energies

Concept Paper
Isobaric Expansion Engines: New Opportunities in
Energy Conversion for Heat Engines, Pumps
and Compressors
Maxim Glushenkov 1 , Alexander Kronberg 1, *, Torben Knoke 2 and Eugeny Y. Kenig 2,3
1 Encontech B.V. ET/TE, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands; m.j.glouchenkov@utwente.nl
2 Chair of Fluid Process Engineering, Paderborn University, Pohlweg 55, 33098 Paderborn, Germany;
torben.knoke@uni-paderborn.de (T.K.); eugeny.kenig@uni-paderborn.de (E.Y.K.)
3 Chair of Thermodynamics and Heat Engines, Gubkin Russian State University of Oil and Gas,
Leninsky Prospekt 65, Moscow 119991, Russia
* Correspondence: a.e.kronberg@utwente.nl or info@encontech.nl; Tel.: +31-53-489-1088

Received: 12 December 2017; Accepted: 4 January 2018; Published: 8 January 2018

Abstract: Isobaric expansion (IE) engines are a very uncommon type of heat-to-mechanical-power
converters, radically different from all well-known heat engines. Useful work is extracted during
an isobaric expansion process, i.e., without a polytropic gas/vapour expansion accompanied
by a pressure decrease typical of state-of-the-art piston engines, turbines, etc. This distinctive
feature permits isobaric expansion machines to serve as very simple and inexpensive heat-driven
pumps and compressors as well as heat-to-shaft-power converters with desired speed/torque.
Commercial application of such machines, however, is scarce, mainly due to a low efficiency.
This article aims to revive the long-known concept by proposing important modifications to make IE
machines competitive and cost-effective alternatives to state-of-the-art heat conversion technologies.
Experimental and theoretical results supporting the isobaric expansion technology are presented and
promising potential applications, including emerging power generation methods, are discussed. It is
shown that dense working fluids with high thermal expansion at high process temperature and low
compressibility at low temperature make it possible to operate with reasonable thermal efficiencies
at ultra-low heat source temperatures (70–100 ◦ C). Regeneration/recuperation of heat can increase
the efficiency notably and extend the area of application of these machines to higher heat source
temperatures. For heat source temperatures of 200–600 ◦ C, the efficiency of these machines can reach
20–50% thus making them a flexible, economical and energy efficient alternative to many today’s
power generation technologies, first of all organic Rankine cycle (ORC).

Keywords: isobaric expansion; alternative engine; unconventional engine; low-grade heat; waste
heat; hydraulic output; heat-driven pump; regenerator; ORC

1. Introduction
Heat-to-electricity conversion machines (engines) operating on Rankine cycle account for the
lion’s share of worldwide power generation. The higher the temperature of the heat source, the more
efficient, economical and compact is the engine. Vice versa, efficiency drops while cost and footprint
rise with decreasing heat source temperature. For temperatures below 300 ◦ C, water steam turns
to be inefficient as a working fluid, and hence, alternative fluids with lower boiling temperatures
must be applied. Such modified cycles are called Organic Rankine Cycles, or ORC [1,2]. When the
heat source temperature is below 100 ◦ C, the increased cost of ORC cycle installation makes the
process uneconomical. A similar trend is valid for power range (i.e., size of the machines); large-scale
Rankine cycle plants are the most efficient and economical, whereas mini-scale (less than 50 kW) and

Energies 2018, 11, 154; doi:10.3390/en11010154 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 154 2 of 22

micro-scale (less than 1 kW) plants are unavailable on the market because of their high cost and low
efficiency [3]. As a result, low-temperature heat and small-scale applications are not covered by the
state-of-the-art technologies.
The heart and most expensive (up to 69% of capital cost [3,4]) and complex part of a Rankine cycle
plant is the expansion machine, e.g., a turbine or a piston-based expander. The expansion machine
converts energy of a hot, compressed steam (vapour) into mechanical energy. The development of new
types of expansion machines and the improvement of the today’s well-known expanders is one of the
main research directions in the Rankine cycle-based and ORC-based power generation [5,6].
An expansion machine, extracting work during polytropic (ideal case: isentropic) gas or vapour
expansion is a key element of all state-of-the-art heat-to-power converters (heat engines)—gas
or steam turbines, piston engines, etc. However, there exists another, less known, class of heat
engines. In this class, there is no polytropic gas/vapour expansion accompanied by notable pressure
fall. The Worthington direct-acting steam pump [7] and the Bush compressor [8] represent this
type of engines. By convention, they can be called isobaric expansion (IE) machines, although,
in some cases, the actual expansion process they perform can substantially deviate from isobaricity.
In essence, the main distinguishing feature of these machines is the absence of a polytropic gas/vapour
expansion stage in expansion machine, resulting in a simple, low-cost design. In addition to power
generation, these engines are able to pump liquids and compress gases using heat directly, without
any intermediate stages such as shaft power/electricity generation.
In spite of all these advantages, the technical application of these machines is very limited, mainly
because of their low efficiency. Several thermo-compressors that employ the principle of isobaric
expansion have been constructed and investigated in the 1970s, but their thermal efficiencies were
rather disappointing. The compressor of Air Products and Chemicals achieved a thermal efficiency of
not more than 5.4% at a hot temperature of over 550 ◦ C (9% of Carnot efficiency) [9], compressors with
hot temperatures above 625 ◦ C built by McDonald Douglas corporation and Aerojet/Nimbus operated
with 14.4% (20% of Carnot efficiency) and 18% (28% of Carnot efficiency) respectively [10–12].
In this paper, we propose significant changes to the original concepts of the Worthington steam
pump and the Bush thermo-compressor, aiming to increase their efficiency to the levels comparable
or even superior to modern heat engines, above of all ORC power plants. These modifications
include the application of dense working fluids with high thermal expansion at high process
temperature and low compressibility at low temperature instead of gases, new concepts for efficient
heat regeneration/recuperation and further technical improvements. We provide experimental results
obtained in a lab-scale unit to prove the technical feasibility of the proposed concepts. Moreover,
thermodynamic simulations for a number of selected working fluids and operating conditions
were carried out in order to display the capability of improved IE machines. Finally, some further
technical modifications and potential application areas including emerging power generation methods
are discussed.

2. Isobaric Expansion Machines

2.1. Worthington Direct-Acting Steam Pump

The most known examples of isobaric expansion machines are so-called Worthington’s or
direct-acting steam pumps [7] invented and patented by Henry Worthington around 1841. Remarkably,
such types of machines are still being produced and operated as boiler feed pumps, ship emergency
pumps, etc., without any significant changes in the original design.
The basic principle of a so-called single-acting steam pump is shown in Figure 1. The pump
consists of steam cylinder 1 and pumping cylinder 2, with steam piston 3 and a pumping
piston 4 inside, correspondingly.
Energies 2018, 11, 154 3 of 22
Energies 2018, 11, 154 3 of 22

Energies 2018, 11, 154 3 of 22

Figure 1. Scheme of a single-acting Worthington steam pump. 1—steam cylinder, 2—pumping

Figure 1. Scheme of a single-acting Worthington steam pump. 1—steam cylinder, 2—pumping cylinder,
cylinder, 3—steam piston, 4—pumping piston, 5—connecting rod, 6—steam inlet valve, 7—steam
3—steam piston,
outlet 8—liquid inletpiston,
valve,4—pumping 5—connecting
valve, 9—liquid rod, 6—steam inlet valve, 7—steam outlet valve,
outlet valve.
8—liquid inlet valve, 9—liquid outlet valve.
The pistons are rigidly connected by rod 5 and move together as a unit. The steam cylinder is
equipped with steam inlet/admission valve 6 and outlet/exhaust valve 7 shown at the top.
The pistons areScheme
Figure 1. the
rigidly connected by
of a single-acting
rod 5 and move together ascylinder,a unit.2—pumping
The steam cylinder
Accordingly, pumping cylinder hasWorthington
inlet/suctionsteam valvepump.
8 and 1—steam
outlet/discharge valve 9. The inlet
is equipped
and outletwith
cylinder, steam
3—steam
valves inlet/admission
of thepiston,
steam4—pumping valve
cylinder arepiston,forcedly 6 and
5—connecting outlet/exhaust
actuated; the rod,valves
6—steam valve
inlet
of the 7 shown
cylinderat
valve, 7—steam
pumping arethe top.
Accordingly, thevalve,
outlet
self-acting. pumping 8—liquid cylinder has
inlet valve, inlet/suction
9—liquid outlet valve. valve 8 and outlet/discharge valve 9. The inlet
and outlet valves
When the ofinlet
thevalve
steam cylinder
of the are forcedly
steam cylinder opens, steamactuated;entersthe valves and
the cylinder of the
moves pumping
the pistoncylinder
The pistons
performing pumpingare rigidly
strokeconnected
in the pumping by rod 5cylinder.
and move Thetogether as a unit.
valve remains The during
open steam cylinder
the whole is
are self-acting.
equipped
stroke, with steam inlet/admission valve 6 and outlet/exhaust valve 7 shown at the top.
When thei.e.,
Accordingly, inlet steam
valve
the
enters
of the
pumping
thesteam
cylinder at constant
cylinder opens, pressure
steam and
entersdoesthe notcylinder
expand and in the cylinder.
moves the piston
Therefore, during the wholecylinder
stroke, thehas pressure
inlet/suctionin the valve
steam 8 and outlet/discharge
cylinder valve 9.
remains constant. The inlet
performing pumping
and outlet stroke in the pumping cylinder. The valve remains open during the whole
are stroke,
Such avalvesprocess of can
the steam cylinder
be defined as an are forcedly
isobaric actuated;At
expansion. thethevalves
end ofof the
the pumping
stroke, thecylinder
inlet steam
i.e., steam enters
closesthe
self-acting.
valve andcylinder
the outlet at constant
valve opens. The pressure and does
steam exhausts from not theexpand
cylinderin andthe
thecylinder.
piston moves Therefore,
during the When
underthe
backwhole inlet
stroke,
the valve
the of
pressure ofliquid
the steam
pressure incylinder
the steam
entering opens,
through steam
cylinder
the inletenters
remains
valve the
the cylinder
constant.
pumping and moves Therefore,
cylinder. the piston
performing pumping
Such
theareciprocating
process be stroke
canmotion defined
of theinpiston
the pumping
as anunit isobaric cylinder. The
expansion.
is accompanied byvalve
At the
pumping remains
end
and ofopen during
the stroke,
suction the whole
of a liquid theininlet
the steam
stroke,
pumping i.e., steam
cylinder. enters the cylinder at constant pressure and does not expand in the cylinder.
valve closes and during
Therefore,
the outlet valvestroke,
theawhole
opens. The steam
the pressure
exhausts
in the steam
from the
cylinder
cylinder
remains
and the piston moves
constant. and has no
The pump uses very simple valves actuation system without a cut-off mechanism
back under Such the pressure of liquid entering through the inlet valve the pumping cylinder. Therefore,
crank gearaand process can be defined as an isobaric expansion. At the end of the stroke, the
no flywheel. inlet steam
the reciprocating
valveDepending motion
closes and on of
the the the
outlet piston
valve opens.
diameters
unit
of theThe
is accompanied
steamsteam
andexhausts
pumping
by
from pumping
the cylinder
pistons,
and suction
and thepressure
the discharge
of a liquid
piston moves
of the
in the
pumping back under
to be the
cylinder.
liquid pumpedpressure
can ofbeliquid entering
equal to, lower through
or higherthe thaninlet
thevalve
steamthe pumping
pressure. Thecylinder.
pump can Therefore,
operate
the
The reciprocating
atpump
very uses
high a motion of the
very simple
temperatures (uppiston 400unit
valves
to ispump
accompanied
actuation
°C), system
liquids by apumping
in without
very broadaand suction
cut-off
range ofofviscosities
a liquid inand
mechanism the has no
and
pumping
compress cylinder.
gases.
crank gear and no flywheel.
The
Direct pumpactinguses a very
pumps simple
are very valves actuation system without a cut-off mechanism and has no
Depending
crank gear on
and the
no diameters
flywheel. of simple,
the steam reliable
and and cheap.
pumping They are
pistons, probably the oldest
the discharge machines
pressure of the
on the market [13].
liquid to be Depending
pumped can be diameters
onfeature
the equal to, of lower or higher
the steam and than thepistons,
pumping steamthe pressure.
discharge The pumpofcan the operate
A remarkable of direct acting◦
pumps is that they pump liquids directly bypressure
the use of heat
at very liquid
high totemperatures
without be pumped can
interposition of(up to 400
be equal
electricity to,
and C),
lower pump
withoutor higher
a longliquids
than thein
sequence a very
steam
of broad
pressure.
energy Therange
pumpof
transformations can viscosities
operate
typical for and
compress at very
gases. high temperatures (up to 400 °C), pump liquids in a
conventional Rankine cycle installations such as conversion into rotary motion and electricity very broad range of viscosities and
compress
Direct acting
generation. gases.
pumps are very simple, reliable and cheap. They are probably the oldest machines
Direct
Obviously, actingany pumps
directareacting
very simple,
pump reliable
can also and becheap.
used They are probably the
as a heat-to-shaft oldest machines
or electrical power
on the market [13].
on the market [13].
converter. We believe that the simplest way to design such a process is to use a hydraulic circuit with
A remarkable
A remarkable feature of of direct acting pumps is that they pump liquids directly by the use of
a hydraulic motor. feature
A functional direct actingofpumps
scheme such a is that
power they
plantpump
with liquids directlypump
a single-acting by theisuse of heat
shown in
heat without
without interposition of electricity and without a long sequence of energy transformations
Figure 2.interposition of electricity and without a long sequence of energy transformations typical for
typical conventional
for conventional RankineRankine cycle installations
cycle installations such as conversion such asinto conversion
rotary motion into and rotary motion and
electricity
generation.
electricity generation.
Obviously, any direct acting pump can also be used as a heat-to-shaft or electrical power
Obviously, any direct acting pump can also be used as a heat-to-shaft or electrical power converter.
converter. We believe that the simplest way to design such a process is to use a hydraulic circuit with
We believe that the simplest way to design such a process is to use a hydraulic circuit with a hydraulic
a hydraulic motor. A functional scheme of such a power plant with a single-acting pump is shown in
motor. A functional
Figure 2. scheme of such a power plant with a single-acting pump is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Scheme of a Worthington pump-based power plant producing shaft power. 1—feed water
pump, 2—heat recuperator, 3—evaporator, 4—condenser, 5—high-pressure hydraulic accumulator,
6—low-pressure hydraulic accumulator, 7—hydraulic motor.

