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Applied Energy
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a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: As large-scale photovoltaic (PV) generation reaches higher penetration levels, there is a greater need to
Received 15 July 2011 meet the certain grid code requirements for interconnection. Ultracapacitor, battery energy storage sys-
Received in revised form 6 September 2011 tem (BESS) or shunt capacitor have recently been used as auxiliary devices for large-scale PV generator
Accepted 22 September 2011
system to meet the grid code requirements for interconnection. Although the individual auxiliary devices
Available online 1 November 2011
are well documented, a comparative study of these devices impact on the damping of electromechanical
(EM) modes and oscillatory instability problem has not been reported so far. This paper aims to fill in the
Keywords:
gap, and provides a comparative analysis of these auxiliary devices performance along with PV plant on
BESS
Electromechanical mode
the damping of EM modes. The oscillation problem is analyzed by considering different types of synchro-
Inter-area mode nous generator (e.g. hydro, thermal) as the non-electrical components of hydro and thermal units have
PV generator major influences on system dynamics. The comparisons are based on the results obtained from two-area
Ultracapacitor test system and New England–New York test system (16 machine 68 bus system), which are the bench-
Trajectory sensitivity mark systems for angular stability analysis.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0306-2619/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.09.035
236 R. Shah et al. / Applied Energy 96 (2012) 235–244
Nomenclature
ðV A þ IPV Rs Þq
IPV ¼ ISCA ðGÞ Np I0 exp 1 ð1Þ
nN s kT
Differential equation related to PV generator DC-link can be ex-
pressed as
P
l Fig. 3. Real and reactive power controller.
Z i n2i
Z eq ¼ i¼1 2 ð3Þ VtVs V2
N Qs ¼ cos a s ð6Þ
Xt Xt
X
l In this paper, VSC with sinusoidal pulse-width modulation
Beq ¼ Bi ð4Þ (SPWM) strategy has been considered for the analysis where the
i¼1 AC side terminal voltage of VSC, i.e. Vt is related to Vdc as
In this paper, NREL 22 MVA single-generator equivalent PV V t ¼ mV2 dc . Shunt ac filter and phase locked loop (PLL) are not consid-
plant has been used for the analysis. Equivalent collector feeder ered in the PV model since their effects are more relevant for elec-
data of this PV plant are shown in Table 1. To form a 22 MVA sin- tromagnetic transients [26].
gle-generator equivalent PV plant, 20 VSCs each of 1.1 MVA rating
have been used [23,24]. An appropriate number of single-generator 2.2. Ultracapacitor model
equivalent PV plants have been used to make the total PV penetra-
tion levels for different test cases. Short term fluctuations of PV output can be reduced by fast re-
DC power generated from PV array is considered to be the real sponse energy storage device like ultracapacitor which can also be
power injected into the network. However, PV can generate and used to enhance the dynamic performance of the power systems
absorb reactive power. Reactive power control of PV can be [27,28]. In this paper, ultracapacitor energy storage system consist-
achieved by the following two control modes on converter side: ing of a ultracapacitor bank, a series resistance to the ultracapaci-
tor bank and a two-quadrant DC/DC converter, is connected to the
Power factor (PF) control mode. DC-link of the voltage source converter of PV. The dynamics related
Voltage control (VC) mode. to ultracapacitor can be expressed by:
Ce _ 1 1d
In this paper, VC control mode of PV is considered. Fig. 3 depicts V ¼ V dc V e ð7Þ
x e Re d
the control block for real and reactive power (voltage control) con-
trol of VSC. For VC mode, anti-windup limit for m is in the range of Duty cycle for charging and discharging can be implemented by
[0, 1] and a is in the range of [0, p/2] [25]. proportional-integral (PI) controller and the equation for ultraca-
Now, the active (Ps) and reactive (Qs) power exchange between pacitor duty cycle can be expressed as
PV and MV bus can be expressed by: Z
1
d¼ kp V dc V ref þ k i V dc V ref
VtVs 2 dc dc
Ps ¼ sin a ð5Þ Z
Xt
þ kp2 V e V ref
dc þ ki2 V e V ref
dc ð8Þ
Table 1
Equivalent collector feeder data of single-generator equivalent PV plant.
