besides that, users of the average group were compared
among themselves. This research was carried out considering the lifestyle and
personality characteristics. The users with high means had the characteristic of
being socially active, creative, optimists, witty and less stubborn than the non-
users. Even though the high and low users had been compared using 34
characteristics (14 referring to lifestyles and 20 referring to personality), only

three characteristics (high, average and low users) differentiated these two
groups (lifestyle and personality) (Wansink and Park, 2000a).
According to Solomon (2010), the food culture reflects the values of a
social group. In addition, because these values vary, the food industries find it
difficult to standardize their recipes. Preferences are due to taste, traditions,
and the importance given to health. For example, in China, Cadbury
Schweppes PLC produces their chocolate with less milk and less sugar than in
the United Kingdom. This happens so the company may adapt their product to
the low consumption of dairy products followed by the majority.
of the Chinese. On the other hand, Kraft Foods advertises the fact that
they add calcium to the Ritz Crackers, supporting the government’s campaign
to increase its consumption by the population. Unilever reduced the size of the
Magnum’s ice cream bar with chocolate frosting in China, because they are
more concerned with health than the Europeans are, and due to this factor,
resisted to buy the larger one. In Brazil, chocolates, candies, sweet in general
besides soft drinks have more sugar because the Brazilians prefer them to be
sweeter.
An analysis of the eating culture of 15 European countries revealed 12
different cultures, many of which circumscribed by national and linguistic
frontiers. The cultures of France, France / Switzerland, Wallonia (South
Belgium, where French is spoken) are characterized, among other things, by
the importance given to sensorial pleasure and for the elevated consumption of
red wine. The Germanic group culture presents a high level of concern with
health. The Greek and Portuguese food cultures have standards that are
relatively traditional, with a fascination for new global foods. The Norwegian
and Danish culture are unique in their acceptance for convenience products
(the Danish are also famous for their passion for beer); and the British and
Irish are famous for their appreciation for sweets and tea (Askegaard and
Madsen, 1998; Solomon, 2010).
2.1.3. Lifestyles and Consumption Habits
Frame 3, synthesizes the ideas proposed in some studies about lifestyles

and consumption habits.
The study of lifestyles is of great importance to the understanding of
eating habits. There are complementarities among the quoted authors and the
ones that study segmentation through lifestyles. Based on the theories of
international consumer behavior that are based on lifestyles besides

multiculturalism, Marketing may answer to the necessities of its target market
and even predicts market trends.
Frame 3. Lifestyles and Consumption Habits
Plummer (1974) Lifestyle patterns are based on the behavior of people,

their feelings, attitudes, and opinions, leading these to
reflect on behavioral profiles and attitudes.
Grunert et al. (1993) Similar lifestyles lead to similar behaviors towards
eating habits – FRL
Lambin (1998) Presents a psychographic analysis methodology to
assess lifestyles profiles which consists in defining a set
of propositions such as the quality of the product.
Matters concerning similar lifestyles are presented in a
scale pattern with five categories – Likert.
Wansink and Park Conducted a study about personality and lifestyle
(2000a); Wansink and variables used to differentiate preferences on soups.
Park (2000b) People with similar lifestyles had the same preferences
on soups.
Hawkins et al. (2007) Basically, lifestyle is how a person lives. It is how an
individual represents their self-image and is determined
by previous experiences, innate characteristics, and
current situation. Lifestyle influences consumption
habits and is a function of their individual characteristics
that are formed through social interaction.
Solomon (2010) Lifestyle refers to a consumption pattern, which in turn
reflects the choices of a person, how he spends his time
and spends money. Food culture reflects the values of a
social group.
2.2. MULTICULTURALISM
Culture is a complex that includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws,
costumes and other skills and habits acquired by man as a member of a
society. In this last meaning, corresponds to the manner in which people
organize themselves, and the transmission of costumes and traditions through
generations, that by common experiences and traditions presents themselves as
the identity of these people (Featherston, 1990).
According to Paschini (2006, p. 43), the word culture “has origin in Social
Anthropology and that in an overall way and broad sense translates the
experiences of any human group that is transmitted from generation to
generation”.
Culture is a mental programming, in other words, the mind’s software,
produced at social environment in which the person grows and acquires his
experiences. He considers that this collective mind programming is what
distinguishes the members of a group or category from people belonging to
another one (Hofstede, 1991).
To Linton (1945, p. 31)
Culture is the way of life in any society. This way of life includes
several conduct details, but all of them have certain factors in common.
All represent the normal and anticipated reaction of any member of the
society to a specific situation.
According to Hawkins et al. (2007), in response to the quick expansion of

international Marketing, several attempts have been made on the development
of lifestyles measuring that are applicable to all cultures.
For De Mooji (1998, p. 2),”cultural values are the roots to consumer
behavior, the understanding of cultural influence being required by those that
intend to be successful on the global market”.
In accordance to the same line of thought of the works developed by
Hofstede (1991); De Mooji (1998), Arnould et al. (2003) verified that for a
communication about products and services to be successfully done, it must
express the cultural principles that interferes on the decision of purchase of a
certain social group.
Through some results of the studies from Hofstede (1991), De Mooji
(1998) concluded that an advertisement with a global approach is not the ideal,
considering that different values require specific communication actions. For
example, the communication even being global, must respect specific local
diversities. However, even in face of the universalization of some consumption
habits, the globalization times were not able to neutralize the consumption of
wine by the French, of pasta by the Italians, the tea ritual of the Japanese, the
perfectionism obsession of the German, the competitive spirit of the North
Americans, the punctuality of the British, the discretion of the Swiss, the
soccer of Brazilians, the Iranian fundamentalism, the Buddhism fervor of the
Thai. All these identity tracts are authentic and legitimate expressions of
culture in different depth levels, embracing values, symbols, rituals, and
heroes. The multicultural study proposes itself to reveal a set of values, styles,
and ways of thinking and even interacting of social groups (Ortiz, 2008).
National culture is the identity of a country, of a people, of a nation. It is
the reflection of its history, economy, social, and educational politics.
However small the schooling of a person is, he will always have his cultural
heritage that identifies and differentiates him. The behavior of the international
consumer, as well as the global Marketing, is part of the individual and
collective national culture that is usually related both directly and indirectly.
Understanding this connection leads to affecting more adequate as well as
complete manners of researching and working in the academic and business
environment the issue of culture (Solomon, 2010).
Cultural and ethnic diversity is many times seen as a threat to the identity
of the nation. In some places, multiculturalism causes contempt and
indifference, such as in Canada among habitants speaker of French and
English (Harzing and Neyer, 2008).
Another example of multicultural study is the manner in which the work is
faced. In the North American society, working does not have a negative
connotation, considering that for the majority of them it is seen as a way to
have their own place, and their house chores considering the work involved,
takes in account the tasks that must be accomplished. However, in Brazil,
work is seen from a general perspective as a sacrifice.
This context is important for the understanding of habits and needs of each
people. Thereby, eating, in a western society does not simply mean to eat, but
also buying, preparing and consuming at home or not, as well as doing the
dishes (Reid et al., 2001). According to the lifestyle, culture, the moment in
which the meal is eaten, and the situation that the consumer is going through,
eating may imply in pleasure or sacrifice even being a vital necessity.
A civilization promotes a cultural standard without necessarily

involving the standardizing of all people. A globalized culture secretly
also has a pattern in which I would qualify as worldwide modernism. Its
amplitude certainly involves other manifestations, but, most importantly,
it possesses a specificity, founding a new way to be in the world,
establishing new values and legitimacies. (Ortiz, 1994, p. 34).
Ortiz (1994) makes a distinction between the use of the terms “global” and
“worldwide”. To the author, “global” is linked to “economical and
technological processes, and “worldwide” to “specific domain of culture.” The
“worldwide” category is therefore attached to two other dimensions: to the
globalization movement and to a set of symbols that express the specific

universe of the present civilization.
For Solomon (2010), the consumption choices cannot simply be
understood without considering the cultural context in which they were made.
More than that: culture represents the way that people perceive the product.
For this reason, culture consists of one of the more complex and attractive
facets in the discussion of the globalization process. In addition, is part of the
complex relationship that exists between culture, globalization, and
international Marketing.
Hofstede (1980) developed one of the most comprehensive studies about
how households of workforce are influenced by culture. This study was
conducted with IBM employees between 1967 and 1973, covering more than
70 countries, with scales from 0 to 100. This research was carried out through
116,000 questionnaires about work related to value standards of IBM’s own
employees. The respondents informed age, gender, and occupation in different
times. The statistical technique used in this research was cluster analysis. The
studies of Hofstede (1980) were of significant contribution to the advance of
social psychology. There were identified four cultural variation dimensions
and it was found that people may start to not behave in compliance with what
was expected, in other words, going against the culture of their social group.
This finding provided enough reliability to affirm that the consumer’s behavior
and his perceptions also vary as a result of the differences in cultural values.
Since 2001 exists a list of 74 countries where are compared five cultural
dimensions that differentiate all those cultures of one another. Those five
cultural dimensions may be correlated and compared among countries or
group of countries, and can be found at the site The Hofstede Model – cultural
dimensions (Hofstede, 1991).
The cultural variation dimensions identified by Hofstede (1980) were as
follows:
a) Distance from Power, also called Hierarchical Distance - a measure of

how the less powerful members of a civilization accept and expect
unequal distribution of power in society. It is measured through the
value systems of those that have less power. Superiors and
subordinates do not consider themselves as equals by nature, when it
is comes to a context of great hierarchic distance.
b) Collectivism versus Individualism - means that collectivist societies
are those in which the interest of the group prevails over the interest
of the individual. In individualist societies, on the other hand, the
interest of the individual prevails over the interest of the group. Thus,
individualism is in opposition to collectivism.
c) Femininity versus Masculinity - means that femininity is a measure of
how much of the feminine tasks and characteristics are shared by the
men of a society. Men and women in approximately the same
numbers constitute every human society. Concerning roles in
reproduction, men and women are biologically different in absolute
terms. Other physical differences are statistical in relative terms. The
male and female adjectives, according to the author, are used in a
relative sense, referring to the social role determined by the culture. In
his understanding, the masculinity / femininity dimension is about
how society encourages and rewards behavior characterized by
masculine and feminine adjectives and the division of work related to
gender.
d) Uncertainty Control - analysis the how anxious people feel when
facing unexpected or uncertain situations. It is how a society reduces
the uncertainty caused by the use of social inventions in face of
unknown situations.
e) Long Term Orientation – LTO – or Perseverance versus Tradition -
this fifth dimension was added in a second phase after Hofstede
having conducted a study with Chinese employees and managers.
This index refers to how much a society is oriented towards short and
long term actions. High values may be associated with perseverance,
low values with tradition.
In Brazil, Hofstede’s five dimensions are quite similar to the ones of their
Latin American neighbors. Of those, the highest one is Uncertainty Control,
what means that the rules are very severe, and this helps to eliminate the
unexpected and the unknown. A consequence of this is that the Brazilian
society does not like changes or risks, therefore does not easily accept
changes. The smallest of the five dimensions is Collectivism versus
Individualism (even if it is superior to the average Individualism of Latin
American countries). Latin American countries are considered Collectivists.
This reflects in close family ties, classical in Collectivist cultures, where
loyalty is fundamental.
According to Hofstede (1991), there is a direct relationship between
consumption purchases and cultural values, considering that culture influences
both directly and indirectly human behavior. The linking of culture and human
behavior is evident. It is important to correlate the purchase behavior of the

consumer with his culture.
The model of the decision process of the consumer and its results, such as
verified by Hofstede and Mooji (2010), describes the path followed by the
buyer from the moment he recognizes the need to purchase, the search for
internal and external information, the assessment of purchase alternatives, the
purchase itself and its results (Engel et al., 1995).
Hofstede and Mooji (2010) followed the same trend of ideas developed by
Engel et al. (1995) when they studied that the multicultural societies have as a
challenge finding relationship zones between the different cultures so that
pacific coexistence, without oppression, is possible. Societies, therefore,
achieve a respectful coexistence among different people, creating
interculturalism. This is a worldwide challenge that varies according to
contexts. There is a direct relationship between consumption purchases and
cultural values considering that culture influences directly and indirectly
human behavior. The link of culture and consumer behavior is evident. It is
important to correlate the purchase behavior of the consumer with his culture.
The study of culture to understand the global versus local dilemma, makes
it possible for advertising to standardize itself in order to adapt to local habits.
Above all culture values are seen as part of the consumer. These define the ego
and the personality of the consumers. Under this scenario, it becomes
necessary to distinguish the social and mental processes. The mental processes
are the way that people think, learn, perceive, categorize, and process the
information. The social processes, on the other side, analyze how people relate
with each other, including their motivations and emotions. Both processes
affect mass as well as interpersonal communications that in turn, affect the
advertising resources and styles. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that the
choice for a kind of communication and advertisement is a consequence of the
study of a certain culture and of multicultural studies (cross cultural and cross
country studies) (Hofstede and Mooji, 2010).
Cultural models define basic problems patterns such as the relationship
between authorities, personal issues, etc. Even though they may seem similar,
they change from country to country. This is just why methodology
differences can lead to various results in the researches. These differences are
a consequence of several desires that in turn are part of each individual culture
and their life’s habits. Advertising in this context calls on to these desires.
Therefore, it is evident that also exists a comparison between different models
that aim to measure the cultural distance to an eventual international
Marketing strategy.
Companies that have global brands must be coherent with their messages
throughout the world, because the consumers attribute personalities to these
brands that fit into their own cultural values. Thereby it is necessary an
investigation to discover the several personalities, from brand to brand, as well
as the personality of the consumer and preferences among cultures. There is
also a coherence need between preferences for the standardizing of global
Marketing strategies that aim on one side to standardize their products, brands,
communication, and finally, their advertising. On the other side, they must
respect the differences in each culture. The challenge is thus to conciliate
globalization with the specifics of each culture (Zou and Cavusgil, 2002).
Ortiz (1994) highlights that the formation of a globalized culture does not
involve the annihilation of other cultural manifestations. There is a notion that
the world has become a platitude, where everybody interacts and the contacts
are maximized to the point of forming a network of meanings able to be
understood and lived by all cultures.
The homogenizing process of culture, the project of creating a

common culture, must be understood as a process of the need to ignore or
at best, to refine, synthesize and blend different places. The fundament is
not the elimination of differences, the traces of regional and local ethnic
affiliations, but the perception of the right of the State to act this way, the
fact that such bonds are retrograde, off-course and need to be neutralized
through education and civilizing processes (Featherstone, 1990, p. 142).
The homogenizing of culture does not mean the disappearance of

differences in habits, and consumption needs of local cultures, but quite the
contrary, there is observed a presence of heterogeneity of products, ideas,
images, possibilities brought by the increase of flow between cultures. Local
cultures will never be mass-oriented with the arrival of new cultures.
According to Geertz (1978), the exchanges between cultures are not
capable of making identical certain distinct cultures. What happens at the
exchange moment is an understanding of the world as a whole, what reflects at
the globalization of certain aspects of a particular culture. For example, the
marriage of people with different religions, each one may accept a companion
with a religion other than his without losing cultural and religious traditions.
In Brazil, descendants of immigrants with diverse cultures manage to live
and integrate in a pacific manner, keeping their traditions, unlike what happens
in several countries, where there are problems due to xenophobia and the lack
of flexibility in acceptance of cultural, ethnic, and religious diversity.
Featherston (1990) highlights that cultural globalization does not merely

refer to generalization, because it is also capable of diversifying.
2.2.1. Global Culture and Diversification
Frame 4 shows the chronologic evolution of what researchers think about

multiculturalism.
Frame 4. Global Culture and Diversification
Any society’s way of life. Includes conduct details of a normal

