Classical Mechanics: The Theoretical Minimum

Classical Mechanics
The Theoretical Minimum
Leonard Susskind
George Hrabovsky
Stanford University, Continuing Studies

Palo Alto, California
Exercises by Filip Van Lijsebetten

filipvl@vanlijsebetten.be
2014
Table of Contents
Interlude 1 – Exercise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Lecture 2 – Exercise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
Interlude 2 – Exercise 1, 2, 3, 4
Lecture 3 – Exercise 1, 2, 3, 4
Interlude 3 – Exercise 1, 2
Lecture 5 – Exercise 1, 2, 3
Lecture 6 – Exercise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Lecture 7 – Exercise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Lecture 8 – Exercise 1, 2
Lecture 10 – Exercise 1, 2, 3
Lecture 11 – Exercise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Appendix 1 – Exercise 1
Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

filipvl@vanlijsebetten.be 2
The Theoretical Minimum – Classical Mechanics – Exercise I1.1
Using a graphing calculator or a program like Mathematica, plot each of the following functions.
𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟒 + 𝟑𝒕𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝒕𝟐 + 𝒕 − 𝟔
𝒈(𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

𝜽(𝜶) = 𝒆𝜶 + 𝜶 𝒍𝒏 𝜶
𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒕 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕

Work out the rule for vector subtraction.
Graphically we have already defined vectors as objects with a certain length and a certain direction.
We can imagine them to be arrows of that length and pointing in that direction.
𝐴⃗
We have also defined multiplication of a vector with a number. Multiplying by 2 makes the length
twice as long. And multiplying with a negative number −1 changes the direction.
2𝐴⃗ and −𝐴⃗
Then we have defined addition of vectors as bringing the tail of the second vector to the top of the
first one. The new vector then is the one that starts at the tail of the first and ends at the top of the
second one.
𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗
Subtraction can be defined as first multiplying the second vector by −1, which changes the direction.
And consequently you can add the resulting vectors in the same way as the addition.
𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + (−𝐵
⃗⃗)

Show that the magnitude of a vector satisfies
𝟐
⃗⃗ | = 𝑨
|𝑨 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑨
⃗⃗
We start on the right side of the equation.

2
𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐴⃗ = |𝐴⃗||𝐴⃗| cos 𝜃 = |𝐴⃗||𝐴⃗| cos 0 = |𝐴⃗|
Since the dot product of a vector with itself is always a positive number, we can rewrite this.
|𝐴⃗| = √𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐴⃗
Of course this also works in component form.
|𝐴⃗| = √𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐴𝑧 = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2

Let (𝑨𝒙 = 𝟐, 𝑨𝒚 = −𝟑, 𝑨𝒛 = 𝟏) and (𝑩𝒙 = −𝟒, 𝑩𝒚 = −𝟑, 𝑩𝒛 = 𝟐).
Compute the magnitude of ⃗𝑨⃗ and ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗, their dot product and the angle between them.
|𝐴⃗| = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2 = √4 + 9 + 1 = √14
⃗⃗| = √𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐵𝑧 2 = √16 + 9 + 4 = √29

|𝐵
𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 = −8 + 9 + 2 = 3
𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗ 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗
𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |𝐴⃗||𝐵
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 ⇔ cos 𝜃 = ⇔ 𝜃 = arccos ( )
|𝐴⃗||𝐵⃗⃗| |𝐴⃗||𝐵⃗⃗|
3
⇔ 𝜃 = arccos = 1,421253189 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 81,43753893°
√14√29

Determine which pairs of vectors are orthogonal.
(𝟏, 𝟏, 𝟏) (𝟐, −𝟏, 𝟑) (𝟑, 𝟏, 𝟎) (−𝟑, 𝟎, 𝟐)
𝐴⃗ (1,1,1)
⃗⃗ (2, −1,3)
𝐵
𝐶⃗ (3,1,0)
⃗⃗ (−3,0,2)
𝐷
Whenever the dot product of the vectors is equal to 0, they are orthogonal.
𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 2 − 1 + 3 = 4
𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐶⃗ = 3 + 1 + 0 = 4
𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐷
⃗⃗ = −3 + 0 + 2 = −1
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐶⃗ = 6 − 1 + 0 = 5
𝐵
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐷
𝐵 ⃗⃗ = −6 + 0 + 6 = 0
𝐶⃗ ∙ 𝐷
⃗⃗ = −9 + 0 + 0 = −9
⃗⃗ and 𝐷
The vectors 𝐵 ⃗⃗ are orthogonal.

Can you explain why the dot product of two vectors that are orthogonal is 𝟎?
We go back to the definition of the dot product of two vectors.
𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |𝐴⃗||𝐵
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
If the length of the two vectors is not 0, then the only possibility for the right side to be 0 is that the
cosine of the angle between them is 0.
𝜋 3𝜋
In what cases is cos 𝜃 = 0? Well, only in the cases where 𝜃 = 2
or 𝜃 = 2
.
By definition in both these cases the vectors are orthogonal.