conditioning unit form a vital part of BESS. It interfaces the batter- There are no dynamics in shunt capacitor. Reactive power (Qc)
ies to the utility, regulates the battery charging/discharging. Differ- and voltage (V) relation of shunt capacitor can be expressed as
ent battery models have been proposed in literatures [29]. In this
paper, battery model proposed in [30] has been used. From the Q c ¼ Xc V 2 ð14Þ
equivalent circuit model of the battery following equations for
BESS can be drawn:
3. Oscillatory stability analysis
V dc V boc V b
IB ¼ ð9Þ
r bt þ r bs In modern power systems, widely dispersed conventional and
non-conventional generators are connected by high tension trans-
@V boc V boc mission lines. The dynamics of power transfer in such a grid can be
C bp þ ¼ IB ð10Þ
@t r bp categorized by low frequency oscillatory behaviors of the conven-
tional, non-conventional generators and their controllers. Low fre-
@V b V b quency oscillation of power system is mainly of two types, local
Cb þ ¼ IB ð11Þ mode (frequency range 1.0–2.0 Hz) and inter-area mode oscillation
@t rb
(frequency range 0.1–1.0 Hz) [2,3]. The oscillations in power sys-
The exchange of real (P) and reactive (Q) power between BESS tem occur in a stressed network condition and the main contribut-
and PV system bus can be expressed by: ing factors for oscillations are [2,32]:
V sV r
P¼ sin u ð12Þ Weak transmission link (network topology).
XL
Inadequate reserve margin for power plants.
Vr Imbalance power generation and demands.
Q¼ ðV r V s cos uÞ ð13Þ Loading of the system (load uncertainties).
XL
The controller of BESS provides active and reactive power com- Due to the given nature of PV, power system operation-control
mand to achieve the desired system response. The controller con- and modulation of real-reactive power on PV-grid interconnection
verts the commanded powers into PWM switching commands for are the main challenges for power system operators and can create
BESS to regulate the modulation gain and angle. Since the synchro- undamped oscillations to the EM modes and other lightly damped
nizing scheme ensures that the d-axis of the dq frame is aligned modes in the system.
with the grid voltage vector, i.e. d-axis voltage (vd) is equal to
rms value of the grid voltage and q-axis voltage (vq) is equal to zero
3.1. Modal analysis
[31]. Thus the d-axis current (Id) becomes the active current com-
ponent and the q-axis current (Iq) becomes the reactive current
By using well known modal analysis technique low frequency
component. A decoupled PI controller is proposed which can pro-
oscillatory stability of the power system has been assessed in this
duce desired switching commands from independent real and
paper. The modal analysis is based on the linearization of power
reactive power commands for BESS as shown in Fig. 5.
system non-linear differential–algebraic equations (DAE) around
Due to strong linear relationship between P and Id and between
the certain operating point. The linearization of power system
Q and Iq, reference d-axis current (Idref) and q-axis current (Iqref) can
DAE around the equilibrium point can be expressed as
directly be calculated by using nominal grid voltage and reference
active (Pref) and reactive (Qref) power [31]. In this simulation, the Dx_ J1 J2 Dx
average real power from PV plant is used as a Pref. On the other ¼ ð15Þ
0 J 3 J4 Dy
hand, Qref depends on system bus voltage (V) and the constant
@f @f
bus voltage (Vref) to be maintained. PI compensator processes the where J 1 ¼ @x ; J2 ¼ @y ; J3 ¼ @g
@x
; J 4 ¼ @g
@y
error (Vref –V) and determines Qref. From Eq. (15) reduced system matrix of the following form can
be obtained:
2.4. Shunt capacitor
Dx_ ¼ J1 J2 J1
4 J 3 Dx ¼ A Dx ð16Þ
As the converters of the PV systems have limited reactive power
Oscillatory stability of the power system can be analyzed by
capacity, large-scale PV plants are equipped with shunt capacitor.
looking at the eigenvalue of the system matrix A. In order for the
system to be satisfactorily oscillatory stable, all the eigenvalues of
the system should be located in the specific region of the open left
half plane with sufficient damping. Given an eigenvalue in complex
a ffi
format, a + jb, the damping ratio (f) can be calculated as f ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 2
.
a þb
Different utilities have their own pre-specified damping margin
for EM and other weakly damped modes for the satisfactory low
frequency stable operation. Table 2 shows the CIGRE recom-
mended damping categories for low frequency oscillations [33].
Table 2
CIGRE recommended damping category.