Figure 2. Scheme of a Worthington pump-based power plant producing shaft power. 1—feed water
Figure 2. Scheme of a Worthington pump-based power plant producing shaft power. 1—feed water
pump, 2—heat recuperator, 3—evaporator, 4—condenser, 5—high-pressure hydraulic accumulator,
pump, 2—heat recuperator,
6—low-pressure 3—evaporator,
hydraulic motor.5—high-pressure hydraulic accumulator,
4—condenser,
accumulator, 7—hydraulic
6—low-pressure hydraulic accumulator, 7—hydraulic motor.
Energies 2018, 11, 154 4 of 22

Energies 2018, 11, 154 4 of 22

Water is pumped by feed water pump 1 through recuperative heat exchanger (recuperator) 2
and heater (evaporator, boiler) 3 where it is heated and turned to steam. The steam is supplied to the
steam cylinder
Water of the direct
is pumped by feedacting
waterpump
pumpperforming the isobaricheat
1 through recuperative working stroke(recuperator)
exchanger of the piston.2 and
The
exhausted steam cools down and turns back into liquid in recuperator 2 and condenser
heater (evaporator, boiler) 3 where it is heated and turned to steam. The steam is supplied to the steam 4. The energy
of the liquid
cylinder of thedischarged from
direct acting the pumping
pump performing cylinder (ideally,
the isobaric it is a stroke
working hydraulic oil)
of the is converted
piston. to shaft
The exhausted
power in a hydraulic circuit consisting of two high- and low-pressure hydraulic
steam cools down and turns back into liquid in recuperator 2 and condenser 4. The energy of accumulators 5 and
the
6 and hydraulic
liquid dischargedmotor 7 connected
from the pumpingto a load. (ideally,
cylinder The pressure
it is a in high-pressure
hydraulic accumulator
oil) is converted 6 is almost
to shaft power
equal
in to the maximum
a hydraulic delivery pressure
circuit consisting of the
of two high- pump.
and The pressure
low-pressure in the low-pressure
hydraulic accumulatorsaccumulator
5 and 6 and
5 must be sufficient to move the piston of the pump back, displacing
hydraulic motor 7 connected to a load. The pressure in high-pressure accumulator the spent6 issteam
almostfrom
equaltheto
cylinder.
the maximum delivery pressure of the pump. The pressure in the low-pressure accumulator 5 must be
Suchtoa move
sufficient powertheplant has
piston of much
the pumpin common with conventional
back, displacing the spent steamRankine
from cycle plants (boiler,
the cylinder.
condenser, feed water pump) being, however, much simpler and cheaper,
Such a power plant has much in common with conventional Rankine cycle plants (boiler, since inexpensive mass-
market hydraulic
condenser, motorspump)
feed water are used instead
being, of turbines.
however, much simpler and cheaper, since inexpensive
mass-market hydraulic motors are used instead of turbines.
2.2. Bush Thermocompressor Based Expansion Machines
2.2. Bush
The Thermocompressor
isobaric expansionBased Expansion
principle Machines
can be implemented without the feed pump necessary for the
Worthington
The isobaricpump-based
expansionpower plant
principle canshown in Figure 2.without
be implemented Such a pumpless converter
the feed pump can be
necessary forbuilt
the
based on the pump-based
Worthington ingenious conceptpowerofplant
the so-called
shown inBush compressor,
Figure or thermo-compressor,
2. Such a pumpless converter caninvented
be built
by V. on
based Bush in 1939 [8].
the ingenious Laterofon,
concept thevarious
so-calledversions of thermo-compressor
Bush compressor, were proposed
or thermo-compressor, inventedand by
extensively
V. Bush in 1939investigated [14–19].
[8]. Later on, Theversions
various main direction of the researchwere
of thermo-compressor and proposed
development efforts was
and extensively
using the thermo-compressor
investigated [14–19]. The main as adirection
source ofofmechanical
the research power.
and development efforts was using the
A conceptual sketch of a thermo-compressor-based
thermo-compressor as a source of mechanical power. power unit is shown in Figure 3. The
converter consistssketch
A conceptual of cylinder 1 filled with gas, with well-sealed
of a thermo-compressor-based power unit is piston
shown 2 inside,
in Figureso3.that
Thethe piston
converter
subdivides
consists the internal
of cylinder volume
1 filled withofgas,
the with
cylinder into two—hot
well-sealed pistonand cold—parts
2 inside, so thatshown in rose
the piston and blue
subdivides
colours,
the correspondingly.
internal volume of theBoth partsinto
cylinder are two—hot
communicated through heater
and cold—parts 3, regenerator
shown in rose and4blueand colours,
cooler 5
connected in series.
correspondingly. BothThe regenerator
parts plays herethrough
are communicated the same role3,asregenerator
heater the recuperator
4 andof the direct
cooler acting
5 connected
pump shown in Figure 2. The piston can be set in reciprocating motion by means of
in series. The regenerator plays here the same role as the recuperator of the direct acting pump shownsealed rod 6 and
linear
in actuator
Figure 2. The7.piston can be set in reciprocating motion by means of sealed rod 6 and linear actuator 7.

3. Scheme
Figure 3. SchemeofofBush
Bush thermo-compressor-based
thermo-compressor-based shaft-power
shaft-power unit.unit. 1—cylinder,
1—cylinder, 2—piston,
2—piston, 3—
3—heater,
heater, 4—regenerator,
4—regenerator, 5—cooler,
5—cooler, 6—connecting
6—connecting rod, 7—linear
rod, 7—linear actuator,
actuator, 8—diaphragm
8—diaphragm unit, 9—non-
unit, 9—non-return
return valves,
valves, 10—high-pressure
10—high-pressure accumulator,
accumulator, 11—low-pressure
11—low-pressure accumulator,
accumulator, 12—hydraulic
12—hydraulic motor. motor.