The Theoretical Minimum – Classical Mechanics – Exercise L2.1
Calculate the derivatives of each of these functions.
𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟒 + 𝟑𝒕𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝒕𝟐 + 𝒕 − 𝟔

𝑑𝑓
= 4𝑡 3 + 9𝑡 2 − 24𝑡 + 1
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑔
= cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝜽(𝜶) = 𝒆𝜶 + 𝜶 𝐥𝐧 𝜶
𝑑𝜃 𝛼
= 𝑒 𝛼 + ln 𝛼 + = 𝑒 𝛼 + ln 𝛼 + 1
𝑑𝛼 𝛼
𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒕 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕

We use two intermediary functions and the chain rule to solve the left part.
𝑓 = sin 𝑡
𝑑𝑓
= cos 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑔 = 𝑓2
𝑑𝑔
= 2𝑓 = 2 sin 𝑡
𝑑𝑓
𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑓
= = 2 sin t cos 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
= 2 sin t cos 𝑡 + sin 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝒅𝟐 𝒇(𝒕)
The derivative of a derivative is called the second derivative and is written 𝒅 𝒕𝟐
.
Take the second derivative of each of the functions of Exercise L2.1
𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟒 + 𝟑𝒕𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝒕𝟐 + 𝒕 − 𝟔

𝑑𝑓
= 4𝑡 3 + 9𝑡 2 − 24𝑡 + 1
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑓
= 12𝑡 2 + 18𝑡 − 24
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑𝑔
= cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑔
= − sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
𝜽(𝜶) = 𝒆𝜶 + 𝜶 𝐥𝐧 𝜶
𝑑𝜃 𝛼
= 𝑒 𝛼 + ln 𝛼 + = 𝑒 𝛼 + ln 𝛼 + 1
𝑑𝛼 𝛼
𝑑2 𝜃 1
2
= 𝑒𝛼 +
𝑑𝛼 𝛼
𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒕 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕

𝑑𝑥
= 2 sin t cos 𝑡 + sin 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
= 2(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡) + cos 𝑡 = 2 cos 2𝑡 + cos 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2

Use the chain rule to find the derivatives of each of the following functions.
𝒈(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒕𝟐 ) − 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒕𝟐 )
𝑓 = 𝑡2
𝑑𝑓
= 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑔 𝑑 sin 𝑓 𝑑 cos 𝑓
= − = cos 𝑓 + sin 𝑓 = cos 𝑡 2 + sin 𝑡 2
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑓
= = 2𝑡 cos 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 sin 𝑡 2
𝜽(𝜶) = 𝒆𝟑𝜶 + 𝟑𝜶 𝐥𝐧(𝟑𝜶)

𝑓 = 3𝛼
𝑑𝑓
=3
𝑑𝛼
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑒 𝑓 𝑑(𝑓 ln 𝑓) 𝑓
= + = 𝑒 𝑓 + ln 𝑓 + = 𝑒 3𝛼 + ln 3𝑎 + 1
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝑓
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑓
= = 3𝑒 3𝛼 + 3 ln 3𝑎 + 3
𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝛼
𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝒕𝟐 ) − 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒕𝟐 )
We work on the left side first.
𝑓 = 𝑡2
𝑑𝑓
= 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑔 = sin 𝑓
𝑑𝑔
= cos 𝑓 = cos 𝑡 2
𝑑𝑓
ℎ = 𝑔2
𝑑ℎ
= 2𝑔 = 2 sin 𝑡 2
𝑑𝑔
𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑓
= = 2 sin 𝑡 2 cos 𝑡 2 2𝑡 = 4𝑡 sin 𝑡 2 cos 𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑡

We continue with the right side.
𝑓 = 𝑡2
𝑑𝑓
= 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑘 = − cos 𝑓
𝑑𝑘
= sin 𝑓 = sin 𝑡 2
𝑑𝑓
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑓
= = 2𝑡 sin 𝑡 2
Now we bring the two terms together.

𝑑𝑥 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑘
= + = 4𝑡 sin 𝑡 2 cos 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 sin 𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Prove the sum rule, the product rule and the chain rule.
For the sum rule we define ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥).

Then it follows that ℎ(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥).
And that ℎ(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑑[𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑 ℎ(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − ℎ(𝑥)
= ℎ(𝑥) = lim
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)
= lim = lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑔(𝑥)
= lim + lim = +
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
For the product rule we define ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥).