From Table 2 it is noticeable that the EM and other lightly damped The sensitivity norm of ith machine at any instant time t can be
modes should have 6% and more damping for satisfactory low fre- defined as
quency stable operation. In this paper, 6% damping ratio is consid- vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u" 2 2 #
ered as the low frequency stability margin for the system. u @dij @ Dx r
Si ðtÞ ¼ t þ ð24Þ
@p @p
3.2. Trajectory sensitivity analysis
Now, the overall sensitivity norm (Sn(t)) and the stability mar-
Trajectory sensitivity (TS) gives us information about the effect gin (g) of the m machine system can be expressed as
of change of system parameter on individual state variables and X
m
hence on the generators of the system [34]. So, in this paper, TS Sn ðtÞ ¼ Si ðtÞ ð25Þ
has been used to identify the damping contributions of BESS and i¼1
ultracapacitor by computing individual machine rotor angle devia-
tions, which will apparently give us the insight into these devices 1
g¼ ð26Þ
impact on different types of synchronous generator. This section maxðSn Þ
briefly explains the trajectory sensitivity approach of multi-ma-
As the system moves towards the instability, oscillation of TS will
chine power system. Suppose a multi-machine power system is
be more resulting larger values of Sn. This will result in the smaller
represented by the set of DAE as given below:
values of g. To evaluate the angle stability information of power sys-
x_ ¼ f ðx; y; pÞ tem with respect to ultracapacitor and BESS, TS to the parameter
ð17Þ variation of ultracapacitor and BESS has been used in this paper.
0 ¼ gðx; y; pÞ
Then the sensitivity of state trajectories with respect to system 4. Test systems
parameter can be found by perturbing p from the nominal value of
p0. The equitation of TS can be found as Two-area test system and New England–New York test system
h i h i h i are used in this paper for simulation studies. The brief explanation
@f @f @f
_ ¼
w w1 þ w2 þ
@x @y @p of these test systems are given next.
@g
h i h i ð18Þ
0¼ @x
w1 þ @g
@y
w2 þ @g
@p
4.1. Two-area test system
Solving Eqs. (17) and (18) simultaneously, we can get x, y and
the sensitivities. Single-line diagram of two-area test system is depicted in Fig. 6.
This system consists of four synchronous generators associated
@x @y with four 20/230 kV step up transformers. All the four generators
where w1 ¼ ; w2 ¼ :
@p @p are identical. The aggregated PV plants are connected to the grid
However, TS can also be found numerically, which is a simpler at area-1. The total MVA rating of the PV plants are assumed to
way of finding TS. Let us choose one scalar parameter p and com- be 25% of the area-1 exporting power. There are two load buses
pute the sensitivities with respect to it. Two values of p are chosen in the system; load 1 consists of 1767 MW and 100 MVAr whereas
(p1 and p2) and the corresponding state variables are x1 and x2, load 2 consists of 967 MW and 100 MVAr. System loads are consid-
respectively. Now the sensitivity at p1 can be computed as [35] ered as PQ load. System parameters are taken from [2].
1 X m
dCOI ¼ M i di ð22Þ
MT i¼1
1 X m
xrCOI ¼ M i xri ð23Þ
MT i¼1
Pm
where MT ¼ i¼1 M i ; Mi ¼ 2H
xs .
i
Fig. 6. Single-line diagram of two-area test system.
240 R. Shah et al. / Applied Energy 96 (2012) 235–244
5. Simulation results in two-area test system obvious from Table 4 that all the auxiliary devices of PV have posi-
tive impact on the damping of inter-area mode. However, the per-
PV and its auxiliary devices impact on power system EM modes formance of BESS is better among all (Ddamp. = 3.11%). In case of
in two-area test system are examined in this section. The analysis local mode-2, integration of ultracapacitor and shunt capacitor
has been carried out by considering following two cases. provides positive damping to the mode; however, the integration
of ultracapacitor provides slightly better damping than the shunt
Case-1: Area-1 generators are modeled as hydro generator capacitor (Ddamp. = 0.8% > 0.7%). On the other hand, BESS integra-
referred as hydro dominant system. tion improves the damping of the local mode-1 (Ddamp. = 0.7%),
Case-2: All the generators are modeled as classical two-area test whereas, ultracapacitor integration has a negative impact on the
system thermal generator model referred as thermal dominant damping of the mode.
system. To verify the trends of the aforementioned observations, further
analysis has been carried out by considering the following system
Table 3 illustrates the effect of PV and its auxiliary devices on topologies:
two-area test system local and inter-area modes for case-1. The re-
sponse has been shown by the difference of damping correspond- Scenario-1: 3% increase of real and reactive power at each load
ing to base case (without PV). The analysis has been carried out by bus.
considering PV integration at bus 6 in the system. The analysis re- Scenario-2: 4% increase of real and reactive power at each load
veals that integration of ultracapacitor and shunt capacitor at PV bus.
system provide positive damping to the inter-area mode. However, Scenario-3: 5% increase of real and reactive power at each load
the damping improvement due to shunt capacitor is very small as bus.
compared to ultracapacitor (Ddamp. = 0.8% > 0.1%).