Linton (1945)
reaction to a particular situation.
Exchanges are not capable of making distinct cultures into identical
ones. What happens at the exchange moment is an understanding of
Geertz (1978)
how the world is a whole what reflects at the globalization of
culture.
Featherson Highlights that cultural globalization does not refer to
(1990) generalization, because is also capable of diversifying.
Identified five dimensions of culture variables: Distance from
Power, Collectivism versus Individualism, Femininity versus
Hofstede (1991) Masculinity, Uncertainty Control, Perseverance versus Tradition. It
concludes that people may think and behave in opposition to what
would be expected, contrarily to the culture of their social group.
The consumer’s decision begins at the recognition of his purchase
Engel et al.
need, search for information, alternatives assessment, purchase, and
(1995)
its results.
There is a direct relation between consumptions purchases and
cultural values. Multicultural societies find relationship zones to
De Mooji (1998)
obtain pacific coexistence through interculturality. Hofstede also
developed this idea.
Feeding does not only mean eating, but is a behavior that reflects a
Reid et al. (2001)
certain culture.
The greatest challenge faced by companies that become
Zou and
international is to reconcile globalization with the specificity of
Cavusgil (2002)
each culture.
For an efficient communication about products and services, it
Arnould et al.
must express cultural principles that interfere at the purchase
(2003)
decision of a certain social group.
Culture is the experience of a certain social group that is
Paschini (2006)
transmitted from generation to generation.
Hawkins et al.
International Marketing relates lifestyles applicable to all cultures.
(2007)
Frame 4. (Continued)
Harzing and Cultural and ethnic diversity many times might be seen as a threat
Neyer (2008) to the nation’s identity.
Multicultural study involves a set of values, styles, ways of
Ortiz (1994)
thinking, and interacting of social groups.
Studying the behavior of the international consumer, as well as the
global Marketing, is done through individual and collective
Solomon (2010) national cultures that are usually related. Understanding this
connection leads to effecting academic and companies’ work at
culture matter.
Studying multiculturalism is important for the understanding of eating

habits, once it determines the behavior of people towards food. Religion for
example, is part of culture and influences both directly and indirectly eating
habits of populations. The greatest difference among lifestyle and culture
concepts is that the preferences of people vary with time such as the
consumption pattern (Engel, 1995 and Lambin, 1995) while cultural values
are an integral part of the consumer (Hofstede, 1991 and Featherston, 1990).
2.3. LIFESTYLES, CULTURE AND EATING HABITS

Food consumption is not restricted simply to economic reasons. Even
though this is an important factor in a world, in which inequalities are
degrading, the consumers adjust and readjust their purchases according to
price fluctuation of products usually acquired. If the manufacturer increased
the price of a product, a cheaper product will replace it.
According to Wright et al. (2001), eating is important not only as a source
of food but also for the commercial and cultural development between nations.
Since ancient times food preferences were closely connected to cultural
development. As consumers became wealthier, eating was not limited to
physiological needs, but was expanded to the satisfaction of social and
psychological requirements molded by the nations to which they belong.
Geographic, historic, and economical contexts of a culture directly
influence food preferences. Countries like Greece, for example, were
traditionally open to many influences, while others like Great Britain were
more isolated. Some countries, such as China cover vast areas, therefore
displaying a large-scale of regional diversity. In Europe’s case, due to its
conquests, colonies, foreign invaders, as the crusaders, were brought a

repertoire of spices and exotic foods. Many European elites also benefited
from the novelties that the European conquerors took in from Asia, like pasta
that later on was improved in Italy, or even tea in Great Britain (Askegaard et
al., 1993).
Besides, phenomena as technical and scientific development also act upon
certain populations and alter pre-existent patterns. Wright et al. (2001), about
this aspect, in their study analyzed how during the Industrial Revolution the
landscape of Great Britain was changed, and small farmers became rare. This
means that the tendency to industrialize food would happen more quickly in
detriment to natural food products, as it happened in France for example.
Religion may also play an important role in food preferences. While
protestant ethics gave Great Britain a considerable impulse towards Industrial
Revolution, with their emphasis to hard work and the creation of wealth and
self-accomplishment, in Mediterranean and catholic France there was the
influence of social development. The food began to be thought as something to
keep strength instead of plainly being something to be cooked. The French
chefs turned their attention to the creation of dishes based on meat, more
delicate and complex than in England, where taste of food was concentrated at
the simple production of roast meat. The French kept stronger ties to the
country life in order to supply fresh products from the fields. Besides, the
preparation process and ingestion of food were considered a very important
ritual.
Bordieu (1984) attached to food consumption a cultural phenomena.
Countries that joined the industrialization process in the Mediterranean and
Middle East later on, also tended to maintain the influences of rural life and
traditions. There are for example strong cultural differences between the
Chinese, Greek, French, and British traditions.
In countries where family ties seem more significant, with greater
emphasis towards family, more significance is given to food. In China,
Confucius’ teachings give enormous importance to obedience, authority, and
to a good familiar relationship, therefore eating out with family and friends is
an essential part of creating informal relationships. With its hierarchical
systems, China still is an economy of planning and control, in which
endogenous control concepts and the flavors of food are deeply rooted, even
though there is a desire for imported foods in their commercialized areas. In
Greece’s case, both family and community ties are very strong. To the Greek
Orthodox culture it is fundamental the importance given to food and drinking.
According to Jain (1993), eating is an act of socialization and the refusal

of any hospitable act, including meal sharing, is an insult in certain cultures, as
in the Arab countries.
For Wright et al. (2001), in Europe, as in the USA, there is a high
incidence of divorces and family disaggregation, what leads to sharing in
family meals on formal occasions with great frequency. This gives everyone
an opportunity to have their own preferences regarding food prevail, in
particular to the younger ones, due to the fact that these may be different of
those in the old traditional meals.
Besides observing family ties, social status also represents an important
data. Bordieu (1984), in observance to this, says that the way of eating
distinguishes the bourgeoisie from the other social classes. The taste for food
is shaped by childhood experiences or family standards. The author assigns to
the working class the fondness for sweets, filling and fatty food. Such
tendency came from need, absence of choice, and the enjoyment of feeling
complete. The idea of taste itself is a middle class concept, once it presupposes
the liberty to choose, while the less favored classes may only have food flavor
preferences and an association of everything that is stodgy, thick and with fat.
The contemporary taste in food exemplifies the post-modern condition of
eclecticism, fragmentation, recycling and lifestyles.
In accordance to Wright et al. (2001), even though the food flavor
preferences constitute only a small portion related to all cultural products, the
importance of food to national culture cannot be denied. The societies are
becoming more multicultural, and the markets more global. Global brands and
modern ways of distribution and transport are significant to the large cities’
supermarkets. These same supermarkets have growing stocks of a large variety
of products that come from many parts of the globe. The consumer lives in
societies that have recipes that have been created by different cultures and
regions of the world. In addition, the competitiveness between the producers
and distributors also contributes to diversify the kinds of food products at
retailers. Therefore, it is possible for example to find certain ingredients such
as balsamic vinegar or dried tomatoes at dizzying speed, even in regions in
which they are not traditionally produced. Distance and opposed seasonal
products no longer represent an obstacle to the commercialization of food
products. Nowadays, in the majority of supermarkets, it is possible to find
winter products during summertime, and vice versa. Formerly only alcoholic
beverages, like wine and not easily perishable foods, like spices, chocolate,
cookies and long-shelf-life products had become international. Today, it has
also become a reality fresh and perishable products like cheeses, dairy, fruits,
even meat, thanks to the conservation and packaging methods, and to

quickness in transportation, distribution channels and logistics.
Still other tendencies can be observed. Great Britain for instance, has a
connection to the Caribbean regarding the elevated consumption of sugar. In
the Western contemporary societies, sweetness suggests excessive self-
indulgence, insalubrities, teeth decay, and obesity. Besides, body control is a
distinctive feature of middle class. For this reason, women that weigh more go
from a high-class category to an inferior one in the cultural understanding of
certain societies (Jain, 1993).
From the tendencies developed in the studies of Jain (1993), Wright et al.
(2001) define food flavor preferences as only a small part in the relationship
with other cultural products. The importance of foods to the national culture of
countries cannot be denied.
The societies are more multicultural and the markets more global. In the
past, being “fat” meant abundance and a high social class, therefore meaning
beauty and health. In fact, the majority of paintings of the Renaissance period
portrayed fat women as beautiful ones. Nowadays, beauty does not mean
being fat. In truth, people relate fat with lack of health that is why dietary or
light products are highly sought at retails, as well as being more expensive.
Reid et al. (2001) define global Marketing as a competitive environment
in which traders must increasingly understand and follow the mechanism of
the changes in attitudes and behavior of consumers related to foods. This
knowledge is essential to the conception and adaptation of Marketing
strategies that create a consumer centered focus. In 1993 a FRL – food related
lifestyle - study was conducted, comparing the eating habits of Australia,
Singapore, France, Great Britain and Denmark.
The subject area was an analysis of the global environment of food
Marketing in which there is a great international competition. There was an
attempt to create mechanisms for a better understanding of the consumers’
attitudes of those five countries. The work studied their lifestyles - and how it
affects their eating habits - by comparing consumer behavior from the above-
mentioned countries, within the limits of a cross-cultural perspective.
The results indicate a global matter: consumers of the entire world are
changing the way they interact with foods. Several lifestyles are forcing to
review relationships with food, and as the trio: food, consumption, and
behavior might be analyzed.
2.3.1. Cognitive Structures Model for FRL – Food Related

Lifestyle
According to Reid et al. (2001), the FRL – food related lifestyle – is a

transcultural instrument that measures the attitudes of consumers related to the
purchase, preparation, and consumption of food products. The lifestyle related
to food instrument shows how people usually choose the food to carry out
values. This instrument was developed by MAPP – Centre for Research on
Customer Relations in the Food Sector at The Aarhus School of Business –,
from Denmark, and has as Director, Professor Dr. Klaus G. Grunert. It is
presently one of the most used in researches about lifestyles and eating habits.
The model is formed by five areas that relate values with attributes of the
food products:
a) Ways of Shopping
Importance of product information, attitude towards advertising, joy
of shopping, use of specialty shops, price criteria, use of shopping list.
b) Cooking Methods
Involvement with cooking, looking for new ways, convenience,
family involvement, spontaneity, woman´s task.
c) Quality Aspects
Health, price-quality relationship, novelty, organic products, tastiness,
freshness
d) Consumption Situations
Snacks versus meals, social event
e) Purchasing Motives
Self-fulfillment, security, social relationships.
Source: Reid et al., 2001, p. 64.
Figure 1 presents the model used to outline relevant parts of the

consumer’s cognitive structure and how these parts contribute to the
connection that links consumer values and the consumption of food products.
The boxes indicate groups of cognitive categories, and the lines the
associations between them.
Source: Reid et al., 2001, p.65.
Figure 1. Cognitive Structures Model for Food-Related Lifestyles – FRL.
The author presented through this model characteristics of the FRL

methodology – food related lifestyles –and how it is applied to the research by
using a questionnaire with 69 items, consisting of 23 dimensions, divided in 5
areas of the FRL mentioned above: ways of shopping, cooking methods,
quality aspects, consumption situations, and purchasing motives, each
measured in three items. All of the items are classified in scales of 7 Likert
points. The questionnaire also includes a series of questions regarding social
demographic data. The FRL instrument was tested in Europe (Denmark,
France and Great Britain) (Brunso et al., 1996), in Australia and in Singapore
(Askegaard and Madsen, 1998). These studies had the main purpose of
collecting data that allow a better understanding about the consumers of food
in those countries, about the manner in which they employ food products in
order to fulfill life values.
It was subsequently validated in researches with national
representativeness in several countries. A series of studies were conducted in
Australia, Singapore, France, Germany, and Denmark about the consumer’s
behavior related to food products based on lifestyles and eating (Reid et al.,
2001); in Spain and Germany (Brunso et al., 2004); in Croatia (Kesic et al.,
2003); in Taiwan (Fang and Lee, 2009); in Republic of Ireland (Ryan et al.,
2002); in Great Britain (Buckley et al., 2005); in South Korea (Bae et al.,
2010); in Great Britain and in France (Scholderer and Grunert, 2005).
A Vanhonacker et al. (2010) study with 4,828 people, in six European
countries – Norway, Belgium, France, Spain, Italy and Poland – had the
intention of relating lifestyles with eating habits considering social
demographic characteristics, attitudes and consumption behavior of the
respondents. It identified that the TFC – traditional food consumers – are
middle-aged to senior citizens, concerned with health, eating, ethnocentrism,
that are connected to culinary traditions and the pleasure of cooking, more
common in Southern Europe. The nontraditional food consumers are more
easily founding the North European countries, and usually belong to younger
age groups, with a higher level of education, single or that live aggregated to
smaller families. Vegetarian are more likely to belong to this segment. They
practice sports more frequently, what is probably related to their younger age
and greater concern with body weight. They also think that the practicality of
the food justifies its costs, once that they are convenience oriented, preferring
food that are easy to buy, conserve, prepare and cook. In a Askegaard and
Madsen (1998) study individuals of the Germanic region were characterized
and concerned with health, in turn, the highlight of the Netherlands and
Flanders individuals was the relatively traditional pattern of eating and strong
attitudes, regarding what is or not is good. Those from Brussels, Wallonia, and
Luxembourg distinguished themselves for signs of consuming food that come
from a sophisticated culture, appreciate eating out, and give great importance
to sensorial pleasure. A similar pattern was also found between the French.
Following the same line of results of this research, Guerrero et al. (2009)
concluded that the rural population and those with less formal education have
more interest in TFP – traditional food products. On the other hand, people
who live in urban centers and that lead a busier life, due to work or studying,
are not part of TFC. Homemakers are portrayed in literature as consumers of
traditional foods. The TFC have very conservative eating habits, keeping
culinary customs throughout generations. Consumers of traditional foods are
also considered people that worry about their health.
Lengardt et al. (2008) confirm the conclusions drawn by Vanhonacker et
al. (2010); Guerrero et al. (2009) related to the little importance given to the
food’s price, in the case of traditional products in France, Poland and Norway.
The TFC also are characterized by the great value attributed to flavor and
originality of food products. This means that to TFC the cost of the product is
not an important attribute on the moment of purchase.
With the same thought in mind, Shimp and Sharma (1987) study
ethnocentrism and the preference of TFC for national products instead of
foreign ones. It was also verified that some countries are more heterogeneous
than others are, what indicates strong local characteristics. Individuals of the
same regions distinguish themselves from the other countries, such as Bayern,
Vienna, or the French speaking part of Switzerland. By itself, this represents a
reason for aspects of regional consuming patterns not to be seen as
international consuming patterns (Brunso et al., 1996).
The differences found between European food cultures hardly means that
there has not occurred fundamental changes. Instead, they could be considered
as an expression of changing processes than do not limit to follow the
homogenization trends due to globalization.
Regarding this matter, James (1996) presently indicates four arguments
about food in the British society:
a) The first is about the global offer of food from homogenous products
and the consumption of standards exemplified by multinational fast
food chains, Coca-Cola, and other brands. May be consumed in the
country of origin as well as in any other place.
b) The second represents “expatriated foods”, the search of authenticity,
for example, Provence, Tuscany and other foreign cuisines. In these
places, what is consumed is symbolically the foreign lifestyle and
images that claim authenticity and tradition.
c) A third argument is nostalgia, what is close to what could be called a
search of the culinary roots.
d) The fourth and last food argument is discussed by James as
creolization: the combination of several foods with many cultural
patterns (ingredients, preparation methods, seasonings, combinations,
etc.) according to the possibilities. However, as underlined by James,
it represents more than simple or utilitarian, it is an accident of
history. It is a new English mark. Creolization far from being an
intrusion in some stable configuration of an original culture, it is the
way that new ingredients always find to get into local eating cultures,
and of the conditions of these traditional attitudes.
To better understand the theory of James (1996), it is enough to think of