It follows that ℎ(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥).
And that ℎ(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥).
𝑑[𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
The trick now is to add and subtract an expression in the numerator that gets us to the result.
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)
= lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)
= lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)
= lim + lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)
= lim lim 𝑔(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥) lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
𝑑𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑔(𝑥)
= 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
For the chain rule we should first be sure about the Leibniz notation.
Infinitely small increments of 𝑥 and 𝑦 can be represented by 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑦. So these are two numbers
that tend to get very close to 0, but never are 0. According to Leibniz the derivative of 𝑦 with respect
to 𝑥 then is a quotient of 𝑑𝑦 over 𝑑𝑥.
Now let 𝑦 be a function of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) and we want to find the derivative of 𝑦 with
respect to 𝑥. Then we can define 𝑧 to be the second function 𝑧 = 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑔(𝑥)
= = = = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥

Prove each of the formulas in Equations (2). Hint: Look up trigonometric identities and limit
properties in a reference book.
Throughout the proofs here we will use some definitions and properties worth mentioning.
lim cos ∆𝑡 = 1
∆𝑡→0
sin ∆𝑡
lim =1
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
𝑡
1 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝑒 = lim (1 + 𝑥)𝑥 = lim (1 + )
𝑥→0 ∆𝑡→0 𝑡
ln 𝑒 = 1
ln 𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑡 ln 𝑒 = 𝑡
𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕
= 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕
𝒅𝒕
𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 sin(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) − sin 𝑡 sin 𝑡 cos ∆𝑡 + cos 𝑡 sin ∆𝑡 − sin 𝑡
= lim = lim
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
sin 𝑡 1 + cos 𝑡 sin ∆𝑡 − sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡 sin ∆𝑡 sin ∆𝑡
= lim = lim = cos 𝑡 lim = cos 𝑡 1 = cos 𝑡
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕
𝒅𝒕
𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 cos(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) − cos 𝑡 cos 𝑡 cos ∆𝑡 − sin 𝑡 sin ∆𝑡 − cos 𝑡
= lim = lim
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
cos 𝑡 1 − sin 𝑡 sin ∆𝑡 − cos 𝑡 − sin 𝑡 sin ∆𝑡 sin ∆𝑡
= lim = lim = − sin 𝑡 lim = − sin 𝑡 1 = − sin 𝑡
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
𝒅 𝒍𝒏 𝒕 𝟏
=
𝒅𝒕 𝒕
𝑑 𝑙𝑛 𝑡 ln(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) − ln 𝑡 1 (𝑡 + ∆𝑡) 𝑡 1 ∆𝑡 1 𝑡 ∆𝑡
= lim = lim ln = lim ln (1 + ) = lim ln (1 + )
𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 𝑡 ∆𝑡 𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 𝑡 ∆𝑡 𝑡
𝑡 𝑡
1 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 1 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 1 1
= lim ln (1 + ) = ln lim (1 + ) = ln 𝑒 =
∆𝑡→0 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

𝒅𝒆𝒕
= 𝒆𝒕
𝒅𝒕
First we use a property to calculate an intermediary result.
𝑑 ln 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ln 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 1
= = =1
Now we use the derivative of ln 𝑡 and the chain rule to calculate the same thing. We let the function
𝑓 = ln 𝑒 𝑡 and the intermediary function 𝑔 = 𝑒 𝑡 .
𝑑 ln 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑔 1 𝑑𝑒 𝑡
= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
We already know the result of the left side.
1 𝑑 𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑒 𝑡
1= ⇔ = 𝑒𝑡
𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

How long does it take for the oscillating particle to go through one full cycle of motion?
𝑥(𝑡) = sin 𝜔𝑡
Let’s take a closer look at the sine of an angle in radians. If you start at angle 0, it’s clear that you
need to go around the unit circle once to be back at 0 = 2𝜋. You can read off the values of the sine
on the 𝑦 axis.
𝜔𝑡 = 0, 𝑥(𝑡) = 0
𝜋
𝜔𝑡 = , 𝑥(𝑡) = 1
2
𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋, 𝑥(𝑡) = 0
3𝜋
𝜔𝑡 = , 𝑥(𝑡) = −1
2
𝜔𝑡 = 2𝜋, 𝑥(𝑡) = 0
If 𝜔 = 1, then the time for one revolution, called 𝑇, would be just equal to 2𝜋.
2𝜋
If 𝜔 = 2, then 𝑇 would be equal to .
2
1
If 𝜔 = 2, then 𝑇 would be 4𝜋.
It’s clear that the larger 𝜔 is, the faster one cycle is finished. 𝑇 is inversely proportional to 𝜔. Since 𝜔
is called the frequency, this seems logical.
There is nothing else involved to determine 𝑇.