The converter
The converter isis equipped
equipped with
with diaphragm
diaphragm unit
unit 8,
8, the
the main
main part
part of
of which
which is
is aa polymer
polymer flexible
flexible
diaphragm separating
diaphragm separating the
the working
working fluid
fluid and
and hydraulic
hydraulic oil
oil in
in the
the closed-loop
closed-loop hydraulic
hydraulic circuit.
circuit. In
In fact,
fact,
the diaphragm plays a role of the pumping piston in the direct-drive steam pump shown in Figure 2.
the diaphragm plays a role of the pumping piston in the direct-drive steam pump shown in Figure 2.
The hydraulic circuit is similar to that shown in Figure 2. The circuit consists of two check
The hydraulic circuit is similar to that shown in Figure 2. The circuit consists of two check valves 9, valves 9,
high- and
high- andlow-pressure
low-pressurehydraulic
hydraulicaccumulators
accumulators1010
andand
11,11,
andand hydraulic
hydraulic motor
motor 12 connected
12 connected to a
to a load
load (e.g., an electric alternator).
(e.g., an electric alternator).
Energies 2018, 11, 154 5 of 22

In operation, the linear actuator sets the piston into a reciprocating motion. Moving down,
the piston displaces some part of the working fluid from the cold to the hot part of the cylinder.
The working fluid passes the cooler, the regenerator and the heater and heats up. Pressure in the
converter rises, and a part of the working fluid is displaced to the diaphragm unit. The diaphragm
transmits the pressure to hydraulic oil which flows through the discharge check valve, high-pressure
accumulator and hydraulic motor to the low-pressure accumulator. The hydraulic motor converts the
oil energy to shaft power.
Moving up, the piston displaces the hot, compressed working fluid through the heater, regenerator
and cooler back to the cold part of the cylinder. The pressure in the cylinder drops down. As soon as it
becomes lower than the charge pressure in the low-pressure accumulator, oil forces the working fluid
from the diaphragm unit back to the cylinder. Afterwards, the cycle repeats.
The regenerator plays a very important role: it stores heat from the previous cycle and uses it to
preheat the working fluid in the next cycle increasing thermodynamic efficiency of the heat conversion.
Theoretically, in case of perfect regeneration possible for ideal gases (working fluid returns to the hot
space of the converter with the temperature of the hot space), the efficiency of the converter can be
equal to the Carnot cycle efficiency.
Low-power (less than 1 kW) machines can have a very simple design, without the external
heater-regenerator-cooler loop. In this case, the upper part of the cylinder is heated, while the lower
one is cooled. A small gap between the piston and cylinder plays the role of the regenerator. In some
cases, the regenerator can also be placed inside the piston. Most of the thermo-compressors were built
according to these two schemes.
Hydraulic power output permits the heat-to-mechanical-energy converter to be improved.
In particular, it makes the actuation of the piston very convenient: some part of the hydraulic power
produced is used for the actuation by means of any type of hydraulic mover, e.g., reciprocating
(hydraulic cylinder) or rotary hydraulic motor equipped with a crank mechanism [20]. There also
exist some advanced versions of the thermo-compressor with a self-oscillating piston [21]. In this case,
the compressor does not need any actuator and, most important, it does not need any sealing; leakages
and seal friction losses are totally eliminated.
In spite of the attractiveness of the isobaric expansion machines, all attempts to develop a
ready-to-market thermo-compressor have failed. It is commonly assumed that the thermo-compressor
represents a particular type of the Stirling engine [22] with typical disadvantages [23,24] inherent in all
Stirling engines.
First of all, the thermo-compressor is very sensitive to the so-called dead volumes. Indeed,
the heater, cooler, regenerator and all connection pipelines have internal volumes, which are
detrimental to the efficiency and the power density. A reason is that heating of the working fluid in
the heater results not only in useful work generation but also in substantial compression of working
fluid in the dead volumes. This harmful effect increases rapidly with the machine power. The power
(i.e., volume) of the engine is proportional to the third power of the size, whereas the heat exchanger
area is proportional only to the second power of the size. In practice, this means that the internal
volume of the heat exchangers grows much faster than the heat exchangers area. The bigger the size of
the machine, the more difficult is the heat supply.
The second drawback is the low thermal expansion of gases. The power density of the machine
is proportional to the difference between the maximum and the minimum cycle pressures. A high
pressure difference can be obtained only at a very high temperature of the heat source and/or at a
high initial pressure of the gaseous working fluid in the machine. Both conditions require expensive,
heat resistant alloys and thick walls worsening heat exchange. Sealing of gases at high pressure is
difficult and can cause additional friction losses. Reaching higher power density by increasing the
cycle frequency results in enhanced flow and frictional losses, generation of frictional heat and wear of
sliding/rubbing parts.
Energies 2018, 11, 154 6 of 22

One
Energies of11,
2018, the154ways to overcome these drawbacks is to use fluids with high thermal expansion 6 of at
22
a high cycle temperature and low compressibility at a low cycle temperature. Fluids that undergo a
phase
phase change
change fromfrom liquid
liquid to
to gas
gas during
during thethe cycle
cycle asas well
well asas supercritical
supercritical fluids
fluids near
near the
the critical
critical point
point
belong
belong to to this
this category.
category. For For brevity,
brevity,we wecall
callthese
thesefluids
fluidsdense
denseworking
workingfluids.
fluids.
Since
Since liquids
liquidshavehavemuchmuch lower
lowercompressibility
compressibility thanthan
gases,gases,
the negative influence
the negative of dead of
influence volume
dead
filled
volume with a liquid
filled with can be reduced
a liquid considerably.
can be reduced considerably.
During the phase phase change,
change, thermal
thermal expansion
expansion of dense dense working
working fluids
fluids at at practically
practically interesting
interesting
operating pressures of 10–100 10–100 bar is is significantly
significantly higher
higher (one-two order of of magnitude)
magnitude) than that for
gases. As a result, the heat heat source
source temperature,
temperature, initial initial pressure
pressure and and speed/frequency
speed/frequency of the cycle cycle
required for the same specific power can be decreased in the machine
required for the same specific power can be decreased in the machine with a dense working fluid. with a dense working fluid.
Boiling and condensation
condensation processes together with higher higher thermal
thermal conductivity
conductivity of liquids
liquids
compared to gases gases facilitate
facilitate heat transfer, because
because of the the decreased
decreased heat heat transfer
transfer resistance
resistance on thethe
working fluid side. In addition, sealing of liquids is much simpler
working fluid side. In addition, sealing of liquids is much simpler as compared to gases. as compared to gases. The higher
thermal
thermal conductivity
conductivityand andheat
heatcapacity
capacity ofof
liquids
liquids facilitates thethe
facilitates removal
removal of the
of heat of friction
the heat and thus
of friction and
reduces wear of rubbing
thus reduces wear of rubbing parts.parts.
Despite the fact fact that
thatthe
thedirect-acting
direct-actingpumps pumpsused used liquid
liquid (water)
(water) from fromthethe
veryvery beginning,
beginning, the
the
firstfirst attempts
attempts to useto liquid
use liquid in Bush-type
in Bush-type machines machines
startedstarted
not untilnottheuntil the seventies
seventies of the
of the last last
century
century
[14,25–27].[14,25–27]. Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, this interesting
this interesting development development
was not followedwas not upfollowed
in spite ofupencouraging
in spite of
encouraging
theoretical data theoretical data and expectations
and expectations [22]. We may [22]. We may
assume thatassume that lowefficiency
low thermal thermal efficiency and
and technical
technical
complexity complexity of theused
of the engines engines
were used
the were
reasons. the reasons.
As
As ininthethecase
caseof of
gaseous
gaseousworking
working fluids, it is also
fluids, it is possible to realise
also possible self-oscillating
to realise piston designs
self-oscillating piston
for machines
designs with dense
for machines withworking fluids [28–31].
dense working A functional
fluids [28–31]. schemescheme
A functional of one of one suchofself-driven
such self-
machines is shown
driven machines is in Figure
shown in 4.
Figure 4.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Scheme
Scheme of Bush-type self-driven
of Bush-type self-driven machine;
machine; A—hot
A—hot part,
part, B and C—cold
B and C—cold parts
parts with
with the
the
displacer in intermediate (left) and two extreme positions.
displacer in intermediate (left) and two extreme positions.

For simplicity, the diaphragm unit and the hydraulic circuit are not shown; so the machine is
For simplicity, the diaphragm unit and the hydraulic circuit are not shown; so the machine is
depicted as a pump for the liquid used as the working fluid. The pump consists of a differential
depicted as a pump for the liquid used as the working fluid. The pump consists of a differential
cylinder with a differential piston inside. The piston divides the internal volume of the cylinder into
cylinder with a differential piston inside. The piston divides the internal volume of the cylinder into
three parts: heated (hot) part A and two cold parts B and C. The machine is equipped with an external
three parts: heated (hot) part A and two cold parts B and C. The machine is equipped with an external
cooler, regenerator and heater. In non-operating condition, the piston is maintained in the middle
cooler, regenerator and heater. In non-operating condition, the piston is maintained in the middle
position inside the cylinder by means of a spring, shown in the lower part of the cylinder.
position inside the cylinder by means of a spring, shown in the lower part of the cylinder.
The lower part of the cylinder has three fluid ports communicated by a manifold. The manifold
The lower part of the cylinder has three fluid ports communicated by a manifold. The manifold is
is equipped with two self-acting (suction and discharge) non-return valves. There is a passage inside
equipped with two self-acting (suction and discharge) non-return valves. There is a passage inside
the piston allowing the piston to operate as a valve: in the lower and upper positions of the piston,
the piston allowing the piston to operate as a valve: in the lower and upper positions of the piston,
the passage communicates the part B of the cylinder with the part C. The parts A and B are always
the passage communicates the part B of the cylinder with the part C. The parts A and B are always
communicated through the cooler, regenerator and heater.
communicated through the cooler, regenerator and heater.
When the working fluid is heated and turns into vapour, pressure in the parts A and B rises
forcing the piston down and compressing the spring. In addition, the piston displaces the working
fluid from the cold part B through the cooler, regenerator and heater to the hot part A causing a
further rise of pressure and forcing the piston down. The liquid from the part C is displaced into the
manifold and then discharged through the lower non-return valve to the delivery line. When the
Energies 2018, 11, 154 7 of 22

When the working fluid is heated and turns into vapour, pressure in the parts A and B rises
forcing the piston down and compressing the spring. In addition, the piston displaces the working
fluid from the cold part B through the cooler, regenerator and heater to the hot part A causing a further
rise of pressure and forcing the piston down. The liquid from the part C is displaced into the manifold
and then discharged through the lower non-return valve to the delivery line. When the piston
Energies 2018, 11, 154
reaches
7 of 22
the lower position, it stops and communicates parts A, B and C, equalising the pressure inside the
pistonDuring
cylinder. reaches this
the lower position,
stage, it stops and
some amount of communicates
liquid from the parts A, BA
part and
is C, equalising
also forced the pressure
to the manifold
inside the cylinder. During this stage, some amount of liquid from the
and discharged through the valve to the delivery line. Afterwards, the spring pushes the piston part A is also forced to the up,
disconnecting the parts B and C. Moving up, the piston displaces the working fluid back fromthe
manifold and discharged through the valve to the delivery line. Afterwards, the spring pushes the hot
piston up, disconnecting the parts B and C. Moving up, the piston displaces the working fluid back
part A to the cold part B. Going through the regenerator and the cooler, the vapour turns into liquid
from the hot part A to the cold part B. Going through the regenerator and the cooler, the vapour turns
and the pressure in the parts A and B drops below the pressure in the part C, manifold and suction
into liquid and the pressure in the parts A and B drops below the pressure in the part C, manifold
line. Liquid from the suction line enters the part C, forces the piston up and expands the spring.
and suction line. Liquid from the suction line enters the part C, forces the piston up and expands the
In the
spring. upper position, the passage in the piston communicates the parts B and C, again equalising
the pressure.
In theLiquid from the
upper position, thesuction
passage line
in theand
pistonthecommunicates
manifold enters the Bpart
the parts and BC,and
againthen the part A
equalising
through
the the cooler,Liquid
pressure. regenerator
from theand heater,
suction heats
line andup theand turns into
manifold entersvapour.
the part AtBthe
andsame
thentime, the A
the part spring
through the cooler, regenerator and heater, heats up and turns into vapour.
pulls the piston down; the piston disconnects parts B and C, the pressure rises again starting the At the same time, the
spring pulls the piston down; the piston disconnects parts B and C, the pressure rises again starting
next cycle.
the next cycle.
3. Experimental Investigation
3. Experimental Investigation
We studied the operation of a self-driven small-scale Bush-type engine/pump with R134a
We studied the operation of a self-driven small-scale Bush-type engine/pump with R134a
refrigerant as working fluid using the experimental set-up shown in Figure 5. The basic principle of
refrigerant as working fluid using the experimental set-up shown in Figure 5. The basic principle of
operation of this machine is shown in Figure 4. Due to low power the machine does not need external
operation of this machine is shown in Figure 4. Due to low power the machine does not need external
heat exchangers. SideSide
heat exchangers. surface ofof
surface thethecylinder
cylinderwall is sufficient
wall is sufficienttotosupply
supply and
and reject
reject heatheat
whenwhen working
working
fluid fluid
flowsflows
through the annular gap between the cylinder and displacer. A part of the annular
through the annular gap between the cylinder and displacer. A part of the annular gap in gap in
between heated
between andand
heated cooled parts
cooled partsplays
playsthe
the role
role of regenerator.
regenerator.ToToenhance
enhance heat
heat exchange,
exchange, the side
the side
surface of displacer
surface is well-developed
of displacer is well-developedby bymeans
means of of plurality
plurality ofofsmall
smallgrooves.
grooves.