the implications of the discovery by the new world to what is now considered
authentically Italian (tomato) and Irish (potatoes) in cooking. There is a higher
degree of homogenization in Central and Northern Europe, what does not
necessarily reflect any movement towards a homogenous and shared food

culture; it may however be interpreted as a predominance of a trend like
globalization, represented by James’ four above-mentioned arguments about
food. If the interactive process is the indication of such, a greater impact in
Central and Northern Europe is not so much caused by an advanced
homogenization phase and globalization process. On the contrary, it reflects a
difference in the participation level of exchanges on the international food
market and the ones in infrastructure and distribution, becoming necessary the
accessibility to information and products – exactly what all four arguments
disseminate, more in these areas than in others (Brunso et al., 1996).
2.4. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIFESTYLES

AND CONSUMPTION OF READY MEALS
According to DataMonitor (2009), the market of ready meals is divided

into four families:
a) Frozen Ready Meals

Have a validity period of 3 to 6 months, and must be kept in the
freezer with a conservation temperature of - 5ºC to 0ºC.
b) Chilled Ready Meals

Have a validity period of one month at the most, and must be kept in
the refrigerator with a temperature of 0ºC to 5ºC.
c) Canned Ready Meals

Have a validity period that can vary from 6 months to 2 years, and
may be kept in room temperature.
d) Dried Ready Meals

Have a validity period that may vary from 6 months to 2 years, and
may be kept in room temperature.
The preparation way varies according to the kind of packaging and

conservation method. The quality and flavor of the food vary according to the
validity period, to say, the longer this period is, more easily it loses its
organoleptic qualities. They may be prepared in the microwave oven, by

water-bath, on the stove or traditional oven.
2.4.1. Ready Meals Market
The data registered on table 1, down below, enable the reader to picture
the European and world market share of ready meals.
2.4.1.1. Market Share in the Segments of Ready Meals in Europe

Table 1 illustrates the ready meals market of four families: frozen, fresh,
canned, and lyophilized. The families that have larger market share are the
frozen and fresh.
Table 1. Market Share in the Segments of Ready Meals in Europe (2009)
Ready Meals Families Market Share in the European Market

Frozen 46%
Fresh 27%
Canned 21%
Lyophilized 6%
Source: DATAMONITOR, 2009.
2.4.1.2. Market Share of European Countries in the Ready Meals Market

Great Britain and Germany are the countries that have larger market share
in the European market of ready meals, probably because the lifestyles of their
habitants lead them to consume this kind of meal.
Table 2. Market Share of European Countries in the

Ready Meals Market (2009)
Countries Market Share in Europe

Great Britain 22%
Germany 18%
France 13%
Italy 6%
Others 41%
2.4.1.3. Market Share of Companies in the European Ready

Meals Market
The Companies that have a larger penetration in the European market are
Unilever and Nestlé, that are namely of European origin. The remaining
market is quite fragmented between other companies.
Table 3. Market Share of Companies in the European Ready Meals

Market (2009)
Company Market Share of Companies

Unilever 5%
Nestlé 4%
Northern Foods 2%
Others 89%
2.4.1.4. Distribution Channels of Ready Meals in Europe

The most used distribution channels in Europe for the purchase of ready
meals are the supermarkets and hypermarkets, mostly because they are the
ones that offer more convenient prices, besides a larger option of products and
brands to the consumer.
Table 4. Distribution Channels of Ready Meals in Europe (2009)
Distribution Channel Market Share in Europe

Supermarkets and hypermarkets 73%
Independent commerce 14%
Convenience stores 6%
Others 7%
2.4.1.5. Market Share of the Worldwide Ready Meals Market

(in value) (2008)
Europe presents the largest consumption of ready meals in the worldwide
market, in value, in 2008.
Table 5. Market Share of the Worldwide Ready Meals Market

(in value) (2008)
Continents Market Share of the Worldwide Ready Meals

Market
Europe 39%
North and South America 30%
Asia e Pacific 31%
2.4.1.6. European Worldwide Market Share of Ready Meals

(in value and in volume) (2008)
The table below shows that the European growth of ready meals, not only
in value but also in volume, has followed the worldwide market growth, in
2008.
Table 6. European Worldwide Market Share of Ready Meals

(in value and in volume) (2008)
Ready Meals Market Europe Worldwide Market

Value (US$) 26,149.8 million 66.3 billion
Volume (kg) 3,745.7 million 11.6 billion
Growth in value between 2008 4.3% 4.0%
and 2009
Growth in volume between 2008 3.1% 3.0%
and 2009
Sources: DATAMONITOR, 2009; DATAMONITOR, 2010.
2.4.1.7. Growth Forecast of European Market (2014) and Worldwide

Market (2013) of Ready Meals (in value and in volume)
According to the data of table 7, the growth forecast of the European
market in value and in volume must follow the worldwide market growth.
Conveniences in production and commercialization of food products and
services have increased. Convenient is what may be done with reduced effort.
In the foods department, effort is somehow reduced or eliminated (Scholderer
and Grunert, 2005).
Table 7. Growth Forecast of European Market (2014) and Worldwide

Market (2013) of Ready Meals (in value and in volume)
Growth Forecast of Europe Worldwide

European Market of (2014) (2013)
Ready Meals
(in value and in volume)
Value (US$) 31,665.0 million 77.2 billion
Volume (kg) 4,287.4 million 13 billion
Growth 21.1% 21%
in value (between 2009 and 2014) (between 2008 and 2013)
Growth 14.5% 15%
in volume (between 2009 and 2014) (between 2008 and 2013)
Annual growth rate 3.9% 3.9%
in value (between 2009 and 2014) (between 2008 and 2013)
Annual growth rate 2.7% 3.0%
in volume (between 2009 and 2014) (between 2008 and 2013)
Sources: DATAMONITOR, 2009; DATAMONITOR, 2010.
From the same trend towards convenience verified in the research of

Scholderer and Grunert (2005), Darian and Cohen (1995) suggest that
convenience in food may be classified in two dimensions:
a) What kind of effort is being reduced?
The answers are saving of time, physical or mental energy.
b) In which step of homemade food would there be a gain?
The possibilities are to decide what to eat, buy, prepare, and consume as
well as the wearing out in cleaning up.
Two theoric approaches have been dominant on the attempt of explaining
the increasing importance of convenience. They may be called as familiar
production approach and convenience oriented approach.
The familiar production approach dates back to the works of Becker
(1965), that argues that families create solutions, like meals for the family that
use a production approach in which the products and services acquired the
social assets of the household and time required are the mains factors. To a
certain point, these production factors may substitute one another, and
regarding its price change, in which a relatively cheaper product will replace
the more expensive one. When cost of available time increases, because
salaries were augmented or the homemaker joined the job market, this will
result in the time spent to produce a meal to be replaced by the purchase of
time saving (in other words, convenience), such as products, services or
appliances that accelerate preparing meals (Blalock et al., 1999; Senauer,
2001).
This approach resulted in several researches, especially about the impact
of women employment situation on the purchase of convenient foods. A
consistent result has been that the families, in which there is a working
homemaker, buy more meals that are not made at home, in particular quick
meals. Other effects may be the fact that there is a larger familiar income in
families with both partners being employed. There seems to have no impact of
the woman’s employment situation on the purchase of convenient food for
domestic use, as is, of ready-to-eat food products, however the working-
women seem to have a more positive attitude not only towards eating out, but
also towards meals that can be quickly prepared (Darian and Klein, 1989).
Convenience orientation, on its side, can be defined as a positive attitude
towards time and less energy consumption in the production of homemade
meals. The concept was defined and developed in the work of Candel (2001).
As seen by Sholderer and Grunert (2005); Blalock et al. (1999); Senauer
(2001); Darian and Klein (1989); Candel (2001), convenience orientation is an
attitude that has impact on the behaviors related to convenience, such as the
purchase of convenience products, using commercial enterprises, the
convenience of eating out and replacements in meals made at home.
Authors have argued that the tendency towards convenience also has roots
in the change of consumers’ values, and that individualism and self-
accomplishment substitute former ones, such as tradition in having regular
meals with the family and spending a lot of time in the kitchen. Goldsmith et
al. (1995), for example, found relations between items in the list of values and
snack food consumers. As the demand for convenience food increases, the
quality of these products becomes more important. The food-related to
lifestyle instrument (FRL) that covers a group of consumers, based on their
attitudes, related to the purchase, preparation and consumption of food
products, includes several quality aspects like freshness, health and flavor.
Buckley et al. (2005) developed a work in Great Britain that had as goal
investigate the degrees in which life segments related to convenience food are
oriented. It was discovered a growth of participation of women in the work
force, families of one person only, the sharing of traditional meals among the
greatest boosters in the search for convenience foods. The FRL instrument was
reviewed to identify complementary areas, necessary to have a more complete
picture of the convenience food consumers. The measurements for these and
for the FRL instruments were applied in Great Britain in 2002. The
investigation of convenience attitudes and purchase behavior of convenient
foods showed that three of the six segments of FRL identified, were
convenience oriented. Differences between the segments, related to the quality
aspects, were also found.
In accordance to the results verified in the work of Buckley et al. (2005),
the consumers are becoming more demanding regarding the food they eat –
they anticipate and insist on true quality (Wheelock, 1992). About this, in the
work of Buckley et al. (2005), it was verified the importance of studying
quality from the consumer’s perspective. Therefore, the capacity of the
producers to react to changes in the consumers preferences about quality can
form the basis to market’s success or failure (Frewer et al., 2010).
According to studies conducted by Frewer et al. (2010); Senauer (2001);
Buckley et al. (2005), it was concluded that convenience orientation is as
important as attributes like health, taste and price to determine the consumer’s
preference regarding behaviors related to food (Candel, 2001).
The convenience quality is related not only to time spent in the kitchen,
that covers time, mental and physical effort, but also to time spent with
purchase, storage, preparation and consumption of food. Thereby, attitudes
towards convenience have an effect on the convenience behavior, what in its
turn, directly depends of the consumer’s involvement with food and domestic
resources (Brunso et al., 2002).
It is believed that the importance of convenience of food is growing at
least in many countries, and that the social-demographic changes are one of
the mains reasons of this process. However, several studies suggest that a new
tendency to convenience does not only depend on the future development of
demographics, but also on the structural relations between the perceived goals
and resources, that are psychosocial. Therefore, it can be concluded that it is
bogus only to equate the growing percentage of one-member families, or of
working wives in a population of consumers to an increasing demand for
convenience food.
The study that relates lifestyles and the consumption of ready meals is of
utmost importance to the understanding of this market’s growth. The
convenient food products came as an answer to the needs that appeared with
new lifestyles, such as the entering of women in the job market; the
development of packaging techniques, conservation and preparation of food,
growth of single-families besides the need of spare time.
The trend of this market is to grow, as verified in the market researches

carried out by DataMonitor (2009 and 2010), what represents new
opportunities of investments for agro-food companies that work in this
segment.
Chapter 3
3. METHODOLOGY
From the theoretical reference were identified methods usually employed
in studies which goals are similar to the ones sought in this work. In this
chapter are presented the methodological procedures chosen for execution of
this research.
The chapter is structured in six parts. The first discusses the
methodological approach; the second presents objectives, variables and the
manner in which they were made operational; the third part is about the
development of the data collection instrument; the fourth part studies the
universe of the research and the sampling plan; the fifth part discusses the data
collection form; and the last part explains how the validation procedures of the
scales used in this study were made and are presented the pre-tests conducted
in Brazil and in Italy.
3.1. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH

The proposal of this project is to conduct an exploratory study with a
positivist paradigm about the relationship between lifestyles and eating habits
of ready meals.
The methodology used is survey.
The main works that inspired this study proposed and used the following
models:
a) FRL Model – Food Related Lifestyle: it is about a transcultural

instrument developed in Denmark by MAPP – Center for Research on
Costumer Relations in the Food Sector (Grunert, 2000). The FRL
instrument measures the attitudes of consumers regarding purchase,

preparation, and consumption of food products. The food-related to
lifestyle instrument (FRL) shows how people relate food to values. It
was applied and validated in researches with national
representativeness in several countries. Studies were conducted in
Australia, Singapore, France, Germany, and Denmark about the
behavior of the consumer regarding food products based on lifestyle
and eating habits (Reid et al., 2001); in Spain and in Germany
(Brunso et al., 2004); in Croatia (Kesic et al., 2003); in Taiwan (Fang
and Lee, 2009); in the Irish Republic (Ryan et al., 2002; Ryan et al.,
2004); in Great Britain (Buckley et al., 2005); and in South Korea
(Bae et al., 2010).
b) RTE Model – Ready to Eat: it is about a model that uses four factors
related to ready meals food, such as health, taste, tradition, and
convenience. Differences that justify the consumption of ready meals
were found in the factors of the study, however the more significant
ones were convenience and tradition, what resulted in two categories
of ready meals consumers: those oriented towards tradition (cluster 1)
and those oriented towards convenience (cluster 2). This model was
validated through a study made in South Korea (Bae et al., 2010).
c) Lifestyles, Eating Habits and Convenience Model – Convenience
Consumer and FRL: it is about a model validated through studies
carried out in Great Britain and in the Republic of Ireland (Buckley et
al., 2005; Ryan et al., 2002; Ryan et al., 2004). Were used measures
that relate lifestyles and the convenience in the consumption of ready
meals such as time pressure, stress, family structure, women’s
participation in the job market, consumer’s prosperity, etc. There were
identified six consumer profiles: snacking food consumers, careless,
uninvolved, rational, adventurous, and conservative. In these studies it
was verified that the largest consumer of ready meals are the
snacking, careless and adventurous segments. Another study with the
ones in charge of purchasing food products in France and in Great
Britain synthesizes two approaches, assuming that the influence of
limited resources on the true convenient behaviors is doubly measured
in the first place by the perception of resource limitations, and
secondly by convenience orientations (Scholderer and Grunert, 2005).
The data collection instruments used in these studies was the basis to the
research questionnaire, as described in the following section.
Methodology 41
3.2. PRESENTATION OF THE STUDY’S VARIABLES