2𝜋
𝑇=
𝜔

Show that the position and velocity vectors are orthogonal (for the above).
𝒗𝒙 = −𝑹𝝎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕
𝒗𝒚 = 𝑹𝝎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕
𝒂𝒙 = −𝑹𝝎𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕
𝒂𝒚 = −𝑹𝝎𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕
Two vectors are orthogonal if their dot product is equal to 0.
𝑣⃗ ∙ 𝑎⃗ = 0
⇔ 𝑣𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 𝑎𝑦 = 0
⇔ 𝑅 2 𝜔3 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑅 2 𝜔3 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 0

Calculate the velocity, speed and acceleration for each of the following position vectors.
⃗⃗ = (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕, 𝒆𝝎𝒕 )

𝒓
𝑑 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑣𝑥 = = −𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑒 𝜔𝑡
𝑣𝑦 = = 𝜔 𝑒 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
|𝑣⃗| = √(−𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡)2 + (𝜔 𝑒 𝜔𝑡 )2 = 𝜔 √𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑒 2𝜔𝑡

−𝜔 𝑑 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑎𝑥 = = −𝜔2 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝜔 𝑑𝑒 𝜔𝑡
𝑎𝑦 = = 𝜔2 𝑒 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗ = (𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝝓), 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝝓))

𝒓
𝑑 cos (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) 𝑑 (cos 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙 + sin 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙) 𝑑 (cos 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙) + 𝑑 (sin 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙)
𝑣𝑥 = = =
= −𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙 + 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙 = −𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
𝑑 sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) 𝑑 (sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙 − cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙) 𝑑 (sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙) − 𝑑 (cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙)
𝑣𝑦 = = =
= 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙 + 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙 = 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
|𝑣⃗| = √(−𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙))2 + (𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙))2 = 𝜔 √𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) = 𝜔
−𝜔 𝑑 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
𝑎𝑥 = = −𝜔 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) = −𝜔2 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
𝜔 𝑑 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
𝑎𝑦 = = 𝜔 (−𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)) = −𝜔2 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗ = (𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑 𝒕, 𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝒕)
𝒓
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑡
𝑣𝑥 = = 𝑐 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 (− sin 𝑡) = −3𝑐 sin 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑐 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑡
𝑣𝑦 = = 𝑐 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 (cos 𝑡) = 3𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 cos 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
|𝑣⃗| = √(−3𝑐 sin 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡)2 + (3𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 cos 𝑡 )2 = 3𝑐 √𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡
= 3𝑐 sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡 √𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 = 3𝑐 sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡

−3𝑐 d sin 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡
𝑎𝑥 = = −3𝑐 (cos 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 + sin 𝑡 2 cos 𝑡 (− sin 𝑡))
𝑑𝑡
= −3𝑐 cos 𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡)
= −3𝑐 cos 𝑡 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡) = −3𝑐 cos 𝑡 (1 − 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡)

3𝑐 d 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 cos 𝑡
𝑎𝑦 = = 3𝑐 (2 sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡 cos 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 (− sin 𝑡)) = 3𝑐 sin 𝑡 (2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
= 3𝑐 sin 𝑡 (2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 − 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡) = 3𝑐 sin 𝑡 (3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 − 1)
⃗⃗ = (𝒄 (𝒕 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕), 𝒄 (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕))

𝒓
𝑐 𝑑 (𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡)
𝑣𝑥 = = 𝑐 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑐 𝑑 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡)
𝑣𝑦 = = 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
|𝑣⃗| = 𝑐 √(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡)2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 = 𝑐 √1 − 2 cos 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 = 𝑐 √2 − 2 cos 𝑡

𝑐 𝑑 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡)
𝑎𝑥 = = 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑐 𝑑 sin 𝑡
𝑎𝑦 = = 𝑐 cos 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Determine the indefinite integral of each of the following expressions by reversing the process of
differentiation and adding a constant.
𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟒
𝑡5
∫ 𝑡 4 𝑑𝑡 = +𝑐
5
𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕
∫ cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = sin 𝑡 + 𝑐
𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟐 − 𝟐
𝑡3
∫(𝑡 2 − 2) 𝑑𝑡 = − 2𝑡 + 𝑐
3

Use the fundamental theorem of calculus to evaluate each integral from Exercise I2.1 with limits of
integration being 𝒕 = 𝟎 to 𝒕 = 𝑻.
𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟒
𝑡5
∫ 𝑡 4 𝑑𝑡 = +𝑐
5
𝑇
𝑇 5 05 𝑇 5
∫ 𝑡 4 𝑑𝑡 = − =
0 5 5 5
𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕
∫ cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = sin 𝑡 + 𝑐
𝑇
∫ cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = sin 𝑇 − sin 0 = sin 𝑇
0
𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟐 − 𝟐
2
𝑡3
∫(𝑡 − 2) 𝑑𝑡 = − 2𝑡 + 𝑐
3
𝑇
𝑇3
∫ (𝑡 2 − 2) 𝑑𝑡 = − 2𝑇
0 3