Figure
Figure 5. Scheme
5. Scheme ofofthe
theexperimental
experimental setup.
setup.1—IE engine,
1—IE 2—heating
engine, jacket, jacket,
2—heating 3—cooling jacket, 4—
3—cooling jacket,
diaphragm unit, 5—non-return valves, 6—high-pressure accumulator, 7—low-pressure accumulator,
4—diaphragm unit, 5—non-return valves, 6—high-pressure accumulator, 7—low-pressure accumulator,
8—throttle valve, PT—pressure transmitters, FT—flow transmitter.
8—throttle valve, PT—pressure transmitters, FT—flow transmitter.

The setup included IE machine 1 with a cylinder inner diameter of 30 mm and a displacer stroke
The setup
length of 40included IE machine
mm provided 1 with
with heating a cylinder
jacket inner
2 (heater) and diameter of 30
cooling jacket mm andHot
3 (cooler). a displacer
water withstroke
length of 40 mm varying
temperature provided with heating
between jacket
50 and 90 2 (heater)inand
°C circulating thecooling
heating,jacket
upper 3jacket
(cooler). Hot water
was used as the with
heat source.
temperature The lower
varying part of
between 50the
and 90 ◦ C was
cylinder cooled with
circulating coldheating,
in the (25 °C) water
uppercirculating
jacket wasthrough
used aas the
heat source. The lower part of the cylinder was cooled with cold (25 C) water circulatingrubber
cooling jacket. Pressure pulses generated by the engine were transmitted
◦ through a through a
diaphragm of diaphragm unit 4 to hydraulic oil circulating in a hydraulic circuit which included two
cooling jacket. Pressure pulses generated by the engine were transmitted through a rubber diaphragm
non-return valves 4, two high- and low-pressure 160 mL hydraulic accumulators 6 and 7 and needle
of diaphragm unit 4 to hydraulic oil circulating in a hydraulic circuit which included two non-return
throttling valve 8. The valve imitated a load throttling the oil flow from the high-pressure to the low-
valves 4, two high- and low-pressure 160 mL hydraulic accumulators 6 and 7 and needle throttling
pressure accumulator. The pressures before and after the throttle valve as well as pressure inside the
cylinder were measured by pressure transmitters PT (Sendo JF302 5MPa gauge, Ninghai Sendo
Sensor Co., Ltd, Hangzhou, China with 0.5% accuracy and 4 ms response time).
Energies 2018, 11, 154 8 of 22

valve 8. The valve imitated a load throttling the oil flow from the high-pressure to the low-pressure
accumulator. The pressures before and after the throttle valve as well as pressure inside the cylinder
were measured by pressure transmitters PT (Sendo JF302 5MPa gauge, Ninghai Sendo Sensor Co., Ltd.,
Hangzhou, China, with 0.5% accuracy and 4 ms response time).
Independently, the pressures were controlled by 6 MPa Empeo manometers with 1.6%
Energies 2018, 11, 154 8 of 22 accuracy

(are not shown) installed in parallel with the pressure transmitters. The oil flow rate was measured
Independently, the pressures were controlled by 6 MPa Empeo manometers with 1.6% accuracy
by gear flow transmitter FT (Profimess VM-01.0.1 with accuracy of ±2%) installed in the line after
(are not shown) installed in parallel with the pressure transmitters. The oil flow rate was measured
the throttle valve.
by gear flowAll transmitters
transmitter had 4–20
FT (Profimess ma output
VM-01.0.1 to avoid
with accuracy influence
of ±2%) installedofincable lengths.
the line after theSignal of
the transmitters wereAllprocessed
throttle valve. and
transmitters haddisplayed by 12
4–20 ma output to bits
avoidPicoLog
influence1000 data
of cable acquisition
lengths. Signal ofsystem
the with
transmittersrate.
1 MS/s sampling wereTemperature
processed and displayed
of hot and by cooling
12 bits PicoLog
water 1000
weredata acquisition
measured bysystem
two 3with
mm1 shielded
K-types MS/s sampling rate.pre-calibrated
thermocouples, Temperature of hot and range
in the coolingofwater
0–100were measured by two 3 mm shielded K-
◦ C.
types thermocouples, pre-calibrated in the range of 0–100 °C.
The machine demonstrated a self-starting ability and very stable, repeatable operation. The results
The machine demonstrated a self-starting ability and very stable, repeatable operation. The
for two different hot water temperatures
results for two different are shown
hot water temperatures in Figure
are shown 6. 6.
in Figure

R134a, 65 oC R134a, 90 oC
17 5 27 5
16 4.5 25 4.5
15 4 23
4
21
14 3.5 3.5
19
Pressure, bar

Pressure, bar

13 3 3

Flow rate, l/min

17
Flow rate, l/min

12 2.5 15 2.5
11 2 13 2
10 1.5 11
1.5
9
9 1 1
7
8 0.5 0.5
5
7 0 3 0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Time, s Time, s

Pressure inside the engine Pressure inside the engine

Pressure in high-pressure accumulator Pressure in high-pressure accumulator

Pressure in low-pressure accumulator Pressure in low-pressure accumulator
Flow rate Flow rate

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Examples of pressure change and pumped flow rate in the self-driven Bush-type engine;
Examples
Figure 6.working of pressure change and pumped flow rate in the self-driven Bush-type engine;
fluid: R134a; temperature of the cooler: 25 °C; temperature of the heater: 65°C (a) and
working 90°C R134a; temperature of the cooler: 25 ◦ C; temperature of the heater: 65 ◦ C (a) and 90 ◦ C (b).
fluid:(b).

As can be seen, the machine can pump liquid with a considerable pressure differences (up to 20
As can be seen, the machine can pump liquid with a considerable pressure differences (up to
bar) even at such low temperature differences. At higher temperatures, the generated pressure
20 bar) even at such
difference low temperature
can reach tens and hundreds differences. At higher
of bar, depending on temperatures,
the working fluids. theThegenerated
measured pressure
difference can reach
power was uptens
to 20and hundreds
W. The power wasof bar, depending
calculated on the working
as the product fluids.flow
of the measured Therate
measured
of the power
hydraulic oil and the pressure difference over the throttling valve. The heat
was up to 20 W. The power was calculated as the product of the measured flow rate of the hydraulic supply to the engine was oil
not measured in the presented setup, so that the thermal efficiency could not
and the pressure difference over the throttling valve. The heat supply to the engine was not measured be evaluated directly.
Some estimates of the efficiency were made by replacing the heating jacket with an aluminium cast
in the presented setup, so that the thermal efficiency could not be evaluated directly. Some estimates
electric heater. It was found that the thermal efficiency could be as high as 50% of the Carnot
of the efficiency werewithout
efficiency even madecareful
by replacing the heating
thermal insulation of the jacket
hot enginewith anand
parts aluminium
without othercast electric heater.
measures
It was found that the
to decrease heatthermal
losses. Theefficiency
efficiencycould be as high
was estimated as 50%
as a ratio of engine
of the the Carnot
power efficiency even without
to electric power
supplied insulation
careful thermal to the heater.ofBoth
thethehotefficiency
engine and partspower
andstrongly
without depend
otheron the temperatures,
measures the load
to decrease heat losses.
(resistance to the oil flow) and the amount of the working fluid in the engine. The estimated efficiency
The efficiency was estimated as a ratio of the engine power to electric power supplied to the heater.
and power are very promising taking into account the temperatures and size of the investigated
Both theengine.
efficiency and power strongly depend on the temperatures, the load (resistance to the oil
flow) and theAamount
remarkable of the working
feature fluid in
of the engine is the engine.
the ability to The
adaptestimated
to the load:efficiency
at a givenandheatpower
source are very
promising taking into
temperature, the account
engine canthe temperatures
deliver and size
the same hydraulic of the
power investigated
at different engine.
combinations of pressures
and flow ratesfeature
A remarkable depending of on theengine
the load. When the ability
is the pressure toin the high-pressure
adapt accumulator
to the load: increases,
at a given heat source
the engine immediately generates a higher pressure and a lower flow rate. Such a self-adaptation is
temperature, the engine can deliver the same hydraulic power at different combinations of pressures
very useful for practical implementation.
and flow rates depending on the load. When the pressure in the high-pressure accumulator increases,
the engine immediately generates a higher pressure and a lower flow rate. Such a self-adaptation is
very useful for practical implementation.
Energies 2018, 11, 154 9 of 22

4. Efficiency of Isobaric Expansion Machines with Dense Working Fluids

4.1. Thermodynamic Modelling

To estimate the efficiency of the machines described in the previous sections, thermodynamic
models where developed for both the Worthington-type machine and the Bush-type engine. Here,
the basic equations used for the calculation of the engines efficiencies are presented.