AND BINDING MATRIX
From the specific objectives of the study, frame 5 was built, baptized as
binding matrix, in which are synthesized the used variables, ways of
implementation and the correspondent matter included in the data collection
instrument.
The study’s variables were divided in two parts:
Part I – Social-Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents
In the first part, were sought the social demographic characteristics of the
respondents, namely: gender, age, marital status, number of people that live in
the house, education level, kind of family (single with or without children,
married with or without children), type of activity (working or / and studying),
responsible for food purchase, number of monthly meals made with ready
meals, kind of ready meals consumed (frozen, fresh, canned or lyophilized),
and net monthly income of the family.
Part II – Lifestyles Associated to the Consumption of Ready Meals.
In the second part, it was sought to know the lifestyles associated to the
consumption of ready meals. The respondents should mark their level of
agreement measured by a Likert scale of 5 points (1 = totally disagree, 2 =
partially disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = partially agree, 5 = totally agree) about 65
sentences whose subject areas were inspired on the three theoretical models
described in the previous section (FRL, RTE and Convenience Consumer).
3.2.1. Health Orientation
This construct measures “health orientation”, what means the importance

given to nutritional values of food products and how they can affect health.
Convenience foods that present certain characteristics like nutritional and
organic values, healthy and appetizing, attract health-oriented consumers.
In the case of consumers less sensitive to health orientation, products thereto
characterized will be less important.
Frame 5. Binding Matrix
Binding Matrix
Specific Objectives Variables Operationalization Questionnaire Sources
First Specific Objective 1. Gender; Questionnaire with Part I of the (Bae et al., 2010;
2. Age; only one correct option questionnaire: Reid et al.,
Analyze the Influence of 3. Marital Status; about social- question n. 1 until n. 2001).
Social-Demographic 4. Number of People that Live in the House; demographic 11 (variable 1 to 11).
Variables on the Choice of 5. Education Level; characteristic of the
the Ready Meal Product. 6. Kind of Family (single with or without children, respondents. See
married with or without children); section 3.2.5.
7. Kind of Activity (working or / and studying);
8. Responsibility for Food Purchase;
9. Number of Monthly Meals made with Ready Meals;
10. Kind of Ready Meal Consumed (Frozen, Fresh,
Canned or Lyophilized);
11. Net Monthly Income of the Family.
Second Specific Objective 1, 2, 3, 4. Type of Ready Meal; 5, 6, 7, 8. Health; 9, 10, Questionnaire with a Part II of the (Bae et al., 2010;
11, 12. Flavor; 13, 14, 15, 16. Convenience; 17, 18. Likert scale of five questionnaire: Buckley et al.,
Evaluate the Importance of Tradition; 19, 20, 21. Time Pressure; 22, 23, 24. Stress points that studies question n. 1 until n. 2005; Scholderer
Health, Flavor, Levels; 25. Ways of Making Meals; 26, 27, 28. Eating health, taste 65 (variable 1 to 65). and Grunert,
Convenience, and Alone; 29, 30, 31. Purchase Methods; 32. Ways of convenience, and 2004; Reid et al.,
Tradition in the Making Meals; 33, 34, 35. Cooking Skills; 36, 37, 38. tradition orientation. 2001).
Consumption of Ready Meal Preparation; 39, 40, 41. Cleaning; 42, 43, 44. See sections 3.2.1,
Meals. Disposal; 45, 46, 47. Price; 48, 49, 50. Health 3.2.2, 3.2.3, 3.2.4.
Convenience; 51, 52, 53. Convenience Involvement; 54,
55, 56. Free Time; 57, 58, 59, 60. Choice for
Convenience Products; 61, 62, 63, 64, 65. Preparation
Methods of Convenience Products.
Specific Objectives Variables Operationalization Questionnaire Sources
Third Specific Objective Variables in Part I of the questionnaire that refer to Comparison between the Part I of the
social-demographic characteristics of the respondents variables of respondents questionnaire:
Compare Eating Habits of and variables in Part II of the questionnaire referring from Brazil and the question n. 1 until n.
Ready Meals in Brazil and to lifestyles associated to the consumption of ready variables of respondents 11.
in Italy. meals by the respondents. from Italy, regarding
social-demographic Part II of the
characteristics and questionnaire:
lifestyles associated to question n. 1 until n.
the consumption of ready 65.
meals. See sections 3.2.1
to 3.2.5.
The variables used to measure health, taste, convenience, and tradition

orientation of the Brazilian and Italian respondents are found on frames 6, 7, 8,
and 9.
Frame 6. Health Orientation
Item Scale (from 1 = “totally

disagree” to 5 = “totally
agree”)
5 – I take into consideration the caloric values when (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
choosing a food product.
6 – I try to avoid products with too much fat. (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
7 – It is more important to choose food products by their (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
nutritional value than by their taste.
8 – I try to buy healthy food products whenever I have the (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
opportunity.
3.2.2. Taste Orientation
This construct measures the “taste orientation”. To respondents with high

punctuation in this dimension, eating a tasty food and of quality is of great
importance.
Frame 7. Taste Orientation
Scale (from 1 = “totally

Item disagree” to 5 = “totally
agree”)
9 – Eating is one the most important things in my life. (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
10 – I do not save to eat a tasty food. (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
11 – I customarily go to famous restaurants. (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
12 – I am an excellent taster. (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
3.2.3. Convenience Orientation
The “convenience” construct is about personal and procedural knowledge

regarding the acquisition of products, issues about the way people buy things
Methodology 45
to eat and the importance they give to time spent shopping. In this case, the
consumer that does not have much free time values ready meals products. The
questions on frame 8 measure the convenience orientation of the respondent,
therefore as more importance is given to convenience and promptness to buy
food products that do not imply in wasting time, higher will be the orientation
of this respondent that values, above all, saving time.
Frame 8. Convenience Orientation
Scale
Item (from 1 = “totally disagree”
to 5 = ”totally agree”
29 – I try to buy food products as quick as possible. (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
30 – Buying food products makes me waste a lot of (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
time.
31 – I don’t like spending too much time buying (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
food products.
3.2.4. Tradition Orientation
The “tradition” construct measures the importance of convenience food to

the consumer. The greater the involvement is with convenience food
consumption by the respondent, more likely it will be for him to buy it. The
items in this scale are therefore in reversed order. Consumers with a low level
of involvement with ready meals are slightly convenience oriented having a
higher level of tradition orientation.
Frame 9. Tradition Orientation
Scale
Item (from 1 = “totally disagree”
to 5 = ”totally agree”
51 – Convenience foods are very important to me. (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
52 - I am interested in convenience products. (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
53 – Consumption of ready meals gives me pleasure. (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
The four constructs described – health, taste, convenience and tradition –

with variations at the composing of items, were used in studies about the
behavior of ready meals consumers. These were carried out in Great Britain
and the Republic of Ireland (Buckley et al., 2005; Ryan et al., 2002; Ryan et
al., 2004); in South Korea (Bae et al., 2010); in Australia, Singapore, France,
Germany, and Denmark (Reid et al., 2001); in Spain and Germany (Brunso et
al., 2004), in Croatia, (Kesic et al., 2003); in Taiwan (Fang and Lee, 2009);
and in Great Britain and France (Scholderer and Grunert, 2005).
3.2.5. Statistical Analysis of Study Variables – Exploratory

Factor Analysis
The constructs presented in sections 3.2.1, 3.2.2, 3.2.3, and 3.2.4 (health,
taste, convenience and tradition orientation) are of reflective nature. Thereby,
it is expected that each of the 14 indicators listed are reflections of the
dimensions intended to be measured (Pedhazur and Schmelkin, 1991). To
assess the dimensional structure of the collected data and to verify if the four
factors structure (health, taste, convenience and tradition) is present, an
exploratory factor analysis was elaborated with a factor extraction technique
by main components.
The outcomes with four factors referring to the results of the Brazilian
sample explain 74.7% of the data’s original variability. In accordance to what
was expected, the indicators that should measure the same dimensions
presented elevated correlations with the same factors. Therefore, factor 1 can
be baptized as “convenience”, factor 2 as “opposite of health”, factor 3 as
“taste”, and factor 4 as “tradition”.
The factorial scores of this model of factorial analysis were used as
indicators of convenience, health, taste and tradition, respectively, for the São
Paulo samples’ individuals. The single adjustment made was related to the
scores of factor 2, that had their signals reversed.
In turn, the outcomes with four factors referring to results of the Italian
sample explain 75.3% of the data’s original variability. In accordance to what
was expected the indicators that should measure the same dimensions
presented elevated correlations with the same factors. Therefore, factor 1 can
be baptized as “convenience”, factor 2 as “opposite of health”, factor 3 as
“opposite of tradition”, and factor 4 as “opposite of taste”.
The factorial scores of this model of factorial analysis were used as
indicators of convenience, health, taste and tradition, respectively, for the
Rome samples’ individuals. Single adjustments were made related to the
scores of factor 2, 3, and 4, that had their signals reversed.
Methodology 47
3.3. DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT

The developed questionnaire was composed of two sections:
a) Social-Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents;

b) Lifestyles Associated to the Consumption of Ready Meals.
Before being applied, it was submitted to several pre-tests in Brazil and in

Italy, with consumers withdrawn from the target-population for an internal
consistency evaluation.
In the last part of the chapter, were explained the scale validation
procedures along with the pre-tests used in this research.
In possession of the pre-tests results, the final questionnaire was sent by
email to samples of Brazilian and Italian consumers, as well as having been
disclosed on Internet social networks.
An on-line data collection platform was used, in a way that the obtained
tabulate data could happen in an automated manner. At the end of the data
collection, the statistical analysis was performed in order to respond to the
general objective and to the specific objectives previously established.
34. RESEARCH AND SAMPLING PLAN UNIVERSE

The research and sampling plan universe initially defined that the research
would be conducted with 300 consumers of ready meals in São Paulo and 300
consumers from Rome. An email was sent to about 600 people of each
location, besides requests to send the email to acquaintances with the
described characteristics. The email contained links to the electronic versions
in Portuguese and in Italian of the data collection instrument. Were used 200
questionnaires from São Paulo and 155 from Rome.
The resorted sampling technique was the non-probabilistic by
convenience. The advantages of this technique are quick application,
possibility of the researcher constantly monitor the evolution of the entire
process of questionnaire response, besides being economical, mostly in case of
international researches, with accessible sampling units, easy to measure and
cooperative. However, some of its main limitations are the fact that the
resulting sample may not be representative of any definable target-population,
and may suffer a biased selection, and therefore, the individuals that are part of
a convenience sample might have diverse characteristics of those that define

the populations of Rome and São Paulo. In addition, some people do not
answer the on line questionnaires out of fear of the Internet, of a virus, and
even for not being personally acquainted to the person responsible for the
research (Malhotra et al., 2009).
According to Malhotra et al. (2009), convenience sampling is not
appropriate for descriptive and causal researches, in which the objective is to
obtain conclusions about the population. In this case, being an exploratory
research that objectifies to generate ideas, obtain a new vision, or develop
hypothesis, the convenience sampling is useful since it can be used for group
discussion, pre-test questionnaires and pilot studies. Even in these cases,
caution is necessary in the interpretation of the results. Despite these
limitations, the convenience sampling technique is used in large surveys.
3.5. DATA COLLECTION FORM

The questionnaires destined to Italian respondents was translated from
Portuguese to Italian by a certified bilingual translator in Brazil and then sent
to Italy for a second review, before being sent to the respondents. According to
Malhotra et al. (2009), a translation must be done with care, and reviewed by a
certified bilingual translator that is familiar with both cultures.
According to McDaniel et al. (2005), the research by survey over the
Internet has the following advantages: quick unfolding with reports in real
time, drastic cost reduction, prompt personalization, elevated rate of response,
capacity to contact people that are geographically difficult to reach and
simplified as well as improved panel management. The disadvantages are:
Internet users do not represent the population as a whole, security (privacy) on
Internet, and any person that wishes to fill out the questionnaire may do so.
There are several methods for the achievement of surveys online such as
questionnaires by email, WEB survey systems, surveys by download,
Websites for the preparation of surveys, converted CATI systems, bulletin
boards, and variations of these processes.
The greatest disadvantage of the self-administered questionnaire is that the
researcher is not present to explain anything to the respondent, and clarify
answers given to open questions. It is not the case in this research, because the
proposed questionnaire is formed of questions with simple and closed answers
that have only one correct answer, besides questions that may be answered
according to a Likert scale (McDaniel et al., 2005).
Methodology 49
3.6. PROCEDURES FOR VALIDATION OF THE USED SCALES