Treat the expressions from Exercise I2.1 as expressions for the acceleration of a particle. Integrate
them once, with respect to time, and determine the velocities, and a second time to determine the
trajectories. Integrate from 𝒕 = 𝟎 to 𝒕 = 𝑻.
𝒂(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟒
𝑇
𝑇 5 05 𝑇 5
𝑣(𝑇) = ∫ 𝑡 4 𝑑𝑡 = − =
0 5 5 5
𝑇 5
𝑡 𝑇6
𝑟(𝑇) = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 =
0 5 30
𝒂(𝒕) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕
𝑇
𝑣(𝑇) = ∫ cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = sin 𝑇 − sin 0 = sin 𝑇
0
𝑇
𝑟(𝑇) = ∫ sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − cos 𝑇 + cos 0 = 1 − cos 𝑇
0
𝒂(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟐 − 𝟐
𝑇
𝑇3
𝑣(𝑇) = ∫ (𝑡 2 − 2) 𝑑𝑡 = − 2𝑇
0 3
𝑇
𝑡3 𝑇4
𝑟(𝑇) = ∫ ( − 2𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑇2
0 3 12

𝝅
Finish evaluating ∫𝟎𝟐 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒅𝒙.
𝜋
2
∫ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2 𝑑 sin 𝑥
=∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
𝜋
2 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 sin 𝑥 |02 −∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 2
= sin − ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2 0
𝜋 𝜋
= − (− cos + cos 0)
2 2
𝜋
= −1
2

Given a force that varies with time according to 𝑭 = 𝟐𝒕𝟐 , and with the initial condition at time
zero, 𝒙(𝟎) = 𝝅, use Aristotle’s law to find 𝒙(𝒕) at all times.
𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗
𝐹⃗
𝑣⃗ =
𝑚
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝐹(𝑡)
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑥(0) 𝑑𝑡 0 𝑚
𝑡
2𝑡 2
𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥(0) = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑚
2𝑡 3
𝑥(𝑡) − 𝜋 =
3𝑚
2𝑡 3
𝑥(𝑡) = +𝜋
3𝑚

𝑭𝒛
𝒗̇ 𝒛 =
𝒎
Integrate this equation. Hint: Use definite integrals.
𝐹𝑧
𝑣𝑧̇ =
𝑚
𝑑𝑣𝑧 𝐹𝑧
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑧 𝐹𝑧
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑑𝑡 0 𝑚
𝐹𝑧
𝑣𝑧 (𝑡) − 𝑣𝑧 (0) = 𝑡
𝑚
𝐹𝑧
𝑣𝑧 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑧 (0) + 𝑡
𝑚

𝑭𝒛 𝟐
𝒛(𝒕) = 𝒛𝟎 + 𝒗𝒛 (𝟎)𝒕 + 𝒕
𝟐𝒎
Show by differentiation that this satisfies the equation of motion.
We will differentiate this equation twice. The first derivative will give us the velocity.
𝑑 𝐹𝑧 2 𝐹𝑧
𝑧̇ (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑧 (𝑡) = (𝑧0 + 𝑣𝑧 (0)𝑡 + 𝑡 ) = 𝑣𝑧 (0) + 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚 𝑚
The second derivative will give us the acceleration.

𝑑 𝐹𝑧 𝐹𝑧
𝑧̈ (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑧 (𝑡) = (𝑣𝑧 (0) + 𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑚
This satisfies Newton’s equation of motion 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗.

𝒙̈ = −𝝎𝟐 𝒙
Show by differentiation that the general solution to the above equation is given in terms of two
constants A and B by 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 + 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕.
Determine the initial position and velocity at time 𝒕 = 𝟎 in terms of A and B.
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑
𝑥̇ (𝑡) = (𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
= −𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑
𝑥̈ (𝑡) = (−𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
= −𝐴𝜔2 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐵𝜔2 sin 𝜔𝑡
= −𝜔2 (𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑡)
= −𝜔2 𝑥(𝑡)
The initial position at time 𝑡 = 0
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑥(0) = 𝐴 cos 0 + 𝐵 sin 0 = 𝐴
The initial velocity at time 𝑡 = 0
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑥̇ (𝑡) = −𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡

𝑣(0) = −𝐴𝜔 sin 0 + 𝐵𝜔 cos 0 = 𝐵𝜔

Compute all first and second partial derivatives – including mixed derivatives – of the following
functions.
𝑽(𝒙, 𝒚): 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒙𝒚)
⇔ sin(𝑥𝑦)−𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 0
𝜕𝑉
: 𝑦 cos(𝑥𝑦) − 2𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑉
: 𝑥 cos(𝑥𝑦) − 2𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝑉
: −𝑦 2 sin(𝑥𝑦) − 2 = 0 ⇔ 𝑦 2 sin(𝑥𝑦) + 2 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕2𝑉
: −𝑥 2 sin(𝑥𝑦) − 2 = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 2 sin(𝑥𝑦) + 2 = 0
𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2𝑉
: cos(𝑥𝑦) − 𝑥𝑦 sin(𝑥𝑦) = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝒙 (𝒙𝟐+𝒚𝟐)
𝑽(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝒆
𝒚
2 +𝑦 2 )
First we work on 𝑒 (𝑥 with the chain rule to get some intermediary results.
𝑓 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= 2𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 2𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2 +𝑦 2 )
𝑔 = 𝑒 (𝑥 = 𝑒𝑓
𝜕𝑔 2 2
= 𝑒 𝑓 = 𝑒 (𝑥 +𝑦 )
𝜕𝑓
𝜕𝑔 𝜕𝑔 𝜕𝑓 2 2 𝜕𝑔 𝜕𝑔 𝜕𝑓 2 2
= = 2𝑥 𝑒 (𝑥 +𝑦 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = 2𝑦 𝑒 (𝑥 +𝑦 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑦
Now we continue with the complete equations and use the above results.
𝜕𝑉 1 (𝑥2 +𝑦2 ) 𝑥 2 2 2𝑥 2 + 1 (𝑥 2 +𝑦2 )

= 𝑒 + 2𝑥 𝑒 (𝑥 +𝑦 ) = ( )𝑒
𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
𝜕𝑉 𝑥 2 2 𝑥 2 2 𝑥 2 2
= − 2 𝑒 (𝑥 +𝑦 ) + 2𝑦 𝑒 (𝑥 +𝑦 ) = (2𝑥 − 2 ) 𝑒 (𝑥 +𝑦 )
𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦

𝜕 2 𝑉 𝜕𝑉 2𝑥 2 + 1 (𝑥 2 +𝑦2 ) 4𝑥 (𝑥 2 +𝑦2 ) 2𝑥 2 + 1 2 2
2
= [( ) 𝑒 ] = 𝑒 + ( ) 2𝑥 𝑒 (𝑥 +𝑦 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
3
4𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 2𝑥 (𝑥 2 +𝑦2 )
=( )𝑒
𝑦
2𝑥 2 + 3 (𝑥2 +𝑦2 )
= 2𝑥 ( )𝑒
𝑦
𝜕 2 𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑥 2 2 2𝑥 2 2 𝑥 2 2
2
= [(2𝑥 − 2 ) 𝑒 (𝑥 +𝑦 ) ] = 3 𝑒 (𝑥 +𝑦 ) + (2𝑥 − 2 ) 2𝑦 𝑒 (𝑥 +𝑦 )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
2𝑥 2𝑥 (𝑥 2 +𝑦2 )
= ( 3 + 4𝑥𝑦 − ) 𝑒
𝑦 𝑦
1 1 2 2
= 2𝑥 ( 3 + 2𝑦 − ) 𝑒 (𝑥 +𝑦 )
𝑦 𝑦
𝜕2𝑉 𝜕𝑉 2𝑥 2 + 1 (𝑥 2 +𝑦2 ) −(2𝑥 2 + 1) (𝑥 2 +𝑦2 ) 2𝑥 2 + 1 2 2
= [( )𝑒 ]= 𝑒 +( ) 2𝑦 𝑒 (𝑥 +𝑦 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝑦2 𝑦
(2𝑦 2 − 1)(2𝑥 2 + 1) (𝑥 2 +𝑦2 )

= 𝑒
𝑦2
𝑽(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝒆𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒚
𝜕𝑉
= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑉
= −𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝑉
= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕2𝑉
= −𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑥
= (𝑒 cos 𝑦) = −𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝝅 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
Consider the points (𝒙 = 𝟐 , 𝒚 = − 𝟐 ), (𝒙 = − 𝟐 , 𝒚 = 𝟐 ) and (𝒙 = − 𝟐 , 𝒚 = − 𝟐 ).
Are these points stationary points of the following functions? If so, of what type?
𝑭(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒚

𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
= cos 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝐹 𝜕2𝐹
= − sin 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = − sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2𝐹 𝜕2𝐹
= =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
− sin 𝑥 0
The Hessian matrix is 𝐻 = ( ).
0 − sin 𝑦
The determinant is 𝐷𝑒𝑡 𝐻 = sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦.
The trace is 𝑇𝑟 𝐻 = − sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑦.

𝜋 𝜋
For (𝑥 = , 𝑦 = − ) we have 𝐷𝑒𝑡 𝐻 = −1, so this is a saddle point.
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
For (𝑥 = − 2 , 𝑦 = 2 ) we have 𝐷𝑒𝑡 𝐻 = −1, so this is a saddle point.
𝜋 𝜋
For (𝑥 = − 2 , 𝑦 = − 2 ) we have 𝐷𝑒𝑡 𝐻 = 1 and 𝑇𝑟 𝐻 = 2, so this is a local minimum.
𝑭(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒚

𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
= −sin 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = −sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝐹 𝜕2𝐹
= − cos 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = − cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2𝐹 𝜕2𝐹
= =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
− cos 𝑥 0
The Hessian matrix is 𝐻 = ( ).
0 − cos 𝑦
The determinant is 𝐷𝑒𝑡 𝐻 = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦.
The trace is 𝑇𝑟 𝐻 = − cos 𝑥 − cos 𝑦.