4.1.1. Worthington-Type Engine

The thermal efficiency is defined as the work produced during a full cycle in relation to the
supplied heat:
W
η= (1)
QH
In a simplified model of the Worthington-type single-acting engine (cf. Figure 2), the cycle starts
with vaporised working fluid entering the steam cylinder. The pressure increases up to the maximum
cycle pressure at constant (minimum) volume of the fluid in the steam cylinder. We assume the initial
volume in the steam cylinder to be equal to zero, therefore isochoric pressurisation does not apply and
pressure in the steam cylinder rises to the maximum value immediately. As soon as the maximum
pressure is established, further supply of steam results in expansion of the fluid in the steam cylinder
and, consequently, in expansion work. When reaching the maximum volume, the pressure inside the
steam cylinder is reduced by a throttled exhaust of working fluid at constant steam cylinder volume.
Afterwards, the steam cylinder volume is reduced back to its minimum while working fluid leaves the
steam cylinder at constant low pressure. The expansion-compression work performed by the piston
during this process is:  
WE = Phigh − Plow ∆VE (2)

In this equation, Phigh and Plow are the pressures during the expansion and compression processes,
and ∆VE is the change of steam volume in the cylinder. The pumping work, assuming a reversible
process with negligible changes in kinetic and potential energies, can be determined as:
   
WP = mtot h Phigh , TP,out − h( Plow , TC ) (3)

where mtot is the total mass of the working fluid pumped per cycle, h( P, T ) is the enthalpy of the
working fluid per unit mass, TC is the temperature at the inlet of the pump and TP,out is the discharge
temperature of the pump. The discharge pump temperature can be determined assuming an isentropic
pump operation.
The net value of the work produced during the cycle is found as:

W = WE − WP (4)

The working fluid is heated up in a heater from the pump discharge temperature (usually slightly
above the temperature of the cooler) to the desired inlet temperature of the steam cylinder. This heat
transfer process can be assisted by a recuperative heat exchanger, recovering a part of the heat the
working fluid exhausted from the steam cylinder. In this case, the duty of the heater depends on
the performance of the recuperator, i.e., on the temperature of the working fluid at the outlet of the
recuperator TR,out :     
Q H = mtot h Phigh , TH − h Phigh , TR,out (5)

In order to determine TR,out from the energy balance of the recuperator, the inlet temperature
of the countercurrent stream TR,in coming from the steam cylinder is necessary. It was assumed that
the pressure of the steam exhausted from the steam cylinder decreases from the high cycle pressure
Phigh to the low cycle pressure Plow in a throttle located before the recuperator for technical reasons.
Energies 2018, 11, 154 10 of 22

The exhaust valve of the steam cylinder may play the role of the throttle. This pressure reduction
process was considered as a Joule—Thompson expansion. Neglecting the changes in kinetic and
potential energy, the temperatures in the cylinder and at the inlet of the recuperator are related by an
equation ensuring no enthalpy change in this process:

h = ( PE , TE ) = h( Plow , TR,in ) (6)

The calculated temperatures TR,in and TE were always above the saturation temperature; therefore,
no condensation was taken into account in Equation (6).
Finally, temperature and pressure in the cylinder, PE and TE or before the exhaust valve during
the pressure reduction process and backstroke of the piston were determined from the energy balance
for the adiabatic process:
ρ( T, P)dh = dP (7)

where ρ( T, P) is the fluid density. Although the amount of working fluid in the cylinder reduces the
energy, the balance equation (Equation (7)) is the same as that for adiabatic expansion of a fluid of
constant mass.
Equations (2)–(7) together with an equation for the recuperation efficiency (see e.g., Equation (11)
below) permit calculation of the amount of heat supplied by the heater Q H and ultimately the thermal
efficiency (Equation (1)).

4.1.2. Bush-Type Engine

The useful work generated during the cycle is:
I I I
W= P dVtot = P dVH + P dVC (8)

where the total engine volume Vtot consists of the volumes of the hot space, VH , the cold space,
VC and the regenerator VR which does not change during engine operation. The interdependence of
temperatures and volumes of the individual engine compartments and the pressure is expressed by
the equation for the total mass of the working fluid:

mtot = ρ( P, TH )VH + ρ( P, TC )VC + ρ( P, TR )VR (9)

The heat supply to the hot part is determined from the energy balance of this space, neglecting
changes of kinetic and potential energies:
I
QH = PdVH + ∆Q H (10)

∆Q H is the energy required to heat the displaced working fluid from the regenerator outlet
temperature (or low cycle temperature TC , if there is no regenerator) to the high cycle temperature
TH . A method to estimate the performance of the regenerator is presented in the subsequent section.
With Equations (8) and (10), the thermal efficiency η = QWH can be evaluated.
The modelling of the Bush-type engine is explained in more detail in [32].

4.2. Estimation of the Regeneration/Recuperation Efficiency

The performance of the recuperative and regenerative heat exchangers (or recuperator and
regenerator) in both considered engine types strongly affects the efficiency of the respective engine.
As there is no functional difference between regeneration and recuperation, we will use the term
regenerator for both these types of heat exchangers.
In an ideal regenerator, the heat removed from the working fluid during its cooling would be
completely returned to the working fluid during heating. This, however, is unrealistic because of
Energies 2018, 11, 154 11 of 22

thermodynamic and technical limitations of actual heat transfer processes. For instance, different
heat capacities of the working fluid during heating and cooling make it impossible to achieve perfect
regeneration. This is particularly true for cycles in which dense working fluids are evaporated at
a high pressure (and temperature) and condensed at a lower pressure. The heat of condensation
Energies 2018, 11, 154 11 of 22
cannot be used to provide the latent heat for evaporation in such a case. In addition, a positive driving
temperature difference
high pressure (andbetween the hot
temperature) and and cold stream
condensed at a lowerinpressure.
a heat exchanger must be maintained.
The heat of condensation cannot
A reasonable value ofthe
be used to provide this temperature
latent differenceinfor
heat for evaporation a real
such heat
a case. In exchanger needs todriving
addition, a positive be found in
temperature difference between the hot and cold stream in a heat exchanger must
accordance to desired performance and available space. To estimate the regeneration efficiencies for be maintained.
A reasonable value of this temperature difference for a real heat exchanger needs to be found in
the, composite curves [33] for the heating and cooling processes are determined. They give the amount
accordance to desired performance and available space. To estimate the regeneration efficiencies for
of energy required to obtain a certain temperature change over the investigated temperature range.
the, composite curves [33] for the heating and cooling processes are determined. They give the
The regeneration
amount of potential can be
energy required foundaby
to obtain shifting
certain the heating
temperature changecurve (receiving
over the heat)
investigated sufficiently far
temperature
to maintain a minimum
range. temperature
The regeneration potentialdifference
can be foundbetween the cooling
by shifting curvecurve
the heating (providing
(receivingheat)
heat)and the
sufficiently
heating curve. far to7 maintain
Figure a minimumoftemperature
shows examples such compositedifference between
curves. Thethedashed
coolingred
curve (providing
line illustrates the
heat) and
heating curve the heating
resulting in acurve. Figure temperature
minimum 7 shows examples of such composite
difference of 0 K whichcurves. The dashedthe
represents redtheoretical
line
illustrates the heating curve resulting in a minimum temperature difference of 0 K which represents
maximum of regeneration. The solid red line is an example for a positive minimum temperature
the theoretical maximum of regeneration. The solid red line is an example for a positive minimum
difference. The regeneration
temperature difference.efficiency is defined
The regeneration as the
efficiency ratio ofasheat
is defined the to beofrecovered
ratio heat to be in the regenerator
recovered in
to the total energy to be supplied to the engine:
the regenerator to the total energy to be supplied to the engine:
Q
η = QR
ηR =R QR +RQH (11) (11)
QR + Q H

Figure 7. Example of composite curves during isobaric cooling and heating at different pressures;
Figure 7. Example of composite curves during isobaric cooling and heating at different pressures;
(QC)’, (QR)’ and (QH)’ are shown for the theoretical maximum of regeneration, whereas (QC), (QR) and
(QC )0 , (Q(Q 0
R )H)and (QH )0 are
correspond to ashown for the
real situation theoretical
with maximum
the positive minimum of regeneration,
temperature whereas (QC ), (QR ) and
difference.
(QH ) correspond to a real situation with the positive minimum temperature difference.
The higher the minimum temperature difference is, the lower is the regeneration efficiency. The
regeneration efficiency of the Bush-type engine can be higher than that of the Worthington-type
The higher the minimum temperature difference is, the lower is the regeneration efficiency.
engine, as the condensation in the Bush-type engine occurs not only during the isobaric process, but
The regeneration
also duringefficiency of process
the isochoric the Bush-type engine
at decreasing can be
pressure. higher
Hence, than that
compared of Worthington-type
to the the Worthington-type
engine, as the condensation
process, in the
a larger portion of theheat
Bush-type engine
of condensation canoccurs not only during the isobaric process,
be recovered.
but also during the isochoric process at decreasing pressure. Hence, compared to the Worthington-type
process, 4.3. Simulation
a larger Results
portion of the heat of condensation can be recovered.
The models of Worthington-type and Bush-type engines together with the approach to estimate
4.3. Simulation Results efficiency described above (Equations (1)–(11)) were implemented in a MATLAB
the regeneration
environment to study the influence of different operating pressures and working fluids on the
Theefficiency
models of Worthington-type and Bush-type engines together with the approach to estimate
of both engine types. The simulations were performed for two distinctive cases: (1) the
the regeneration efficiency described above (Equations (1)–(11)) were implemented in a MATLAB
Energies 2018, 11, 154 12 of 22