The scale choice depends of theoretical considerations and of the
assessment of validity and reliability. These factors include the desired level of
information, cognitive capacity of the interviewed, the characteristics of
stimulatory objects, the application method, context and cost. Using scales that
allow a larger amount of information in certain situations will enable greater
usage of statistical analysis. Whenever possible several scale items must
measure the characteristics of interest. If a measure is valid, it will also be
reliable; if not valid, it will not be reliable, because an error may be present.
Reliability is a necessary condition for validation, but it is not enough. The
validity of a construct approaches the characteristic the scale is in fact
measuring (Malhotra, 2007).
As verified by Malhotra (2007), by determining the validity of the
construct the researcher answers to theoretical questions about the
functionality of the scale. For example, on the FRL scale – food related
lifestyle, one of the constructs measured is convenience, that is part of the
preparation methods dimension. About this matter, were proposed some
questions, like “frozen foods are responsible for the greatest part of the food
products we use in our home”, “I use many mixtures, for example, to bake
cakes, pastries, bread and for instant soups”. The respondent by means of a
Likert scale of five points, had to answer these questions with an agreement
level from “1 = totally disagree” to “5 = totally agree”. In this case, the
validity of the convenience construct requires not only a solid theory about the
convenience concept and of its importance in the consumption of ready meals,
but also information about how convenience relates to other variables of the
study.
According to Rozzett and Demo (2010), scale items must be submitted to
a semantic analysis with the collaborators of the organizations that will go
through the interviews, for a good understanding by the population of the
question’s items. In the case of this research, the author talked to Marketing,
food and market research specialists to check if the questionnaire had been
well built regarding theory. The last stage of the adaptation process is the pre-
test. It must be applied, according to Beaton et al. (2002), among people of the
target group. Firstly, the individuals answer the questionnaire, and afterwards
are interviewed to verify if they understood the meaning of the questions and
answered properly. After applying the pre-test, a qualitative assessment of the
scale is made. In case there are many doubts on part of the respondents, one
can return to the specialist committee for possible amendments on the
questions. According to Ciconelli et al. (1999), questions with more than 15%
of the respondents with doubts or that did not understand the meaning of the
affirmative must be reviewed by the committee and reapplied with other
respondents.
According to Wong et al. (2003), on investigative scales with several
items, the Likert scale is recommended for collection of data regarding
attitudes, beliefs, values and consumer behavior among other latent constructs.
The cultural adaptation of a measure, in order to be used in a country other
than the one where it was created, requires a specific methodology. It is not
enough a translation, a cultural adaptation might be necessary to uphold the
content’s validity in this new language and population. It is up to the
researcher to decide between maximum comparability (plain translation) and
maximum reliability (free adaptation). When translating scales, discrepancies
must be solved consulting the translators, it is recommended that this process
is conducted by at least two bilingual translators familiarized with both
cultures (Malhotra et al., 2009).
The questionnaire destined to Italian respondents was translated from
Portuguese to Italian through a bilingual translator and the author, in Brazil,
and later sent to Italy for a second review, before being sent to the
respondents.
In this study, during the month of March 2011, the researcher traveled to
Italy, to conduct interviews with 20 individuals of the target population, in
order to verify the understanding of the questions by the respondents. From the
interaction with respondents of the pre-tests and conversations with specialists,
modifications were made on the data collection instrument.
3.6.1. Validation of Scales in Studies that Relate Lifestyles and

Eating Habits of Ready Meals
Frame 10 lists a series of multicultural studies that explored the subject

area of lifestyles and eating habits of ready meals.
Measurement bias can seriously threaten the validity of the conclusions of
cross-cultural studies. Comparisons between averages, for example, depend of
the assumption that the observed differences on gross scores reflect true
differences in the underlying constructs, and not partiality of an additive that
might be caused by cultural factors of differences in the understanding of the
questions (O’Sullivan et al., 2005).
Frame 10. Studies that Relate Lifestyles and Eating Habits of Ready Meals
Scales used to measure Size and

Data collection Reported results between lifestyles and eating habits of
Studies lifestyles and eating composition of the
instrument ready meals
habits of ready meals samples
Five samples:
Attitudinal and behavioral factors conduct lifestyles
FRL – Grunert et al., Australia (300 Questionnaires
related to food in each country of the sample. In
Reid; Li; Bruwer; (1993), with 5 homes); France, filled out
general, the reported alpha coefficients of Cronbach are
Grunert, 2001 dimensions, 23 factors Great Britain, through
satisfactory with 15 out of 23 scales with values equal
and 69 variables. Singapore and interviews
or above 0.6 (eight below 0.6, with 4 below 0.55)
Denmark
The results indicate that in general, FRL achieved an
elevated degree of measuring equivalence when
FRL – Grunert et al., Two samples: applied to Irish and British consumers. The
Questionnaires
Buckley; Cowan; (1993), 5 dimensions, 23 Great Britain (1000 measurement items in this domain had the same
filled out
Mc Carthy; factors and 69 variables; homes) and dimensionality, varied according to the same unit scale,
through
O’Sullivan, 2005 Buckley et al., 2005; Republic of Ireland and measured factors with the same reliability.
interviews.
Ryan et al., 2002. (1024 homes). Besides, the underlying factors had the same
interrelationships and exhibited the same variance in
both populations.
FRL – Grunert et al.,
(1993), 5 dimensions, 23
Questionnaires The research instrument was developed based on
factors and 69 variables; Validation pilot
distributed at precedent studies. The questionnaire also took into
social-demographic test with 30
Bae; Chae; Ryu, retailers of food consideration cultural differences, because it was
characteristics of the consumers and
2010 and collected by designed for Koreans. It is composed of two sections
respondents, health final test with 480
the researcher or that investigate lifestyles related to food and social-
orientation, taste, consumers.
sent by email demographic characteristics of the consumers.
convenience and
tradition.
As already explained in this chapter, the orientation constructs for health,

taste, convenience and tradition, as defined in this study, presented desirable
properties for usage in the analysis presented on Chapter 4.
Chapter 4
4. DATA ANALYSIS
This chapter is divided in two parts. In the first part are presented the
descriptive statistics of the samples from São Paulo and Rome. In the second,
cross-analysis are made to verify the influence of social-demographic and
attitudinal variables on the eating habits of the respondents, as well as a
comparison between the samples regarding health, taste, convenience and
tradition orientations, according to the specific scales presented in the
Methodology chapter.
4.1. SAMPLE CHARACTERIZATION

The data on the following frames and tables make it possible to have a
comparative overview of the social-demographic characteristics of the two
samples of respondents of the questionnaire in Brazil and in Italy.
4.1.1. Gender of Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
Frame 11 divides the Brazilian and Italian respondents in male and

female. In both samples, women were the ones with a higher index of answers
(being 72% in Brazil and 79% in Italy).
4.1.2. Age Group of Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
Frame 12 studies the age groups of Brazilian and Italian respondents. Both
samples have a concentration of individuals between 41 and 50 years old. In
Brazil, the age group that follows is the one between 31 and 40, while in Italy
it is the group of those between 21 and 30. The average of the Brazilian
sample was of 42 years old, and of the Italian sample, it was of 41. The
minimum age in both samples was 18 years old, the maximum in Brazil was
78, and in Italy, it was 75.
Frame 11. Gender of Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
Gender Brazil Italy

of Respondents Number of Percentage of Number of Percentage of
Respondents Respondents Respondents Respondents
Female 144 72 122 79
Male 56 28 33 21
Total of Respondents 200 100 155 100
Frame 12. Age Group of Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
Age Group Brazil Italy

From 0 to 20 6 3 8 5
From 21 to 30 39 20 38 25
From 31 to 40 50 25 16 10
From 41 to 50 60 30 63 41
From 51 to 60 34 17 24 15
From 61 to 70 6 3 5 3
From 71 to 80 5 2 1 1
4.1.3. Marital Status of Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
Frame 13 shows the marital status of Brazilian and Italian respondents. It

can be verified that in both samples, more than half of the respondents were
single (being that 51% in Brazil, and 52% in Italy). In the case of Brazil, 24%
were single and 15% separated or divorced. In Italy, respectively 16% and
16%.
Data Analysis 55
Frame 13. Marital Status of Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
Brazil Italy
Marital Status Number of Percentage of Number of Percentage of
of Respondents Respondents Respondents Respondents Respondents
Single 48 24 25 16
Married 102 51 81 52
Separated or Divorced 30 15 19 12
Partner-in-life 15 7 24 16
Widower 5 3 6 4
Source: elaborated by the authors according to the results from the databases of the
questionnaires Brazil and Italy.
4.1.4. Number of People that Live in the Residence in Brazil and

in Italy
Frame 14 shows the number of people that live in the residence of the
respondent, in Brazil and in Italy. In both samples, four was the average
number of people that lived in the houses, including the respondent. Followed
by residences with 3 people, what represented 22% of the sample not only in
Brazil, but in Italy as well. Houses with two residents, including the
respondent, represented 20% both in Brazil and in Italy. Thereby, the number
of people that lived in the residences of the respondents was very similar in
both samples.
Frame 14. Number of People that Live in the Residence in Brazil

andin Italy
Brazil Italy
Number of People Number of Percentage of Number of Percentage of
that Live in the Respondents Respondents Respondents Respondents
Residence
Only the respondent 22 11 7 5
Respondent + 1 person 44 22 30 19
Respondent + 2 people 44 22 30 19
Respondent + 6 people 1 1
4.1.5. Education Level of Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
Frame 15 shows the education level of Brazilian and Italian respondents.

While 48% of Brazilian respondents have complete college education, this
happens to 46% of the Italian sample. In the Brazilian sample, only 16% have
incomplete college education, to 33% of the Italian sample. This distortion
could be explained by the fact that in the case of Brazil many of the
questionnaires have been sent to Master’s degree teachers and colleagues.
Frame 15. Education Level of Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
Brazil Italy
Education Level Number of Percentage of Number of Percentage of
of Respondents Respondents Respondents Respondents Respondents
Elementary
Middle-school 1 1
High School 3 2
(Incomplete)
High School (Complete) 4 2 29 19
College (Incomplete) 32 16 50 32
College (Complete) 95 48 72 46
Post-graduate 69 34
4.1.6. Type of Family of Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
Frame 16 bespeaks that 54% of the respondents in the Brazilian sample

are married with children, while in the Italian sample these correspond to 65%
of the respondents. As much as 26% of both Brazilian and Italian respondents
are single without children. Following, 12% of the Brazilian, and 6% of the
Italian are married without children. The smallest numbers in type of family is
the one of singles with children, being 8% in Brazil and 5% in Italy.
4.1.7. Kind of Activity of Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
Through frame 17 it is possible to verify that 59% of the Brazilian

respondents are full time workers while in Italy these represent 48% of the
sample. As follows, those who work and study are 21% of the Brazilians, and
in Italy, these are 17% of the sample. In Brazil part-time workers are 9%, and
Data Analysis 57
in Italy they correspond to 14% of the sample. Regarding full time students,
they are 4% of the total in Brazil, and 13% in Italy. These results also can be
explained by the fact that the researcher has carried out part of the study with
colleagues and teachers of Master’s degree in Brazilian sample, thereby
obtaining a bias.
Frame 16. Type of Family of Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
Brazil Italy
Type of Family
Single without children 52 26 41 26
Single with children 16 8 5 3
Married without
24 12 9 6
children
Married with children 108 54 100 65
Total of respondents 200 100 155 100
Frame 17. Kind of Activity of Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
Kind of Activity Brazil Italy

Full time worker 118 59 74 48
Part time worker 17 9 22 14
No work and no 12 6 11 7
scholastic activity
Full time student 8 4 21 13
Part time student 3 1 1 1
Worker and Student 42 21 26 17
4.1.8. Responsible for the Purchase of Food Products in Brazil

and in Italy
Through frame 18, it becomes evident that 66% of the respondents in

Brazil are the responsible for the purchase of food products and that in Italy,
79% do their own shopping. Thereupon, in Brazil, the husband or wife makes
16% of the purchases, whereas in Italy they answer for 8%. Purchases made
by the parents are 7% of the Brazilian sample, while in Italy they represent
10%. It is interesting to notice that shopping made by employees was the
answer of 7% of the respondents in Brazil, while in Italy it was only 1%, what
might be explained by the high costs of local labor.
Frame 18. Responsible for the Purchase of Food Products in Brazil

and in Italy
Brazil Italy
Responsible for the Number of Percentage of Number of Percentage of
Purchase Respondents Respondents Respondents Respondents
of Food Products
Myself 133 66 122 79
Husband/Wife 32 16 13 8
Partner-in-life 4 2 2 1
Friend 1 1 2 1
Parents 15 7 15 10
Children 1 1
Employee 14 7 1 1
Source: elaborated by the authors according to the results from the databases of the
questionnaires Brazil and Italy.
4.1.9. Number of Monthly Meals Made with Ready-to-Eat Food

by the Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
This question attempts to know the amount of monthly meals made with
ready-to-eat food by the respondents. Through frame 19 it is possible to
observe that while 6% of the respondents in Brazil do not consume any ready
meal, in Italy, 3% affirmed they consumed none.
Of the Brazilian sample, 40% consume between 1 and 4 ready-to-eat
foods a month, while the 51% of the Italian sample showed to have this
amount. Respectively 30% and 32% of Brazilians and Italians respondents
said that they consumed from 5 to 9 meals a month, whereas 15% of the
Brazilian and 9% of the Italian consume between 9 and 14 ready-to-eat foods a
month.
Of the Brazilian sample 6% consumes from 15 to 19 ready meals monthly,
while 4% of the Italian has the same index of consumption, and of the
Brazilian respondents, 3% consume 20 or more ready-to-eat food, while 1% of
the Italians had this result.
Data Analysis 59
Frame 19. Number of Monthly Meals Made with Ready-to-Eat Food by

the Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
Number of Monthly Brazil Italy

Meals made with Number of Percentage of Number of Percentage of
Ready-to-Eat Food Respondents Respondents Respondents Respondents
by the Respondents
None 13 6 5 3
≥1<5 80 40 78 51
≥ 5 < 10 61 30 50 32
≥ 10 < 15 30 15 14 9
≥ 15 < 20 11 6 6 4
≥ 20 5 3 2 1
4.1.10. Kind of Ready Meal Consumed: Frozen, Fresh, Canned,

Lyophilized, by the Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
The objective of this question is to know the kind of ready meal most
consumed by the respondents and compare this kind of consumption between
the two samples. The frozen meals are the most consumed by both samples,
being that 67% of Brazilians use frozen ready meals, and 75% of the Italian
use this same family of product. Following are the fresh ready meals,
responsible for 27% of the cases in Brazil and 19% in Italy. In third place are
the canned foods that in Brazil represent 5% and 6% in Italy. The consumption
of lyophilized products is insignificant in both samples. Among the four
families of ready meals, the frozen ones are those that have the largest
consumption, followed by the fresh, canned and in last place the lyophilized.
Frame 20. Kind of Ready Meal Consumed: Frozen, Fresh, Canned,

Lyophilized, by the Respondents in Brazil and in Italy
Kind of Ready Meal Brazil Italy

Consumed by the Number of Percentage of Number of Percentage of
Respondents Respondents Respondents Respondents Respondents
Frozen 134 67 116 75
Fresh 54 27 29 19
Canned 11 5 9 6
Lyophilized 1 1 1
Frame 21. Comparison of Consumption of Ready Meals: Frozen, Fresh,

Canned, Lyophilized in Europe (2009) with the Consumption of the
Brazilian and Italian Respondents (2011)
Kind of Ready Meal Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of

Consumed European Brazilian Respondents Italian Respondents
by the Respondents Consumption (2011) (2011)
(2009)
Frozen 46 67 75
Fresh 27 27 19
Canned 21 5 6
Lyophilized 6 1
Total 100 100 100
Source: DATAMONITOR, 2009; elaborated by the authors.
4.1.11. Net Monthly Income of the Family of Respondents in