From the analysis it is also noticeable that for local mode-1 only Fig. 8 shows the variations of inter-area mode damping with PV
ultracapacitor integration improves the damping of the mode plant auxiliary devices at different scenarios for case-1. From Fig. 8
(Ddamp. = 0.03%). However, the damping of local mode-2 deterio- it can be observed that in all scenarios PV-ultracapacitor provides
rates for all auxiliary devices. better damping to the inter-area mode. Similarly, Fig. 9 shows the
Table 4 illustrates the effect of PV and its auxiliary devices on variations of inter-area mode damping with PV plant auxiliary de-
two-area system local and inter-area modes for case-2. As like pre- vices at different scenarios for case-2. From Fig. 9 it can be seen
vious section, the response has been shown by considering the dif- that in all scenarios PV-BESS provides better damping to the in-
ference of damping corresponding to base case (without PV). It is ter-area mode. The time domain simulation results of rotor angle
Table 3
Effect of PV and its auxiliary devices on the damping of EM modes (case-1).
Table 4
Effect of PV and its auxiliary devices on the damping of EM modes (case-2).
Fig. 10. Time domain simulation results for case-1 in two-area test system.
Fig. 11. Time domain simulation results for case-2 in two-area test system.
for inter-area mode in case-1 and 2 are presented in Figs. 10
and 11, respectively. For both cases, the mode is excited by apply-
ing three phase fault in bus 8 of the system at 0.23 s and cleared at Table 5
0.25 s. From Fig. 10 it can be seen that PV–ultracapacitor provides Trajectory sensitivity with respect to ultracapacitor parameter variation (two-area
test system).
better damping to the mode than the other system configurations
for case-1. Conversely, Fig. 11 shows that PV–BESS provides better Generator Type @dij
@p ðkp2 Þ Sn g
damping to the mode than the other system configurations for
Generator 1 Hydro 0.0006 0.0019 506
case-2. Generator 2 0.0008
Generator 1 Thermal 0.0045 0.0053 188
5.1. Effect of ultracapacitor parameter variation on stability condition Generator 2 0.0025
Table 6 Table 7
Trajectory sensitivity with respect to BESS parameter variation (two-area test Critical modes of NE–NY test system.
system).
Mode Case-1 Case-2
Generator Type @dij
ðkd Þ Sn g
@p % Damping f (Hz) % Damping f (Hz)
Generator 1 Hydro 0.0017 0.0058 200 1 3.15 0.35 4.3 0.35
Generator 2 0.0053 2 0.63 0.46 0.70 0.46
Generator 1 Thermal 0.00013 0.0025 458 3 2.43 0.64 2.61 0.64
Generator 2 0.00012 4 3.815 0.71 3.82 0.71
also noticeable that the g of the system is low (g = 188 < 506) for
Table 8
this case. The results presented in Table 5 reveal that ultracapacitor Effect of PV and its auxiliary devices on the damping of EM modes (case-1).
at PV more negatively interacts with area-1 generators rotor angle
System conf. Mode-1 Mode-2
for thermal units.
% of damp. D of damp. % of damp. D of damp.
5.2. Effect of BESS parameter variation on stability condition Without PV 3.15 0.00 0.63 0.00
With PV 3.09 0.06 0.50 0.13
PV + ultra capacitor 2.71 0.44 0.98 0.26
BESS real power controller proportional gain (Kd) variation has
PV + BESS 3.07 0.08 0.77 0.14
been considered for TS evaluation. As like previous section, analy- PV + shunt cap. 3.18 0.03 0.45 0.18
sis has been performed by considering very small (61%) perturba-
tion of Kd for both cases. The analysis has been carried out for a
fault clearing time of 0.10 s with the variation of Kd. TS of rotor an-
Table 9
gles, overall sensitivity norm (Sn) and stability margin (g) of the Effect of PV and its auxiliary devices on the damping of EM modes (case-2).
system are given in Table 6.
From Table 6 it can be seen that the TS of area-1 generator rotor System conf. Mode-1 Mode-2
angles are high if the generators of area-1 are hydro units. Form the % of damp. D of damp. % of damp. D of damp.
above table it is also observed that the g of the system is low Without PV 4.3 0.00 0.70 0.00
(g = 200 < 458) for this case. From the above responses, it is obvi- With PV 4.3 0.00 0.57 0.13
ous that BESS at PV more negatively interacts with the rotor angles PV + ultra capacitor 4.3 0.00 0.85 0.15
PV + BESS 4.3 0.00 1.05 0.35
of the area-1 generator for hydro units.
PV + shunt cap. 4.3 0.00 0.49 0.21
Table 10
Trajectory sensitivity with respect to ultracapacitor parameter variation (NE–NY test
system).
Table 11
Trajectory sensitivity with respect to BESS parameter change (NE–NY test system).
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