environment to study the influence of different operating pressures and working fluids on the efficiency
of both engine types. The simulations were performed for two distinctive cases: (1) the simplest
case without regeneration and (2) a regenerative operation, assuming that a minimum temperature
difference of 5 K in the regenerator is realised. Dead volumes were not taken into account, even though
they may have a negative effect on the efficiency of Bush-type engines. Different working fluids were
investigated. Thermodynamic properties of the working fluids were obtained from the NIST Standard
ReferenceEnergies
Database2018, 11,23.
154 Results obtained for water, propane, pentane, R32 refrigerant 12 of and
22 carbon
dioxide are discussed below.
simplest case without regeneration and (2) a regenerative operation, assuming that a minimum ◦
The minimum
temperature cycle temperature
difference of 5 K in the (temperature
regenerator is of the heat
realised. Deadsink)
volumeswaswerechosen as Tinto
not taken C = 40 C for
all the working ◦
account,fluids exceptthey
even though carbon may dioxide. For carbon
have a negative effect on dioxide, it wasofchosen
the efficiency Bush-typeas 30 C, i.e., below
engines.
Different working fluids were◦ investigated. Thermodynamic properties
the critical temperature of 30.98 C in order to guarantee its liquid state at low temperature and any of the working fluids were
obtained from the NIST Standard Reference Database 23. Results obtained for water, propane,
pressure throughout the cycle. The maximum/high cycle temperature was varied from 50 ◦ C to 600 ◦ C
pentane, R32 refrigerant and carbon dioxide are discussed below.
for carbon dioxide and from ◦ C to 300 ◦ C for the other working fluids. The low pressure P
50temperature
The minimum cycle (temperature of the heat sink) was chosen as TC = 40 °C for all low was
chosen slightly above
the working the except
fluids saturation
carbonpressure
dioxide. For for eachdioxide,
carbon fluid at lowchosen
it was temperature to exclude
as 30 °C, i.e., below theundesired
critical
boiling at low temperature
cycle of 30.98but
temperature, °C in
notorder
lowerto guarantee
than 1.0its liquid
bar, state at low
depending ontemperature
which of the andtwo
any pressures
pressure throughout the cycle. The maximum/high cycle temperature was varied from 50 °C to
is higher. The difference between the high and low pressure ∆P was varied in a range of 1.0 to 50 bar.
600 °C for carbon dioxide and from 50 °C to 300 °C for the other working fluids. The low pressure
For R32 refrigerant
Plow was chosenand slightly
carbonabovedioxide, the pressure
the saturation difference
pressure range
for each fluid at was extended to
low temperature 200 bar. Selected
to exclude
results areundesired
shown inboilingFigures 8–12.
at low Figure
cycle 13 shows
temperature, results
but not lowerfor carbon
than 1.0 bar,dioxide
depending at very
on whichhighof(upthe to 600 ◦ C)
heat source two pressures is higher.
temperature The difference
to estimate betweenofthe
a potential high
this and low pressure
technology ∆P was varied in a range
for high-temperature applications.
of 1.0 to 50 bar. For R32 refrigerant and carbon dioxide, the pressure difference range was extended
The dash-and-dot line in each graph indicates the Carnot efficiency.
to 200 bar. Selected results are shown in Figures 8–12. Figure 13 shows results for carbon dioxide at
For both
very types
high (up oftoengines, stepwise
600 °C) heat increase intothe
source temperature efficiency
estimate is observed
a potential at certain
of this technology temperatures
for high-
of the heattemperature
source. These heatThe
applications. source temperatures
dash-and-dot line in each correspond
graph indicatesto the
theCarnot
saturation
efficiency.temperatures in
subcritical area. ForThe
bothvery
types low
of engines, stepwiseatincrease
efficiencies in the efficiency
temperatures belowis the
observed at certain
saturation temperatures are found
temperature
of the heat source. These heat source temperatures correspond to the saturation temperatures in
for engine operation with working fluid being in liquid state.
subcritical area. The very low efficiencies at temperatures below the saturation temperature are found
At first
forsight,
enginethe results
operation forworking
with non-regenerative
fluid being in operation
liquid state. of the two engine types under comparison
are almost equivalent.
At first sight, FortheR32 and for
results COnon-regenerative
2 , better efficiencies
operationareofobtained for the
the two engine Worthington-type
types under
comparison are almost equivalent. For R32 and CO 2, better efficiencies are obtained for the
machine. These results, however, are overestimated, as the assumption of incompressible liquids,
Worthington-type machine. These results, however, are overestimated, as the assumption of
used in the calculation of the Worthington-type engine, fails for these two fluids under the
incompressible liquids, used in the calculation of the Worthington-type engine, fails for these two
investigated conditions.
fluids under the investigated conditions.

15% 15%

10% 10%
Efficiency
Efficiency

5% 5%

0% 0%
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
Temperature TH ( °C) Temperature TH ( °C)

Plow = 1.0 bar without regeneration 1 bar 2 bar 5 bar

∆P =
TC = 40 °C with regeneration
10 bar 25 bar 50 bar

(a) (b)
Figure 8. Efficiency of regenerative Worthington-type machine (a) and Bush-type machine (b)
Figure 8. Efficiency of water.
operated with regenerative Worthington-type machine (a) and Bush-type machine (b) operated
with water.
Energies 2018,11,
Energies2018, 11,154
154 13 of1322of 22
Energies 2018, 11, 154 13 of 22

20% 20%
20% 20%

15% 15%
15% 15%
Efficiency
Efficiency

Efficiency
Efficiency
10% 10%
10% 10%

5% 5%
5% 5%

0% 0%
0% 0%
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
40 80 120 160 200
Temperature 240
TH ( °C) 280 320 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
Temperature TH ( °C) Temperature TH ( °C)
without Temperature TH ( °C)
Plow = 1.17 bar without ∆P = 1 bar 2 bar 5 bar
P = 1.17 bar regeneration ∆P = 1 bar 2 bar 5 bar
TClow= 40 °C regeneration
TC = 40 °C with regeneration 10 bar 25 bar 50 bar
with regeneration 10 bar 25 bar 50 bar
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Efficiency of regenerative Worthington-type machine (a) and Bush-type machine (b)
Figure Efficiency
Figure9. 9. of regenerative
Efficiency Worthington-type
of regenerative machine
Worthington-type (a) and
machine (a) Bush-type machine
and Bush-type (b) operated
machine (b)
operated with pentane.
with pentane.
operated with pentane.

30% 30%
30% 30%

25% 25%
25% 25%

20% 20%
20% 20% Efficiency
Efficiency

Efficiency
Efficiency

15% 15%
15% 15%

10% 10%
10% 10%

5% 5%
5% 5%

0% 0%
0% 0%
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
Temperature TH ( °C)
Temperature TH ( °C) Temperature TH ( °C)
Temperature TH ( °C)
Plow = 13.8 bar without regeneration ∆P = 1 bar 2 bar 5 bar
P = 13.8 bar without regeneration ∆P = 1 bar 2 bar 5 bar
TClow= 40 °C with regeneration 10 bar 25 bar 50 bar
TC = 40 °C with regeneration 10 bar 25 bar 50 bar

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 10. Efficiency of regenerative Worthington-type machine (a) and Bush-type machine (b)
Figure 10. Efficiency of regenerative Worthington-type machine (a) and Bush-type machine (b)
Figure Efficiency
10. with
operated propane. of regenerative Worthington-type machine (a) and Bush-type machine
operated with propane.
(b) operated with propane.
Energies 2018, 11, 154 14 of 22
Energies
Energies 2018,
2018, 11,
11, 154
154 14
14 of
of 22
22

35% 35%
35%
35%

30% 30%
30%
30%

25%
25% 25%
25%
Efficiency

Efficiency
Efficiency

Efficiency
20%
20% 20%
20%

15%
15% 15%
15%

10%
10% 10%
10%

5%
5% 5%
5%

0%
0% 0%
0%
40
40 80
80 120
120 160
160 200
200 240
240 280
280 320
320 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
Temperature THH (( °C)
Temperature T °C) Temperature THH (( °C)
Temperature T °C)
11 bar
bar 22 bar
bar 55 bar
bar
P = 25.03 bar without
without regeneration
regeneration ∆P
∆P ==
Plow
low = 25.03 bar
10
10 bar
bar 25
25 bar
bar 50
50 bar
bar
with
with regeneration
= 40 °C
TC = 40
T
C °C regeneration 100
100 bar
bar 150
150 bar
bar 200
200 bar
bar
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Efficiency
11. Efficiency
Efficiency of regenerative
of of
regenerative Worthington-type
Worthington-type
regenerative machine
machine
Worthington-type (a) and
(a) (a)
machine Bush-type
andand
Bush-type machine
machine
Bush-type (b)
(b)
machine
operated
operated with refrigerant
withwith
(b) operated refrigerant R32.
R32.R32.
refrigerant

35%
35% 35%
35%

30%
30% 30%
30%

25%
25% 25%
25%

Efficiency
Efficiency
Efficiency

20% 20%
Efficiency

20% 20%

15%
15% 15%
15%

10%
10% 10%
10%

5%
5% 5%
5%

0%
0% 0%
0%
30
30 70
70 110
110 150
150 190
190 230
230 270
270 310
310 30
30 70
70 110
110 150
150 190
190 230
230 270
270 310
310
Temperature THH (( °C)
Temperature T °C) Temperature THH (( °C)
Temperature T °C)
∆P 11 bar 22 bar 55 bar
P = 72.86 bar without ∆P == bar bar bar
Plow
low = 72.86 bar without regeneration
regeneration 10
10 bar
bar 25
25 bar
bar 50
50 bar
bar
T = 30
T C = 30 °C
C°C with
with regeneration
regeneration 100
100 bar
bar 150
150 bar
bar 200
200 bar
bar
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 12. Efficiency of regenerative Worthington-type machine (a) and Bush-type machine (b)
Figure 12.
12. Efficiency of of
Efficiency regenerative Worthington-type
regenerative machine
Worthington-type (a) (a)
machine andand
Bush-type machine
Bush-type (b)
machine
operated
operated with
with carbon
carbon dioxide.
dioxide.
(b) operated with carbon dioxide.
Energies 11, 154
2018,2018,
Energies 11, 154 15 of 2215 of 22

Plow = 72.86 bar without regeneration

TC = 30 °C with regeneration
50%

40%

Efficiency
30%

20%

10%

0%
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600

Temperature TH ( °C)
∆P = 50 bar 100 bar 150 bar 200 bar

Figure Efficiency
13. 13.
Figure Efficiencyofofregenerative
regenerative Bush-type machineoperated
Bush-type machine operated with
with carbon
carbon dioxide
dioxide in high
in high
temperature range.
temperature range.

Operation
Operation withoutregeneration
without regeneration isisparticularly
particularly interesting for low-temperature
interesting for low-temperatureapplications. For
applications.
instance, an engine with propane as working fluid (Figure 10) can generate a 10 bar pressure
For instance, an engine with propane as working fluid (Figure 10) can generate a 10 bar pressure
amplitude at a heat source temperature of roughly 70 °C with an efficiency of nearly 5%. With
amplitude at a heat source temperature of roughly 70 ◦ C with an efficiency of nearly 5%. With pentane,
pentane, a heat source temperature of 58 °C is sufficient to generate a 1 bar pressure amplitude with
◦ C is sufficient to generate a 1 bar pressure amplitude with an efficiency
a heatansource temperature
efficiency of 4.3% (Figureof 589). It is worth noting that the Carnot efficiency for this process conditions
of 4.3% (Figure
is 5.4%. Thus,9).the
It is worthtonoting
relative the Carnotthat the Carnot
efficiency is efficiency
above 80%.for this process conditions is 5.4%. Thus,
the relative to the Carnot efficiency is above 80%.
With the heat regeneration, the higher the temperature is, the more pronounced is the influence
With
of the heat regeneration,
regeneration for both types the higher the
of engines, andtemperature
the Bush-typeis,engine
the more pronounced
outperforms is the influence of
the Worthington-
type engine
regeneration forfor all working
both types offluids
engines, underandinvestigation.
the Bush-type engine outperforms the Worthington-type
engine for With and without
all working regeneration,
fluids water demonstrates a very poor performance for both types of
under investigation.
engines in the studied temperature
With and without regeneration, water range. For Worthington-type
demonstrates engines, the influence
a very poor performance of
for both types of
recuperation in case of water is almost negligible, whereas for propane, the efficiency can be doubled
engines in the studied temperature range. For Worthington-type engines, the influence of recuperation
at high temperatures. For Bush-type engines, the regeneration in operation with propane can increase
in case of water is almost negligible, whereas for propane, the efficiency can be doubled at high
the efficiency almost fivefold.
temperatures.
At veryFor lowBush-type
temperatures, engines, the regeneration
the influence in operation
of the regeneration is poor.with propane
Effective can increase the
heat regeneration
efficiency almost fivefold.
for dense working fluids in low temperature range can be problematic. A reason is that heat released
At very
during low temperatures,
condensation of working thefluid
influence of the regeneration
at low temperature is poor.
and pressure Effective
cannot be usedheat regeneration
to evaporate
for dense working
it at higher fluids in low
temperature and temperature
pressure of the range can expansion
isobaric be problematic. A reason isthe
stage. Moreover, that heatheat
latent released
constitutes a considerable part of the whole amount of energy supplied during
during condensation of working fluid at low temperature and pressure cannot be used to evaporate it at heating and released
higherduring cooling. The
temperature and latent
pressureheatofofthe water condensation,
isobaric expansion forstage.
example, accounts
Moreover, theforlatent
aboutheat
90%constitutes
of the a
whole heat released during the cooling from 300 °C to 40 °C at normal
considerable part of the whole amount of energy supplied during heating and released during cooling.pressure. Poor regeneration,
resulting in the low efficiency, explains a relatively limited area of application of water-based
The latent heat of water condensation, for example, accounts for about 90% of the whole heat released
Worthington pumps.
during the cooling from 300 ◦ C to 40 ◦ C at normal pressure. Poor regeneration, resulting in the low
For other fluids, the fraction of latent heat at studied process conditions is around 50%; therefore,
efficiency, explainspart
a considerable a relatively
of heat can limited area of application of water-based Worthington pumps.
be regenerated.
For other fluids, the
Unfortunately, thefraction
incomplete of latent heat at is
regeneration studied
typicalprocess
also for conditions
working fluidsis around 50%; therefore,
in a supercritical
a considerable
state near the part of heat
critical can
point. Inbethisregenerated.
case, the problem is caused by a difference in heat capacities of the
Unfortunately,
working the incomplete
fluid at different pressuresregeneration
used during its is heating
typicaland alsocooling
for working fluids in a supercritical
in the regenerator.
state near the critical point. In this case, the problem is caused by a difference in heat capacities of the
working fluid at different pressures used during its heating and cooling in the regenerator.
In contrast to Worthington-type machines, in Bush-type machines, both the evaporation and
the condensation of working fluid partially take place at variable pressure. The evaporation occurs
Energies 2018, 11, 154 16 of 22