Brazil and in Italy
From the results of frame 22 it is possible to verify that the buying power
of the samples is diversified.
Frame 22. Net Monthly Income of the Family of Respondents

in Brazil and in Italy
Net Monthly Income Brazil Italy

of the Family of Number of Percentage of Number of Percentage of
Brazil Italy
< R$ < € 1,500.00 5 2 21 14
2,500.00
≥ R$ ≥ € 1,500,00
2,500.00 < € 3,000.00
18 33
< R$ 9 21
4,500.00
≥ R$ ≥ € 3,000.00
4,500.00 < € 4,500.00 9 29
19 45
< R$
6,500.00
≥ R$ ≥ € 4,500.00
6,500.00 < € 6,000.00 14 25
28 38
< R$
8,500.00
≥ R$ ≥ € 6,000.00
8,500.00 < € 7,500.00 14 5
28 8
< R$
10,500.00
Data Analysis 61
Net Monthly Income Brazil Italy

of the Family of Number of Percentage of Number of Percentage of
≥ R$ ≥ € 7,500.00
10,500.00 < € 9,000.00 19 3
37 5
< R$
12,50000
≥ R$ ≥ € 9,000.00 33 3
65 5
12,500.00
While in Brazil, 33% of the sample is concentrated in the largest income

bracket with a net monthly income higher than R$ 12,500.00, in Italy only 3%
of the respondents are in the bracket over € 9,000.00. It can be verified that
89% of the Italian respondents have an income that varies from € 1,500.00 to €
6,000.00 that is part of the first four ranges of option in net monthly income,
being the smallest as well. In the case of Brazil, the largest amount of the
respondents are concentrated in incomes superior to R$ 6,500.00, being 80%
of the respondents encompassed in the four largest brackets of net monthly
income. This fact may also explain a certain bias in the answers. Besides, in
Italy, as in developed countries, the greatest part of the population has similar
incomes, whereas in Brazil, there are greater differences between incomes.
4.2. COMPARISON OF DIMENSIONS OF THE SCALES

OF LIFESTYLES AND OF EATING HABITS BETWEEN THE
SAMPLES OF SÃO PAULO AND ROME
A new exploratory factorial analysis was carried out attempting to
compare consumers of both cities, according to the dimensions of the scale of
lifestyles and eating habits, this time considering all 355 grouped respondents.
This decision is justified by the possibility of obtaining new factorial scores,
that due to their comparative nature, may in this case be used to contrast the
profiles of Roman and São Paulo citizens. It would not have made sense to use
the factorial scores of the segregated analysis, since they consist of
standardized variables with a 0 (zero) average, and a 1 (one) variance. Table 8
below synthesizes the results. The following questions of part 1 of the
questionnaire related to social-demographic characteristics of the respondents
were selected: question 2 – age; question 4 - number of residents in the house;
question 6 - type of family: single with or without children, married with or

without children; question 7 - kind of activity: study and/or work; question 9 -
number of monthly meals made with ready Meals; and question 11 - net
monthly income of the family.
The reason for choosing these questions to be crossed with factors related
to health, taste, convenience and tradition orientations is, the growth of ready
meals market happened mostly because of the need for convenience, increase
of women in the job market, the emergence of smaller families, increase of
single people, prosperity of the consumer and aging of the population. These
were previously mentioned in the theoretical review chapter of this book (Reid
et al., 2001; Bae et al., 2010; Ryan et al., 2002; Ryan et al., 2004; Buckley et
al., 2005; Scholderer and Grunert, 2004). The questions selected to be crossed
with health, taste, convenience and tradition factors, are exactly about these
social-demographic characteristics.
Table 8. Average Factorial Score by Dimension of the Scale of Lifestyle

and Eating Habits, by City
City Health Taste Convenience Tradition

Rome 0.12 -0.21 -0.06 0.07
São Paulo -0.10 0.17 0.05 -0.06
Compared to São Paulo individuals, Romans value more tradition and

health, while the first value taste and convenience, at least regarding the
consumption of ready meals.
To verify the relationship between some social-demographic variables and
each one of the dimensions of the scale, a set of t tests and chi-square tests of
independence are synthesized on the following tables.
The chi-square independence tests show that there is evidence that genus
and health orientation are associated in São Paulo (p-value equal to 0.00) and
in Rome (p-value equal to 0.01), that genus and taste orientation are associated
in Rome (p-value equal to 0.00), and that genus is not associated to
convenience or tradition orientations. Women are more health oriented than
men in both cities are, and in Rome they are also, more taste oriented.
The t tests, that compare the average age of groups of respondents,
highlight that in Rome older people are more oriented to health, taste, and
tradition, while in São Paulo they are more health oriented when assessing
ready meals.
Data Analysis 63
Table 9. Chi-square Tests of Independence between Genus and each one

of the Dimensions of the Scale of Lifestyle and Eating Habits, by City
São Paulo Female Male Total Rome Female Male Total

1° Q – health¹ 28 22 50 1° Q – health 26 12 38
4° Q – health¹ 43 7 50 4° Q – health 35 3 38
Total 71 29 100 Total 61 15 76
1° Q – taste¹ 36 14 50 1° Q – taste 23 15 38
4° Q – taste¹ 35 15 50 4° Q – taste 34 4 38
Total 71 29 100 Total 57 19 76
1° Q – 37 13 50 1° Q – 30 8 38
convenience¹ convenience
4° Q – 37 13 50 4° Q – 26 12 38
convenience¹ convenience
Total 74 26 100 Total 56 20 76
1° Q – 31 19 50 1° Q – 32 6 38
tradition¹ tradition
4° Q – 37 13 50 4° Q – 29 9 38
tradition¹ tradition
Total 68 32 100 Total 61 15 76
1
Only respondents classified in the first and forth quartiles in the respective distribution
of factorial score were considered in the analysis.
Table 10. T tests between Age and each one of the Dimensions of Lifestyle
and Eating Habits, by City
Age (average) São Paulo Rome Age (average) São Paulo Rome
1° Q – health¹ 36.7 36.9 1° Q – 42.8 36.2
convenience¹
4° Q – health¹ 43.8 43.9 4° Q – 40.4 39.8
convenience¹
T test (sig.) 0.00 0.02 T test (sig.) 0.37 0.25
1° Q – taste¹ 39.8 35.5 1° Q – tradition¹ 43.2 38.7
4° Q – taste¹ 42.8 46.3 4° Q – tradition¹ 45.4 45.2
T test (sig.) 0.25 0.00 T test (sig.) 0.40 0.03
1
The t tests in table 11 that compare income per group of respondents,

highlight that in Rome, those with a higher income are more oriented to health
and taste, and that in São Paulo, this group is more oriented to health, taste,
and convenience when assessing their attitudes facing consumption of ready
meals.
Table 11. T tests between Income and each one of the Dimensions of
Lifestyles and Eating Habits, by City
Income São Paulo Rome Income São Paulo Rome

(average) (R$) (€) (average) (R$) (€)
1° Q – health¹ 8,870 3,110 1° Q – convenience¹ 9,190 3,671
4° Q – health¹ 13,050 4,579 4° Q – convenience¹ 12,750 4,237
T tests (sig.) 0.00 0.00 T tests (sig.) 0.00 0.28
1° Q – taste¹ 9,490 2,813 1° Q – tradition¹ 10,210 4,316
4° Q – taste¹ 13,650 5,196 4° Q – tradition¹ 10,250 4,151
T tests (sig.) 0.00 0.00 T tests (sig.) 0.96 0.78
1
As illustrated in table 12, models of multiple linear regressions were

additionally developed to explain the factorial score in each one of the
dimensions of the scale (health, taste, convenience, and tradition orientations).
The following “dummies” were chosen as predictor variables:
a) City – if the respondent is from Rome or São Paulo.

b) Age – total of years (number).
c) Number of people with whom the resident lives (“number_people”).
d) Kind of family – if single (with or without children) or married (with
or without children).
e) Number of monthly meals made with ready-to-eat food.
Since the income variable was measured in Reais (R$) in São Paulo and in
Euros (€) in Rome, it was chosen to set them aside in this phase of the
analysis.
4.2.1. Model of Multiple Linear Regression to Explain Health

Orientation
Table 13 below, presents the output of stepwise variables selection

procedure for multiple linear regression model in which the dependent variable
is “health”, and the 10 predictor variables are those previously described. They
were baptized as “C”, “age”, “number_people”, T1, T2, T3, N1, N2, N3, and
N4. Following, is presented the output of the model considering only the
chosen variables.
Data Analysis 65
Table 12. Codification of the “Dummy” Variables Inserted in the

Regression Models
Kind of family T1 T2 T3
Single without children 0 0 0
Single with children 1 0 0
Married without children 0 1 0
Married with children 0 0 1
City C
São Paulo 0
Rome 1
Number of Meals N1 N2 N3 N4
None 0 0 0 0
≥1<5 1 0 0 0
≥ 5 < 10 0 1 0 0
≥ 10 < 15 0 0 1 0
≥ 15 0 0 0 1
Table 13. Model of Multiple Linear Regression to

Explain Health Orientation
Stepwise Regression: f_health versus city; age; ...
Alpha-to-Enter: 0,05 Alpha-to-Remove: 0,05
Response is f_health on 10 predictors, with N = 333
Step 1 2 3 4
Constant -0,9217 -0,8336 -0,7496 -0,8729
age 0,0223 0,0212 0,0204 0,0210

T-Value 5,31 5,08 4,93 5,08
P-Value 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000
N4 -0,60 -0,66 -0,62

T-Value -2,90 -3,18 -3,00
P-Value 0,004 0,002 0,003
N3 -0,38 -0,35
T-Value -2,47 -2,26
P-Value 0,014 0,025
city 0,21
T-Value 1,97
P-Value 0,050
S 0,961 0,951 0,943 0,939

R-Sq 7,86 10,16 11,79 12,82
R-Sq(adj) 7,58 9,61 10,99 11,76
Mallows Cp 19,9 13,3 9,1 7,2
Regression Analysis: f_health versus age; N3; N4; city
The regression equation is

f_health = - 0,873 + 0,0210 age - 0,351 N3 - 0,617 N4 + 0,206 city
Predictor Coef SE Coef T P VIF

Constant -0,8729 0,1932 -4,52 0,000
age 0,021039 0,004142 5,08 0,000 1,020
N3 -0,3511 0,1556 -2,26 0,025 1,028
N4 -0,6175 0,2061 -3,00 0,003 1,031
city 0,2064 0,1047 1,97 0,050 1,022
S = 0,939356 R-Sq = 12,8% R-Sq(adj) = 11,8%

age 0,0223 0,0212 0,0204 0,0210
T-Value 5,31 5,08 4,93 5,08
P-Value 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000
N4 -0,60 -0,66 -0,62

T-Value -2,90 -3,18 -3,00
P-Value 0,004 0,002 0,003
N3 -0,38 -0,35
T-Value -2,47 -2,26
P-Value 0,014 0,025
city 0,21
T-Value 1,97
66 P-ValuePaulette Siekierski and Mateus 0,050
Canniatti Ponchio
S 0,961 0,951 0,943 0,939
R-Sq 7,86 10,16 11,79 12,82
R-Sq(adj) 7,58 Table 13.
9,61 (Continued)
10,99 11,76
Mallows Cp 19,9 13,3 9,1 7,2
Regression Analysis: f_health versus age; N3; N4; city

f_health = - 0,873 + 0,0210 age - 0,351 N3 - 0,617 N4 + 0,206 city

Constant -0,8729 0,1932 -4,52 0,000
age 0,021039 0,004142 5,08 0,000 1,020
N3 -0,3511 0,1556 -2,26 0,025 1,028
N4 -0,6175 0,2061 -3,00 0,003 1,031
city 0,2064 0,1047 1,97 0,050 1,022
S = 0,939356 R-Sq = 12,8% R-Sq(adj) = 11,8%
Analysis of Variance
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 4 42,576 10,644 12,06 0,000
Residual Error 328 289,424 0,882
Total 332 332,000
Source: elaborated by the authors based on the statistical package Minitab 16.
According to the model of table 13, it may be affirmed that:
a) as individuals age, they prioritize health orientation;

b) Romans, in comparison to citizens of São Paulo, and maintain fixed
other variables of the model , give more value to health;
c) The greater the number of meals made with ready meals (N3, N4),
maintaining city, and age fixed, lesser is the value given by the
individual to health dimension.
4.2.2. Model of Multiple Linear Regression to Explain Taste

Orientation

is “taste”, and the 10 predictor variables are those previously described. They
N4. Following, is presented the output of the model considering only the
chosen variables.
Data Analysis 67
Table 14. Analysis of Multiple Linear Regression to

Explain Taste Orientation
Stepwise Regression: f_taste versus city; age; ...
Response is f_taste on 10 predictors, with N = 333
Step 1 2 3
Constant -0,6201 -0,4303 -0,4281
Age 0,0150 0,0142 0,0155

T-Value 3,49 3,35 3,69
P-Value 0,001 0,001 0,000
City -0,35 -0,38

T-Value -3,29 -3,62
P-Value 0,001 0,000
T1 -0,70
T-Value -3,17
P-Value 0,002
S 0,984 0,969 0,956

R-Sq 3,56 6,62 9,38
R-Sq(adj) 3,27 6,06 8,56
Mallows Cp 20,3 11,2 3,2
Regression Analysis: f_taste versus age; city; T1

f_taste = - 0,428 + 0,0155 idade - 0,384 cidade - 0,705 T1

Constant -0,4281 0,1891 -2,26 0,024
Age 0,015518 0,004204 3,69 0,000 1,013
City -0,3837 0,1061 -3,62 0,000 1,012
T1 -0,7049 0,2227 -3,17 0,002 1,020
S = 0,956267 R-Sq = 9,4% R-Sq(adj) = 8,6%
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 3 31,147 10,382 11,35 0,000
Total 332 332,000
According to the model of table 14 it may be affirmed that:
a) taste orientation is positively influenced by age;

b) São Paulo, maintained constant the other variables, value taste more
than Romans;
c) single with children, in comparison to single without children, give
less importance to taste (maintained “age” and “city” fixed).
4.2.3. Analysis of Multiple Linear Regression to Explain

Convenience Orientation

N4. Sequentially, is presented the output of the model considering only the
chosen variables.
According to the model of table 15, it may be affirmed that:
a) married individuals, with or without children, in comparison to single

without children (maintained fixed the age variable), have greater
orientation towards convenience;
b) as they age, individuals diminish their convenience orientation. Even
though statistically meaningful, this result however does not seem to
be significant in practical terms, not only due to low coefficient value
of the age variable, but also to the analysis results presented in table 7.