𝜋 𝜋
For (𝑥 = 2 , 𝑦 = − 2 ) we have 𝐷𝑒𝑡 𝐻 = 0 and 𝑇𝑟 𝐻 = 0, so this is no stationary point.
It’s obvious that we get the same values for the other two points, so these are no stationary points
either.

𝒅𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒗
= 𝟐𝒗 = 𝟐𝒗𝒗̇
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Prove the above equation. Hint: Use the product rule for differentiation.
𝑑𝑣 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑣
=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑣+𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
=𝑣 +𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
= 2𝑣
𝑑𝑡
= 2𝑣𝑣̇

Consider a particle in two dimensions, x and y. The particle has mass m.
𝟏
The potential energy is 𝑽 = 𝟐 𝒌(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ). Work out the equations of motion.
𝜕𝑉(𝑥𝑖 )
𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖̈ = −
𝜕𝑥𝑖
This is the general form for all dimensions, so first we start with 𝑎𝑥 .
1
𝜕 [2 𝑘(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )] 𝑘
𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − ⇔ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥 ⇔ 𝑎𝑥 = − 𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝑚
𝑘
Obviously we also have 𝑎𝑦 = − 𝑦.
𝑚
𝑘
In the above equations of motion we can set 𝜔2 = 𝑚. The equations then become 𝑥̈ 𝑖 = −𝜔2 𝑥𝑖 .
We recognize this as the equations of motion of the harmonic oscillator.
Show that there are circular orbits and that they all have the same period.
To have uniform circular motion in the 𝑥, 𝑦 plane, we know that our position coordinates need to
satisfy
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑅 cos 𝜔𝑡 and 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑅 sin 𝜔𝑡.
We also know that our equations of motion need to satisfy
𝑥̈ (𝑡) = −𝑅𝜔2 cos 𝜔𝑡 and 𝑦̈ (𝑡) = −𝑅𝜔2 sin 𝜔𝑡.
If we combine both these transformations, we get exactly 𝑥̈ 𝑖 = −𝜔2 𝑥𝑖 .
2𝜋
The period or the time it takes to go one full revolution is, as we know, equal to 𝑇 = .
𝜔
Prove explicitly that the total energy is conserved.

1 1 1 1
𝑉 = 𝑘(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) = 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑦 2 = ∑ 𝑘𝑥𝑖 2
2 2 2 2
𝑖
1 1 1
𝑇 = ∑ 𝑚𝑥𝑖̇ 2 = 𝑚𝑥̇ 2 + 𝑚𝑦̇ 2
2 2 2
𝑖
We have to prove that the time derivative of the total energy 𝐸 is 0.

𝑑𝐸 𝑑(𝑇 + 𝑉) 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑉
= = +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 1 2 𝑑 1
= ( 𝑘𝑥 ) + ( 𝑚𝑥̇ 2 )
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑘 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑥̇ 2
= +
2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑘 𝑚
= (2𝑥̇ 𝑥 ) + (2𝑥̈ 𝑥̇ )
2 2
𝑘
= 𝑘𝑥̇ 𝑥 + 𝑚 (− 𝑥) 𝑥̇
𝑚
= 𝑘𝑥̇ 𝑥 − 𝑘𝑥̇ 𝑥 = 0
The same is true for the 𝑦 component and so the total energy is conserved.

𝒌
Rework Exercise L5.2 for the potential 𝑽 = 𝟐(𝒙𝟐+𝒚𝟐).
𝜕𝑉(𝑥𝑖 )
𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖̈ = −
𝜕𝑥𝑖
Let’s make a transformation to polar coordinates 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃.
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 or 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝜕 𝑘 𝑘 𝜕 1 𝑘 −2 𝑘
𝑚𝑟̈ = − ( 2) = − ( 2) = − ( 3 ) = 3
𝜕𝑟 2𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑟
𝑘
⇔ 𝑟̈ =
𝑚𝑟 3
Further, since 𝜃̈ = 0, there is no acceleration for the 𝜃 component.
Are there circular orbits? If so, do they all have the same period? We haven’t found any.
Is the total energy conserved?