simultaneously with a pressure rise; the condensation is accompanied by a drop of pressure. Such a
regime is favourable for the regeneration. As it can be seen, even with water (Figure 8), the regeneration
is much more pronounced resulting in an efficiency rise. Efficiency in case of propane (Figure 10) can
compete with that of ORC [34].

5. Discussion

5.1. General
The term “isobaric expansion” is essentially used as a term rather than an exact characterisation
of the process, just to distinguish from isentropic expansion processes. As a matter of fact, the process
pressure may vary, depending on the load; for instance, in case of gas compression, pressure changes
during the cycle.
Isobaric expansion machines represent a peculiar type of heat-to-mechanical energy converters,
which are characterised by the absence of a gas expansion stage. Practically all well-known today’s heat
engines (piston IC-engines, gas, steam and ORC turbines, etc.) fall into a different group, performing
polytropic gas expansion.

5.2. Bush- and Worthington-Type Engines—Results and Comparison

Bush-type and Worthington-type engines are two examples of simple and inexpensive machines
performing isobaric expansion cycle. At high temperatures, the Bush-based machines outperform
the Worthington-based ones. In a low-temperature range, where the influence of heat recuperation is
negligible, a choice between these two types is not evident. At first glance, the Worthington-based
machines are more complex because of the valve system, piston and valves sealing and the need for
a pump. However, they are totally insensitive to the dead volume. This means an unlimited choice
of types and sizes of heat exchangers and, therefore, an ability to supply heat in any form from any
possible source.
The Bush-type machines are simpler, since they do not require a valve system or a separate
pump. Moreover, they can be made self-driven. Self-driven machines need neither an actuator and
nor connection rod sealing. As a result, both leakages of working fluid and seal friction losses are
eliminated. In addition, self-actuation is more energy efficient. Nevertheless, the actuated machines
can be preferable in some cases. They are easy to control and a synchronization of several machines is
very simple.
All the designs of Bush-type machines known from the literature concern applications at relatively
small power (less than 1 kW), with heat addition and rejection through the surface of the engine
cylinder and a regenerator located in the displacer or in the gap between the displacer and the cylinder.
Medium- and large-scale machines require more powerful heat exchangers being placed outside the
cylinder. Ten to twenty years ago such engines with external heat exchangers were not feasible due to
too large internal volume of the then existing heat exchangers. However, a recent revolution in the field
of very compact heat exchangers [35,36] makes it possible to build medium-scale and even large-scale
engines with external heat exchangers. State-of-the-art microchannel/printed circuit heat exchangers
permit the heater, regenerator and cooler to be combined into a compact single integral unit with
minimal internal (dead) volume. A further integration of such a composite heat exchanger into the
piston-cylinder unit is an option to decrease the dead volume of the machine even more.
Bush-type machines also can have great potential in high-temperature application; no need of
high-temperature sealing makes that especially attractive. This potential is also supported by the high
efficiencies obtained for carbon dioxide (Figure 13).
The found efficiencies at low temperature differences were above 80% of the Carnot efficiencies.
These results are very encouraging, taking into account the simplicity and low price of the machines
for harvesting ultra-low grade heat, e.g., waste and geothermal heat sources, low temperature solar
energy, such as solar ponds, etc. [37,38].
Energies 2018, 11, 154 17 of 22

for harvesting ultra-low grade heat, e.g., waste and geothermal heat sources, low temperature solar
Energies 2018, 11, 154 17 of 22
energy, such as solar ponds, etc. [37,38].

5.3. Potential
5.3. Potential Improvements
Improvements

5.3.1. Regeneration
5.3.1. Regeneration
A very
A verypromising
promising wayway to improve
to improve the regeneration
the regeneration fortypes
for both both oftypes of engines
engines is to use is
an to use an
approach
approach successfully
successfully employed in employed
cryogenics,in namely
cryogenics, namely theofreplacement
the replacement single-component of single-component
working fluids
working
with fluids with multi-component
multi-component ones with different ones withtemperatures
boiling different boiling temperatures
[39,40]. By this means, [39,40]. By and
boiling this
means, boilingofand
condensation thecondensation
working fluidoftake
the working fluid take
place at variable place at variable
temperatures. As atemperatures. As a result,
result, both boiling and
both boilingsome
condensing and condensing
part of the some partfluid
working of theisworking
possiblefluid is possible
in the regeneratorin the regenerator
rather than inrather than
the cooler
in the
and cooler
heater. Inand
otherheater.
words,Inthe
other
heatwords, the heat ofofcondensation
of condensation a high-boiling of component
a high-boilingcan component
be used for can
the
be used for the
evaporation evaporation
of low-boiling of low-boiling
components, andcomponents,
thus, this partand thus,
of the this heat
latent part of
ofthe
theworking
latent heat of can
fluid the
working
be fluid can be regenerated.
regenerated.
The expected effect
The effect depends
depends on onthe
themixture
mixturecomposition,
composition,initialinitialtemperature
temperature andandpressure
pressure as
well
as as as
well onon the temperature
the temperatureandandpressure
pressureratios.
ratios.Taking
Takinginto
intoaccount
accountthe the fraction
fraction of latent heat in the the
total amount
total amount of of heat
heat supplied,
supplied, the
the resulting
resulting rise
rise in
in efficiency
efficiency can
can bebe remarkable.
remarkable. However,
However, selection
selection
and/or design
and/or design of of appropriate
appropriate multicomponent working fluids require very serious research research efforts.
efforts.

5.3.2.
5.3.2. Dead
Dead Volumes
Volumes
At
At first
first glance,
glance, the
the very
very impressive
impressive efficiencies
efficiencies of
of Bush-type
Bush-type engines
engines might look too optimistic,
since
since the
thedead
deadvolume
volumeofofthe themachines
machines has notnot
has been taken
been takenintointo
account.
account.In fact, the greater
In fact, the greaterpart part
of thisof
dead volume arises due to internal volumes of the heater, cooler and regenerator.
this dead volume arises due to internal volumes of the heater, cooler and regenerator. A harmful A harmful influence
of the heatof
influence exchanger
the heat internal
exchanger volumes
internalcanvolumes
be reduced,
canifbenecessary,
reduced,by if decreasing
necessary, the by energy density
decreasing the
of the machines.
energy density ofFor theinstance,
machines. a machine with aa machine
For instance, working with
volume (displacement)
a working volume of one liter and of
(displacement) a
cycle frequency of 1 Hz generates the same power as a machine with a displacement
one liter and a cycle frequency of 1 Hz generates the same power as a machine with a displacement of two liters and
aofcycle
two frequency
liters and of 0.5 Hz.
a cycle To deliver
frequency of this
0.5 power,
Hz. To both
delivermachines require
this power, bothheat exchangers
machines withheat
require the
same internalwith
exchangers volume. However,
the same internalin case of theHowever,
volume. machine with the of
in case lower
the speed
machine andwith
higherthedisplacement,
lower speed
the
anddead
highervolume of the heat
displacement, theexchangers
dead volume related
of thetoheat
the exchangers
total volume of thetomachine
related the totalisvolume
twice asoflow.
the
Decrease
machine of is power
twice as density
low. appears
Decreasetoof be power
unimportant
densityin appears
view of the to begenerally high power
unimportant in viewdensity of
of the
these machines compared to other engines.
generally high power density of these machines compared to other engines.
Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, the the influence
influenceofofthe theregenerator
regenerator dead
dead volume
volume cannot
cannot be minimised
be minimised in theinsame
the
same
way. Theway.volume
The volume of the regenerator
of the regenerator is directly
is directly proportional
proportional to the displaced
to the volume volume displaced in the
in the machine.
machine.
A possibleA solution
possible solution
to reducetothe reduce the regenerator
regenerator dead volume
dead volume is to replace
is to replace the regenerator
the regenerator by a
by a recuperative
recuperative heat heat exchanger
exchanger in a duplex
in a duplex arrangement
arrangement as shown
as shown in Figure
in Figure 14.this
14. In In scheme,
this scheme,
two
two identical
identical machines,
machines, working
working in counter-phase,
in counter-phase, share
share a common
a common recuperator.
recuperator. WhenWhenone one machine
machine is
is in
in
thethe heating
heating process,
process, thethe other
other machine
machine provides
provides heat
heat during
during its its cooling
cooling process
process (and(and vice
vice versa).
versa). In
In contrast
contrast toto a regenerator,the
a regenerator, theheat
heatisishere
heredirectly
directlytransferred
transferredto tothe
theworking
working fluidfluid and the recuperator
recuperator
size
size is
is no
no longer
longer proportional
proportional to to the
thevolume
volumedisplaced
displacedin inthe
themachine.
machine.