Explain Convenience Orientation
Stepwise Regression: f_convenience versus city; age; ...
Response is f_convenience on 6 predictors, with N = 333
Step 1 2 3
Constant -0,25914 -0,35418 0,02133
T3 0,45 0,54 0,71

T-Value 4,12 4,66 5,19
P-Value 0,000 0,000 0,000
T2 0,43 0,48
T-Value 2,17 2,42
P-Value 0,031 0,016
Age -0,0116
T-Value -2,30
P-Value 0,022
S 0,977 0,971 0,965

R-Sq 4,89 6,23 7,71
R-Sq(adj) 4,60 5,66 6,87
Mallows Cp 13,1 10,3 6,9
Regression Analysis: f_convenience versus T2; T3; age

f_convenience = 0,021 + 0,478 T2 + 0,710 T3 - 0,0116 age

Constant 0,0213 0,1874 0,11 0,909
T2 0,4779 0,1976 2,42 0,016 1,178
T3 0,7101 0,1367 5,19 0,000 1,628
Age -0,011556 0,005017 -2,30 0,022 1,417
S = 0,965030 R-Sq = 7,7% R-Sq(adj) = 6,9%

T2 0,43 0,48
T-Value 2,17 2,42
P-Value 0,031 0,016
Age -0,0116
T-Value -2,30
P-Value 0,022
S 0,977 0,971 0,965

R-Sq 4,89 6,23 7,71
R-Sq(adj) 4,60 5,66 6,87
Mallows Cp 13,1 Data Analysis6,9
10,3 69
Regression Analysis: f_convenience versus T2; T3; age

f_convenience = 0,021 + 0,478 T2 + 0,710 T3 - 0,0116 age

Constant 0,0213 0,1874 0,11 0,909
T2 0,4779 0,1976 2,42 0,016 1,178
T3 0,7101 0,1367 5,19 0,000 1,628
Age -0,011556 0,005017 -2,30 0,022 1,417
S = 0,965030 R-Sq = 7,7% R-Sq(adj) = 6,9%
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 3 25,6082 8,5361 9,17 0,000
Residual Error 329 306,3918 0,9313
Total 332 332,0000
4.2.4. Model of Multiple Linear Regression to Explain Tradition

Orientation

N4. Sequentially, is presented the output of the model considering only the
chosen variables.
According to the model of table 16, it may be affirmed that as the amount
of meals made by the respondent with ready meals per month increases, its
estimate of tradition orientation diminishes. This result is in line with the
presented Literature Review.

Explain Tradition Orientation
Stepwise Regression: f_tradition versus city; age; ...
Response is f_tradition on 10 predictors, with N = 333
Step 1 2 3 4
Constant -0,4411 -0,3901 -0,2842 0,9961
N1 1,006 0,955 0,849 -0,431

T-Value 10,50 9,73 8,08 -2,11
P-Value 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,035
N4 -0,42 -0,52 -1,80

T-Value -2,16 -2,68 -7,07
P-Value 0,031 0,008 0,000
N3 -0,40 -1,68
T-Value -2,66 -7,38
P-Value 0,008 0,000
N2 -1,49
T-Value -7,15
P-Value 0,000
S 0,867 0,863 0,855 0,796

R-Sq 25,00 26,05 27,61 37,37
R-Sq(adj) 24,77 25,60 26,95 36,61
Mallows Cp 59,5 56,1 50,0 1,5
Regression Analysis: f_tradition versus N1; N4; N3; N2

f_tradition = 0,996 - 0,431 N1 - 1,80 N4 - 1,68 N3 - 1,49 N2

Constant 0,9961 0,1931 5,16 0,000
N1 -0,4310 0,2040 -2,11 0,035 5,384
N4 -1,8015 0,2547 -7,07 0,000 2,190
N3 -1,6840 0,2281 -7,38 0,000 3,074
N2 -1,4895 0,2083 -7,15 0,000 4,895
S = 0,796192 R-Sq = 37,4% R-Sq(adj) = 36,6%
Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 4 124,074 31,018 48,93 0,000
Total 332 332,000
Chapter 5
5. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
The proposition of this book was to deepen the knowledge about the
influence of lifestyles associated to eating habits of ready meals through a
comparative study between Brazilian consumers from the city of São Paulo
and Italian consumers from the city of Rome.
5.1. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

The specific objectives of this research were to analyze the influence of
social-demographic variables in the choice of a ready-to-eat food product, the
assessment of the importance of health, taste, convenience and tradition in the
consumption of ready meals, and compare the habit of eating this kind of food
product among respondents of São Paulo and Rome.
For such purposes, the study held a Literature Review of a series of works
relating lifestyles, eating habits and consumption of ready meals. The survey
methodology was defined through this knowledge, with a proposal of an
exploratory study and a positivist paradigm.
The variables and the orientations to be studied were selected, and the
questionnaire was divided in two parts. Part 1 with 11 questions about 11
variables of control, and part 2 in which 21 variables were divided into 65
questions that indicate the lifestyles associated to the consumption of ready
meals.
The questionnaires applied in this research were based on others validated
in a series of works that studied similar themes in several countries. They also
underwent pre-tests conducted in Brazil and Italy with respondents of the same
profile as those of the target public, and with specialists in Marketing of Agro
food products.
Were obtained for analysis 200 questionnaires electronically filled up by
São Paulo respondents, and 155 by Roman respondents. Using the exploratory
factorial analysis technique, the structural dimension of the 14 construct
indicators was analyzed. These were divided as follows: 4 of health, 4 of taste,
3 of convenience, and 3 of tradition. As expected, it was possible to extract 4
factors from the analysis. The health, taste, convenience and tradition
dimensions were afterwards crossed with 6 social-demographic variables such
as age, type of family (single with or without children, married with or without
children), number of residents in the house, kind of activity (work and/or
study), consumption of ready meals, and net monthly income of the family. It
was possible to relate the concepts developed in the theoretical reference
chapter to the specific objectives proposed at the beginning of this research
through the obtained results.
As mentioned in the Literature Review chapter, according to Wells and
Tigert (1971) and Hawkins et al. (2007), lifestyle can be defined as how a
person lives. It is how an individual represents his self-image, and is
determined by previous experiences, innate characteristics and present
situation. The lifestyle influences his consumption habits and is a function of
individual characteristics, which are formed by his social interaction. The
terms LIFESTYLES and PSYCHOGRAPHIC FACTORS are frequently
intertwined. Studying them includes attitudes; values; activities and interests;
demographic factors; media standards and amount of use. Attitudes are
evaluative declarations about other people, places, ideas, products, etc. Values
are deeply rooted beliefs about what is acceptable and what is not. Activities
and interests are non-occupational behaviors to which the consumers dedicate
time and effort, like hobbies, sports, community services and church.
Demographic factors are age, academic education, income, occupation, family
structure, ethnic legacy, gender and geographic location. Media standards are
the used medias. Amount of use is the measurement of consumption of a
specific category of products such as frequent, normal, little frequent and non-
user. Statistical techniques such as cluster analysis are used to form groups
that have similar answer patterns.
In accordance to Scholderer and Grunert (2005), the influence of social-
demographics variables on the usage of prepared food is mediated by
convenience orientations. The result of their studying highlights the
relationship that exists between the social–demographic variables and the
consumption of ready meals. Increased number of women in the job market,
Final Considerations 73
growing amount of singles, and of one-person families, search for

individuality, need of free time, prosperity of the consumer, sharing of
traditional meals and aging of the population are some of the social-
demographic characteristics which led the consumer to search for foods that
respond to their need for convenience such as ready meals (Reid et al., 2001;
Bae et al., 2010; Ryan et al., 2002; Ryan et al., 2004; Buckley et al., 2005;
Scholderer and Grunert, 2004).
According to Verlegh and Candel (1999), Sholderer and Grunert (2005),
Blalock et al. (1999), Senauer (2001), Darian and Klein (1989) and Candel
(2001), convenience orientation has impact on the behavior related to
practicality, like the purchase of ready-to-eat products, usage of commercial
businesses, eating out and meal substitutes at home. Income, size of the
family, and feeling of time pressure are pointed out as determiners for the
orientation towards convenience.
The quality of the convenience is related to not only time spent in the
kitchen, (which covers time as well as physical and mental effort) but also to
the time spent with purchase, storage, preparation and consumption of foods.
Therefore, attitudes in face of convenience affect the behavior itself, which
depends directly of the involvement of consumers with food and their
domestic resources (Brunso et al., 2002).
In this book, the indicators to measure the “convenience” construct were
precisely issues related to “time and purchase method”, once ready meals
products are valued by the consumer that does not have much free time. It was
possible to verify that the greatest consumers of ready meals are females,
people that either work or study full time and those that have a middle-to-
upper class income.
According to the results, the consumers of both cities have different styles
as to food. The study of Vanhonacker et al. (2010) indicates that the elderly
population of southern Europe is more traditional regarding food. Similarly, in
this research, consumers of Rome present greater concern with tradition and
health. To Askegaard and Madsen (1998), Germanic cultures are more
concerned with health, and in Italy importance would be given to the sensorial
element.
Research results that indicate the FRL – food related lifestyles of the
consumer in Brazil were not found. This study showed that in São Paulo there
is greater emphasis in convenience and taste. The taste dimension finds
support from anthropologist Da Mata (2001), in the observation that one of the
most important Brazilian social reflections is food, existing what he calls
“food code”, that theoretically expresses the society. According to this author,
to the Brazilian “knowing how to eat is more refined than the simple act of
feeding oneself” (2001, p. 55). São Paulo takes pride in being a gastronomic
pole and many social activities of the city’s habitant happen in gatherings that
involve food. Therefore, the taste dimension is easily explainable.
Simultaneously, the convenience dimension is supported by another
characteristic of the city: the fact that it is a main urban centre. Maluf (2001)
indicates that the circumstances of contemporary life and the impact of
advertising have altered the manner of purchase and consumption of foods,
highlighting the relevance of ready meals in São Paulo. Casotti (2001), in a
research in Rio de Janeiro, suggests that the consumption of frozen and
prepared food is associated to the convenience of usage.
5.2. ACADEMIC AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS

One of the contributions of this research is that nowadays in Brazil there
are few academic works about this subject, while the amount of articles is
higher abroad. This means that in Brazil there is a lot of room for publications
on this topic, with a rich source of information available in international
databases. As previously mentioned at the beginning of this research, in Brazil
stands out the works of Professor Dr. Marcia Dutra de Barcellos, who studies
FRL - food related lifestyle -, cross-cultural instrument developed by Professor
Dr. Klaus G. Grunert at MAPP (Centre for Research on Customer Relations in
the Food Sector – Aarhus University/Denmark). As an example, the author
published studies about lifestyles and obesity from data obtained from five
European countries (Péres-Cueto et al., 2010), and about trends in global food
consumption (Barcellos, 2009).
Another positive academic contribution of this study are the versions in
Italian and in Portuguese that had their scales of FRL – food related lifestyle;
RTE – ready to eat; and convenience consumer validated in countries where
they had not yet been tested.
One of the managerial implications of this research is the importance for
Marketing to understand the reasons that led to the growth of ready meals
market, to offer the consumers products that meet their wishes and needs.
Between 2009 and 2010, the world market of ready-to-eat food grew 4.0% in
value and 3% in volume. These annual growth rates should be maintained until
2014 (DATAMONITOR, 2009; DATAMONITOR, 2010; MARKET LINE
INDUSTRY PROFILE, 2013). One of the main reasons for this growth is the
orientation towards convenience. Factors such as the increase in the amount of
Final Considerations 75
single people, and of women in the job market, search for convenience, aging
of the population, prosperity of the consumer, desire for new experiences
contributed in this aspect. Individuality, decrease of cooking skills, sharing of
traditional meals, new technologies in conservation methods, packaging and
preparation of foods must be included in the list. The emergence of freezers
and microwave ovens had a fundamental impact on the growth of the
convenience food market.
In addition, as the demand for ready meals became higher, the quality of
these products became more important. Factors related to lifestyles, such as
health, taste, convenience and tradition have more relevance in this analysis.
The same applies to expenses with food that had a remarkable growth.
(Scholderer and Grunert, 2005; Buckley et al., 2005; Ryan et al., 2002; Ryan
et al., 2004; Costa et al., 2007; Olsen, 2010; Frewer et al., 2010).
It is believed that the result of this line of investigation will be relevant not
only for the development of new products, but also to the positioning of
products and brands that act in the studied markets, or even to identify new
market segments through cluster analysis, and understanding generation
differences of both cities.
5.3. LIMITATIONS
According to Malhotra et al. (2009), one of the limitations of a research
that works with convenience samples is that it is not representative of any
definable target population, and may suffer biased selection, and therefore
individuals that were part of a sample by convenience may have characteristics
different of those that define the target-population. In addition, some people do
not answer on-line questionnaires due to internet fears, being afraid of viruses,
and even for not knowing personally the responsible for the research.
International Marketing research represents a challenge to scholars once it
deals with the same theme in several contexts. On the other hand, it is also
more complex than the domestic research, for several reasons, being the access
to the desired information the greatest difficulty, as well as the elevated costs
in obtaining those (Malhotra et al., 2009).
5.4. PROPOSALS FOR FUTURE STUDIES

A suggestion for future studies would be a research that used samples with
a greater number of respondents or of probabilistic samples, enabling the
development of hypothesis with devisable results. Enlarge data collection with
bigger samples and different population subgroups may allow the usage of
more sophisticated multivariate techniques, in order to cross social-
demographic and psychographic variables.
Variables such as age, type of family (single with or without children,
married with or without children), number of residents of the house, kind of
activity (work and/or study), consumption of ready meals and net monthly
income of the family were crossed with health, taste, convenience and
tradition orientations. These analyses can certainly be benefited by the
incorporation of new social-demographic and psychographic variables.
It would be interesting to carry out studies that compared samples of other
Brazilian and Italian cities, regarding lifestyles associated to eating habits in
the consumption of ready meals.
Another proposal would be to develop studies that compared the influence
of lifestyles associated to eating habits in the consumption of ready meals
besides Brazil and Italy.
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INDEX
boosters, 35
A Brazil, 4, 13, 16, 18, 20, 39, 43, 47, 48, 50,
53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 71, 73,
access, 75
74, 76
accessibility, 30
Britain, 23, 28, 36, 40, 46, 85
adaptation, 25, 49, 50, 77
Buddhism, 15
adjustment, 46
business environment, 16
aesthetic, 86
businesses, 73
age, 1, 2, 8, 17, 28, 41, 54, 61, 62, 64, 66,
buyer, 19
67, 68, 69, 72, 76
aggregation, 11
amplitude, 16 C
annihilation, 20
Arab countries, 24 calcium, 13
Asia, 23, 33 Caribbean, 25
assessment, 19, 21, 49, 71, 84 Chicago, 87
assets, 34 chicken, 12
attitudes, 1, 8, 12, 14, 25, 26, 28, 29, 35, 36, childhood, 24
40, 50, 63, 72, 73, 81, 86 children, 41, 42, 56, 57, 62, 64, 67, 68, 72,
authenticity, 29 76
authority(s), 19, 23 China, 13, 22, 23
city(s), vii, 6, 24, 61, 62, 63, 64, 73, 75, 76
citizens, 66
B civilization, 16, 17
classes, 9, 24
beer, 13
cleaning, 4, 34
behaviors, 10, 11, 14, 35, 36, 40, 72, 82
climate, 7
Belgium, 1, 13, 28
cluster analysis, 2, 17, 72, 75
beverages, 24
clustering, 12
bias, 50, 57, 61
clusters, 2, 10
body weight, 1, 28
cognitive capacity, 49
bonds, 20
90 Index
coherence, 20 cultural values, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22

collectivism, 18 culture, 2, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,
commerce, 32 20, 21, 22, 23, 28, 29, 30, 80, 82, 83
commercial, 22, 35, 73 CV, 86
commodity, 3
communication, 10, 15, 19, 20, 21
community, 8, 23, 72 D
community service, 72
data analysis, 5
competitiveness, 24
data collection, 5, 6, 39, 40, 41, 47, 50, 76
compliance, 17
database, 4
composition, 51
decay, 25
conception, 25
demographic change, 36
conceptualization, 79, 87
demographic characteristics, 1, 5, 6, 28, 41,
configuration, 29
43, 51, 53, 61, 73
conflict, 84
demographic data, 27
Confucius, 23
demographic factors, 4, 8, 72
conservation, 25, 30, 36, 75
Denmark, 4, 25, 26, 27, 39, 46, 51, 74, 77,
construction, 85
78, 81, 83, 85
consulting, 50
dependent variable, 64, 66, 68, 69
consumer choice, 86
depth, 15
consumers, vii, 1, 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 19, 20, 22,
developed countries, 61
25, 26, 27, 28, 35, 36, 40, 41, 46, 47, 51,
dimensionality, 51
61, 71, 72, 73, 74, 77, 78, 81, 82, 85, 86
distribution, 10, 17, 24, 30, 32, 63, 64
consumption, vii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
diversity, 20, 22
13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 26,
domestic resources, 36, 73
27, 28, 29, 32, 35, 36, 40, 41, 43, 45, 49,
58, 59, 62, 63, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78,
80, 81, 83, 85, 86, 87 E
consumption habits, vii, 13, 14, 15, 72
consumption patterns, 85 eating habits, vii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 13,
convenience, vii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 13, 26, 14, 22, 25, 26, 28, 39, 40, 50, 51, 53, 61,
28, 34, 35, 36, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 71, 76
49, 51, 52, 53, 62, 63, 64, 68, 71, 72, 73, education, 8, 20, 41, 56, 72
74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 85, 86 elderly population, 73
conversations, 50 emotion, 10
cooking, 1, 3, 4, 26, 27, 28, 29, 75 employees, 17, 18, 57
correlation(s), 10, 46 employment, 35
cost, 28, 34, 48, 49 energy, 35
country of origin, 29 energy consumption, 35
covering, 17 England, 23
Croatia, 27, 40, 46, 83 environment(s), 3, 11, 25
cross-validation, 83 ethics, 23
cultural differences, 23, 51, 82 ethnic diversity, 16, 22
cultural heritage, 16 ethnocentrism, 1, 28, 29, 85
cultural influence, 15, 87
Index 91
Europe, vii, 1, 22, 24, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, geography, 8
34, 60, 73, 77, 83 Germanic cultures, vii, 73
European market, 31, 32, 33 Germany, 27, 31, 40, 46, 78
everyday life, 80 global competition, 84, 85
evidence, 62 globalization, 7, 15, 17, 20, 21, 29, 30, 83
evolution, 7, 21, 47 grading, 10, 11, 12
execution, 39 Great Britain, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 31, 35, 40,
extraction, 46 46, 51, 78, 79
Greece, 22, 23
growth, 4, 33, 34, 35, 36, 62, 74
F growth rate, 34, 74
factor analysis, 46, 80

families, 1, 12, 28, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36, 59, H
62, 73, 79, 84
family meals, 24 health, vii, 1, 2, 3, 6, 10, 13, 25, 28, 35, 36,
farmers, 7, 23 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 51, 52, 53, 62, 63,
fast food, 29 64, 66, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 81
fat, 24, 25, 44 health status, 77
fear(s), 48, 75 heterogeneity, 20, 77
feelings, 8, 12, 14 history, 16, 29
femininity, 18 homes, 51
flavor, vii, 24, 25, 28, 30, 35 homogeneity, 77
flavor dimension, viii honesty, 10
flexibility, 20 House, 42
food, vii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 13, 22, 23, 24, 25, housing, 8
26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 35, 36, 40, 41, hub, viii
44, 45, 49, 51, 57, 58, 64, 71, 72, 73, 74, human, 10, 11, 15, 18, 19
77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86 human behavior, 18, 19
food code, viii, 73 human values, 10
food habits, vii husband, 57
food industry, vii, 1, 83 hypothesis, 48, 76
food products, 3, 24, 26, 27, 28, 33, 35, 36,
40, 41, 44, 45, 49, 57, 72
force, 35 I
formal education, 28
ideal, 15
formation, 20
identity, 14, 15, 16, 22
France, 1, 13, 23, 25, 27, 28, 31, 40, 46, 51,
images, 20, 29
78, 85
immigrants, 20
fruits, 24
incidence, 24
functional food, 78
income, 3, 4, 8, 35, 41, 61, 62, 63, 64, 72,
73, 76
G independence, 62, 63
individual character, 14, 72
genus, 62 individual characteristics, 14, 72
92 Index
individualism, 4, 18, 35 loyalty, 18

individuality, 73 LTC, 80, 84
individuals, 1, 2, 10, 28, 46, 47, 49, 50, 54,
62, 66, 68, 75
industrialization, 23 M
industries, 13
majority, 13, 16, 24, 25
infrastructure, 30
man, 14
ingestion, 23
management, 48, 82
ingredients, 3, 24, 29
mapping, 8
institutions, 82
marital status, 2, 41, 54
internal consistency, 47
market segment, viii, 8, 75
international competition, 25
market share, 31
interpersonal communication, 19
marketing, 77, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 87
inventions, 18
marketing strategy, 82, 87
investments, 37
marriage, 10, 20
Ireland, 27, 40, 46, 51, 85
masculinity, 18
issues, 8, 11, 19, 44, 73, 81
mass, 19, 20
Italy, vii, 1, 23, 28, 31, 39, 43, 47, 48, 50,
matrix, 5, 41
53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 71, 73,
matter, 22, 25, 29, 41, 49, 83
76
meal preparation, vii, 1, 79
measurement(s), vii, 36, 51, 72, 79, 83
K meat, 23, 25
media, 7, 8, 10, 72, 86
Korea, 77 Mediterranean, 23, 78
mental energy, 34
mental processes, 19
L messages, 20
methodological procedures, 5, 6, 39
landscape, 23
methodology, 5, 12, 14, 19, 27, 39, 50, 71
Latin America, 4, 18
middle class, 24, 25
laws, 14
Middle East, 23
lead, 3, 9, 10, 11, 14, 19, 28, 31
models, 5, 19, 39, 41, 64
leisure, vii, 1, 10
modernism, 16
leisure time, vii
modifications, 50
level of education, 1, 28
multiculturalism, vii, 6, 7, 14, 16, 21, 22
liberty, 24
multidimensional, 12
life cycle, 8
multivariate, 12
lifestyles, vii, ix, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
multivariate analysis, 12
11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 21, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,
31, 36, 39, 40, 41, 43, 50, 51, 61, 71, 73,
74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 85 N
light, 3, 25
Likert scale, 41, 42, 48, 49, 50 national culture, 16, 22, 24, 25
logistics, 25 national product, 29
love, 12 natural food, 23
Index 93
Netherlands, 2, 28 producers, 7, 24, 36

neutral, 41 product market, 78
North America, 12, 15, 16 professionals, 8, 11
Norway, 1, 28 programming, 15
nostalgia, 29 project, 20, 39
nutrition, 12, 78, 80 proposition, 71
prosperity, 4, 40, 62, 73, 75
prototypes, 86
O psychology, 83
purchasing power, 3
obedience, 10, 23
obesity, 4, 25, 74, 85
opportunities, 37 Q
oppression, 19
optimists, 12 questionnaire, 5, 27, 40, 42, 43, 47, 48, 49,
organic food, 77 50, 51, 53, 61, 71, 78
organize, 14
originality, 28
R
P ready food, vii

ready meals, vii, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 30, 31, 32,
Pacific, 33 33, 36, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50,
parents, 57 51, 58, 59, 62, 63, 66, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74,
pasta, 15, 23 75, 76, 80
perceived health, 78 real time, 48
perfectionism, 15 reality, 24
perseverance, 18 recognition, 21
personal goals, 9 recreation, 8
personality, 8, 12, 14, 19, 20 recycling, 24
personality characteristics, 12 red wine, 13
personality factors, 12 regions of the world, 24
platform, 47 regression, 64, 66, 68, 69
pleasure, 1, 3, 10, 13, 16, 28, 45 regression model, 64, 66, 68, 69
Poland, 1, 28 relevance, viii, 74, 75
politics, 8, 16 reliability, 17, 49, 50, 51, 80, 83
population, vii, 4, 13, 36, 47, 48, 49, 50, 61, religion, 20
62, 73, 75, 76 religiosity, 10
precedent, 51 religious traditions, 20
predictor variables, 64, 66, 68, 69 representativeness, 27, 40
preparation, vii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 23, 26, 29, 30, 35, reproduction, 18
36, 40, 48, 49, 73, 75, 79 requirements, 22
prepared foods, viii researchers, 21
prestige, 10 resources, 19, 36, 40
principles, 9, 15, 21 response, vii, 15, 47, 48
procedural knowledge, 44 restaurants, 44
94 Index
rewards, 18 Spain, 1, 27, 28, 40, 46

risks, 18 specialists, 49, 50, 72
room temperature, 30 spending, vii, 35, 45
roots, 15, 29, 35 spontaneity, 26
rules, 18 stability, 10
rural population, 28 standard of living, 11
statistics, 53
stimulation, 10
S storage, 2, 36, 73
stress, 3, 40
safety, 10, 11, 81
structural dimension, 72
school, 56
structure, 4, 6, 26, 40, 46, 72
schooling, 2, 16
style, 78, 81, 83, 85
security, 26, 48
subgroups, 76
self-concept, 83
substitutes, 73
self-image, 14, 72
surveillance, 81
sensory element, vii
survival, 10
services, vii, 1, 8, 15, 21, 33, 34
Switzerland, 13, 29
shape, 12, 84
shortage, 79
signals, 46 T
signs, 2, 28
Singapore, 25, 27, 40, 46, 51, 85 Taiwan, 27, 40, 46, 80
snacking, 40 target, 5, 8, 11, 14, 47, 49, 50, 72, 75
soccer, 15 target population, 5, 50, 75
social activities, viii, 74 teachers, 56, 57
social class, 9, 24, 25 techniques, 36, 72, 76
social development, 23 technology(s), 12, 75
social environment, 15 teeth, 25
social events, 8 telephone, 12
social group, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 21, 22 temperature, 30
social justice, 10 testing, 12, 78
social network, 47 time pressure, 3, 4, 40, 73
social order, 10 traditions, 1, 13, 14, 20, 23, 28
social psychology, 17 traits, 77, 81
social relations, 26 translation, 48, 50
social relationships, 26 transmission, 14
social status, 24 transport, 24
social support, 10 transportation, 25
socialization, 24
society, viii, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, 29, 73,
81 U
socio-demographic variables, vii
United, 13, 84
software, 15, 82, 84
United Kingdom (UK), 13, 84, 86
South America, 33
universe, 5, 6, 17, 39, 47
South Korea, 28, 40, 46
Index 95
urban, viii, 28, 74

USA, 24
W
waste, 45
V water, 31
wealth, 23
validation, 5, 6, 39, 47, 49, 80, 85 Western Europe, 3
variables, vii, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 21, workers, 56
39, 41, 43, 44, 49, 51, 53, 61, 62, 64, 66, workforce, 4, 17
67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 76 working class, 24
variations, 45, 48 working hours, 4
vegetables, 12 worldwide, 7, 16, 19, 32, 33
viruses, 75 worry, 28
vision(s), 8, 11, 48, 86
X
xenophobia, 20

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FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH

Additional books in this series can be found on Nova’s website

Additional e-books in this series can be found on Nova’s website

NOTICE TO THE READER

Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014945910

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

Paulo, there is a greater emphasis on convenience and flavor. The flavor

AIO - activities, interests and opinions

Paulette Siekierski, M.Sc.

Mateus Canniatti Ponchio, Ph.D.

1.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE AND SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

a) Analyze the influence of social demographic variables in the choice of

b) Assess the importance of the factors of health, taste, convenience, and

The orientation to health, taste, convenience, and tradition will be assessed

c) Compare eating habits of ready meals of consumers from São Paulo

Even living in different cultural environments, the behavior of individual

1.2. JUSTIFICATIONS FOR THE STUDY

1.3. METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURES

1.4. STUDY STRUCTURE

Chapter 1, Introduction, comprises four sections: general objective and

2.1.1. Lifestyle and Social Conditions

Weber (2004) relates lifestyle to status groups, frame worked in

Frame 1. Lifestyles and Social Conditions

Rokeach (1973) proposes different kinds of values: personal, related to

social goals; and social, related to collective interest. It is a theoretical model

2.1.2. Lifestyles and Psychological Profiles

Frame 2 synthesizes studies regarding lifestyles and psychological

Frame 2. Lifestyles and Psychological Profiles

Plummer (1974) studies lifestyles standards based on the behavior of

characteristics (14 referring to lifestyles and 20 referring to personality), only

2.1.3. Lifestyles and Consumption Habits

Frame 3, synthesizes the ideas proposed in some studies about lifestyles

international consumer behavior that are based on lifestyles besides

Frame 3. Lifestyles and Consumption Habits

Plummer (1974) Lifestyle patterns are based on the behavior of people,

According to Hawkins et al. (2007), in response to the quick expansion of

A civilization promotes a cultural standard without necessarily

globalization movement and to a set of symbols that express the specific

a) Distance from Power, also called Hierarchical Distance - a measure of

behavior is evident. It is important to correlate the purchase behavior of the

The homogenizing process of culture, the project of creating a

The homogenizing of culture does not mean the disappearance of

Featherston (1990) highlights that cultural globalization does not merely

2.2.1. Global Culture and Diversification

Frame 4 shows the chronologic evolution of what researchers think about

Frame 4. Global Culture and Diversification

Any society’s way of life. Includes conduct details of a normal

Studying multiculturalism is important for the understanding of eating

2.3. LIFESTYLES, CULTURE AND EATING HABITS

conquests, colonies, foreign invaders, as the crusaders, were brought a

According to Jain (1993), eating is an act of socialization and the refusal

even meat, thanks to the conservation and packaging methods, and to

2.3.1. Cognitive Structures Model for FRL – Food Related

According to Reid et al. (2001), the FRL – food related lifestyle – is a

Source: Reid et al., 2001, p. 64.

Figure 1 presents the model used to outline relevant parts of the

Source: Reid et al., 2001, p.65.

Figure 1. Cognitive Structures Model for Food-Related Lifestyles – FRL.

The author presented through this model characteristics of the FRL

To better understand the theory of James (1996), it is enough to think of

necessarily reflect any movement towards a homogenous and shared food