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Duplex
Duplex Bush-type
Bush-type engine,
engine, consisting
consisting of
of two
two individual
individual engines
engines coupled
coupled by
by aa common
common
recuperative heat exchanger.
recuperative heat exchanger.
Energies 2018, 11, 154 18 of 22

Energies 2018, 11, 154 18 of 22

5.3.3. Non-Isothermal Heat Supply

5.3.3. Non-Isothermal Heat Supply
The temperature of the heating agent in the heater decreases due to heat exchange with the
The temperature of the heating agent in the heater decreases due to heat exchange with the
working fluid. This is especially important in the case of indirect heat supply by means of different
working fluid. This is especially important in the case of indirect heat supply by means of different
heat transfer fluids (heat carriers) such as pressurised water, heat transfer oils or liquid metals.
heat transfer fluids (heat carriers) such as pressurised water, heat transfer oils or liquid metals. In
In fact,
fact, the
the indirect
indirectisothermal
isothermalheating
heatingrequires
requiresananinfinite
infinitecirculation
circulation rate
rate of of
thethe heat
heat carrier
carrier whereas
whereas
non-isothermal heat supply makes it possible to decrease the circulation rate to economically
non-isothermal heat supply makes it possible to decrease the circulation rate to economically viable viable
levels. The
levels. Thehigher
higherthis
thistemperature
temperature decrease, the more
decrease, the more efficient
efficientandandeconomical
economicalis is the
the use
use of of
thethe
heatheat
source. Therefore, heat supply to the engines can be highly non-isothermal.
source. Therefore, heat supply to the engines can be highly non-isothermal.
Figure
Figure 15a15a
shows
showsa simplified layout
a simplified of an isobaric
layout expansion
of an isobaric machinemachine
expansion with thewith
heater,
theregenerator
heater,
and cooler combined
regenerator in one
and cooler integralinprinted
combined circuit
one integral heat exchanger.
printed circuit heatVertical black,
exchanger. red and
Vertical bluered
black, lines
signify herelines
and blue working
signifyfluid,
hereheat carrier
working andheat
fluid, cooling agent
carrier and channels correspondingly.
cooling agent channels correspondingly.

Figure
Figure 15.15.Bush-type
Bush-typeengine
enginedesign
design for
for isothermal
isothermal(a)
(a)and
andnon-isothermal
non-isothermalheat
heatsupply (b,c):
supply 1—heater,
(b,c): 1—heater,
2—regenerator, 3—cooler, 4—regenerative heater.
2—regenerator, 3—cooler, 4—regenerative heater.

A highly non-isothermal heat supply implies a high temperature difference between the hottest
andAcoldest
highly parts
non-isothermal
of the heater.heat
As supply
a result,implies
during athe
high temperature
backstroke (whendifference
the pistonbetween the hottest
moves upwards)
andthecoldest parts of
hot working the heater.
fluid, displacedAsfrom
a result, duringpart
the hottest the backstroke (when
of the cylinder andthe piston
heater, moves
heats upwards)
up the heat
thecarrier
hot working fluid, displaced from the hottest part of the cylinder and heater,
at the lower, colder part of the heater shown in Figure 15a. The heat is carried away instead heats up the heat
carrier
of being absorbed by the regenerator. This leads to a poor efficiency of the machine and an inefficient of
at the lower, colder part of the heater shown in Figure 15a. The heat is carried away instead
being
use absorbed
of the heatby the regenerator. This leads to a poor efficiency of the machine and an inefficient use
source.
of the heat source. can be solved by means of a different design of the heat exchanger shown in Figure
The problem
15b.
TheHere, the heater
problem can isbedivided
solvedintoby several
means parts with regenerative
of a different design of sections in between.
the heat exchanger Theshown
bigger in
the temperature
Figure 15b. Here,difference,
the heaterthe ismore heater/regenerator
divided pairswith
into several parts are necessary.
regenerative sections in between.
A limiting
The bigger (and the most
the temperature interesting)
difference, the case
moreofheater/regenerator
such a design is shown in are
pairs the necessary.
Figure 15c, where the
heater and regenerator are merged into a single unit, combining their
A limiting (and the most interesting) case of such a design is shown in the Figure functions. This regenerative
15c, where the
heater is a special type of heat exchanger which can also accumulate
heater and regenerator are merged into a single unit, combining their functions. This heat of both the working fluid
regenerative
and heat carrier.
heater is a special type of heat exchanger which can also accumulate heat of both the working fluid
At low frequency operation typical for isobaric expansion engines, a non-stationary, periodic
and heat carrier.
supply of heat carrier can be used in combination with such a heat exchanger. This is particularly
At low frequency operation typical for isobaric expansion engines, a non-stationary, periodic
convenient for the duplex (two engines working in counter phase) engine layout. The heat carrier is
supply of heat carrier can be used in combination with such a heat exchanger. This is particularly
pumped through the heat exchanger only during the working stroke (i.e., during a half cycle, when
convenient for the duplex (two engines working in counter phase) engine layout. The heat carrier is
the piston moves downwards). During the backstroke, the flow of heat carrier is diverted to the
pumped through the heat exchanger only during the working stroke (i.e., during a half cycle, when the
adjacent engine. This method is ideally suited for actuated machines, where the actuators of the
piston moves
pistons and downwards).
the heat carrierDuring
diverting thevalve
backstroke, the flow of heat carrier is diverted to the adjacent
can be synchronised.
engine.TheThisreasoning
method is ideally suited for actuated machines,
discussed above is equally valid for engine where the actuators of the pistons and the
coolers.
heat carrier diverting valve can be synchronised.
5.4.The reasoning
Hydraulic Outputdiscussed above is equally valid for engine coolers.
and Applications
The hydraulic
5.4. Hydraulic Outputoutput of the machines under consideration may have a clear advantage for many
and Applications
applications in comparison to state-of-the-art energy conversion technologies. This is especially
The hydraulic
important output
for pumping andof the machines
compression, underinconsideration
resulting may have
elimination of several a clear
energy advantage
conversion stagesfor
many applications in comparison to state-of-the-art energy conversion technologies. This is especially
Energies 2018, 11, 154 19 of 22

important for pumping and compression, resulting in elimination of several energy conversion stages
together with the corresponding equipment (electric generator and motor, power transmission, etc.).
As a result, numerous sources of low-grade and waste heat can be used directly and cost-effectively
for pumping and compression.
One of the most interesting applications, especially for the Bush-type machines, is the pumping of
liquids which can also be used as working fluids. Such pumps can be applied for pumping of liquefied
gases, light hydrocarbons, heat transfer fluids, etc. Since these machines do not need lubrication,
they can be of great interest also in cryogenic applications.
The convenience to operate between any desired pressure levels makes them a very
promising heat-driven alternative to conventional refrigerant compressors in vapour compression
refrigerating machines.
The conversion of the hydraulic power output of the machines to shaft power by means of an
oil-hydraulic loop outlined above is just one out of many possible options. It was selected because
of the availability of low-cost, off-the-shelf industrial hydraulic components. The main part of the
hydraulic loop—a positive displacement hydraulic motor—can reach an efficiency of above 90%
in a broad power range and shows excellent energy density and reliability. A broad spectrum of
low- medium- and high-speed hydraulic motors is available in a power range from several tens of
watts to several hundred kilowatts.
An obvious advantage of oil-hydraulic output is the possibility to generate shaft power at the
most convenient speed and torque without an additional transmission. Moreover, one engine can
drive several motors with different speeds and torques. Vice versa, one hydraulic motor can be driven
by several engines as well. In the latter case, these engines can operate at different temperatures of the
heater and cooler and even use different working fluids.
A direct conversion of the working fluid energy to shaft power, without transmitting the pressure
to oil, is also of a great interest. Unfortunately, hydraulic motors for liquids with low viscosity and
poor lubricating ability are missing on the today’s market. Perhaps the experience gained in the
area of water-hydraulic power utilisation systems can be used for a development of such motors.
A so-called “pump as turbine” (PAT) technology uses rotodynamic (centrifugal) pumps as turbines,
i.e., one of the types of hydraulic motors in micro- and pico-hydro power as well as a reverse osmosis
energy utilisation [41,42]. As the oil-hydraulic motors, centrifugal pumps are inexpensive mass-market
machines with relatively high maximum efficiencies (up to 80–85%). Today, such a reverse operation
of centrifugal pumps with water is well studied. The operation with other fluids in the turbine mode
requires further investigations. The main disadvantage of centrifugal pumps/turbines is a remarkable
drop of efficiency with a decreasing power range and in a part-load operation.

5.5. Emerging Technologies

Although it is very convenient to use hydraulic motors in combination with a rotary electric
generator in case of electricity generation, alternative approaches are possible. Examples include
a direct conversion of pressure to electricity by means of a piezoelectric pressure-to-electricity
transmitter [43–45], different electrokinetic effects associated with electricity generation by forcing
liquids through membranes [46,47], electrohydrodynamic electrostatic generators [48], reverse
electrowetting [49], etc. All these methods make it possible to eliminate electric alternators, as well as
to decrease the number of moving parts of the machines.

5.6. Final Remarks

It is worth noting that in this paper, only simple basic schemes of isobaric expansion engines and
very limited experimental and theoretical data are presented. As in the case of Rankine cycle plants,
numerous modifications of the schemes and working fluids are possible.
Energies 2018, 11, 154 20 of 22

6. Conclusions
Isobaric expansion is a very promising energy conversion technology. Isobaric expansion cycles
show excellent efficiency (up to 80% of the Carnot efficiency) at ultra-low heat source temperatures
(as low as 70–100 ◦ C). At higher temperatures, heat regeneration increases the efficiency remarkably,
up to 30–35% at 300 ◦ C. The efficiency at 600 ◦ C can reach as high as 50%, showing a tendency to rise
further with temperature. Replacement of single-component working fluids with multi-component
mixtures could potentially result in a further efficiency rise in all temperature ranges, due to improved
heat regeneration. The elimination of both polytropic gas expansion process and machine results
in the substantial simplification of the engine design and cost. Moreover, some of these engines
(self-driven types) do not need seals; this eliminates any leakage and frictional losses. All this together
with a wide choice of output speed/torque without gearboxes can make the isobaric expansion
technology a simple and low-cost alternative to the present ORC-based plants and other state-of-the-art
energy conversion systems based on the conventional heat engines.
The potential area of application of isobaric expansion machines is not limited to power generation.
They can serve as very efficient, simple and cost-effective heat-driven pumps and compressors.
A remarkable feature in this case is the ability to generate very high pressure differences even at
relatively low temperatures.

Acknowledgments: The experimental results presented in this publication were made possible by NPRP
grant # 8-547-2-222 from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation). The findings
achieved herein are solely the responsibility of the authors.
Author Contributions: Maxim Glushenkov and Alexander Kronberg proposed and developed the technology
and engine designs, invented the presented technical solutions, worked out the theoretical background and
performed experiments. The modelling as well as the analysis of the computational results was performed by
Torben Knoke and Eugeny Y. Kenig. All the authors participated in writing the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Nomenclature
h Specific enthalpie (J/kg)
m Mass (kg)
P Pressure (bar)
Q Heat (J)
V Volume (m3 )
W Work (J)
Greek Symbols
η Thermal efficiency (-)
ρ Density (kg/m3 )
Subscripts
C Cold, Cooling
E Expansion chamber (steam cylinder)
H Hot, Heating
min Minimum
out Outlet
P Pump
R Regenerator, Recuperator
tot total

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