𝑘 𝑘 1
𝑉= =
2(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 ) 2 𝑟2
2
𝑑(𝑟 cos 𝜃)
𝑥̇ = = 𝑟̇ cos 𝜃 − 𝑟𝜃̇ sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑡
2
𝑥̇ 2 = (𝑟̇ cos 𝜃 − 𝑟𝜃̇ sin 𝜃) = 𝑟̇ 2 cos 2 𝜃 − 2𝑟𝑟̇ 𝜃̇ cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 + 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ 2 sin2 𝜃
𝑑(𝑟 sin 𝜃)
𝑦̇ = = 𝑟̇ sin 𝜃 + 𝑟𝜃̇ cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑡
2
𝑦̇ 2 = (𝑟̇ sin 𝜃 + 𝑟𝜃̇ cos 𝜃) = 𝑟̇ 2 sin2 𝜃 + 2𝑟𝑟̇ 𝜃̇ sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ 2 cos 2 𝜃
𝑥̇ 2 + 𝑦̇ 2 = 𝑟̇ 2 + 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ 2
1 𝑚
𝑇 = 𝑚(𝑥̇ 2 + 𝑦̇ 2 ) = (𝑟̇ 2 + 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ 2 )
2 2
𝑚 2 𝑘 1
𝐸 =𝑇+𝑉 = (𝑟̇ + 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ 2 ) + 2
2 2𝑟
𝑑𝐸 𝑚 𝑑𝑟̇ 2 𝑑𝑟 2 𝜃̇ 2 𝑘𝑑 1 𝑚 𝑘 −2
= ( + )+ 2
= (2𝑟̈ 𝑟̇ + 2𝑟̇ 𝑟𝜃̇ 2 + 2𝑟 2 𝜃̈𝜃̇ ) + ( 3 𝑟̇ )
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑟 2 2 𝑟
We have found earlier that 𝜃̈ = 0.

𝑘𝑟̇ 𝑘𝑟̇ 𝑘𝑟̇
= 𝑚(𝑟̈ 𝑟̇ + 𝑟̇ 𝑟𝜃̇ 2 ) − 3
= 3 + 𝑚𝑟̇ 𝑟𝜃̇ 2 − 3 = 𝑚𝑟̇ 𝑟𝜃̇ 2
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
It doesn’t seem that the total energy is conserved.
From later lectures we have learned that the Hamiltonian of this system doesn’t depend on 𝜃 itself.
We call 𝜃 a cyclic coordinate. Hamilton’s equation of motion gives us 𝑝̇𝜃 = 0. This means in this case
that angular momentum is conserved.

𝒅 𝝏𝑳 𝝏𝑳
− =𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒙̇ 𝝏𝒙
Show that the above equation is just another form of Newton’s equation of motion 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂.
1
𝐿 = 𝑇 − 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑥̇ 2 − 𝑉(𝑥)
2
𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑥̇
𝜕𝑥̇
𝑑 𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑥̈
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥̇
𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝑉(𝑥)
=− = 𝐹(𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿
− =0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥̇ 𝜕𝑥
⇔ =
⇔ 𝑚𝑥̈ = 𝐹(𝑥)
⇔ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

𝒅 𝝏𝑳 𝝏𝑳
− =𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒙𝒊̇ 𝝏𝒙𝒊
Show that the above equation is just another form of Newton’s equation of motion 𝑭𝒊 = 𝒎𝒊 𝒙̈𝒊.
1
𝐿 = 𝑇 − 𝑉 = ∑ ( 𝑚𝑥𝑖̇ 2 ) − 𝑉({𝑥})
2
𝑖
𝜕𝐿
= ∑(𝑚𝑥𝑖̇ )
𝜕𝑥𝑖̇
𝑖
𝑑 𝜕𝐿
= ∑(𝑚𝑥𝑖̈ )
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑖̇
𝑖
𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝑉({𝑥})
=− = 𝐹𝑖 ({𝑥})
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖
− =0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑖̇ 𝜕𝑥𝑖
⇔ =
⇔ ∑(𝑚𝑥𝑖̈ ) = 𝐹𝑖 ({𝑥})
𝑖
⇔ 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖̈

𝒎 𝟐 𝟐
𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝟐
𝑳 = (𝒙̇ + 𝒚̇ ) + (𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐 ) + 𝒎𝝎(𝒙̇ 𝒚 − 𝒚̇ 𝒙)
𝟐 𝟐
Use the Euler-Lagrange equations to derive the equations of motion from the Lagrangian in the
above equation.
This is the general form of the Euler-Lagrange equations for all dimensions, in this case x and y.
− =0
We start with the x coordinate first and split up the equation in some parts.
− =0
𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑥̇ + 𝑚𝜔𝑦
𝜕𝑥̇
𝑑 𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑚𝜔𝑦̇
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥̇
𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 − 𝑚𝜔𝑦̇
𝜕𝑥
− = 0 ⇔ 𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑚𝜔𝑦̇ − 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 + 𝑚𝜔𝑦̇ = 0 ⇔ 𝑥̈ + 2𝜔𝑦̇ − 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0
⇔ 𝑥̈ = 𝜔2 𝑥 − 2𝜔𝑦̇
Now we continue with the y coordinate in the same way.

− =0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦̇ 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑦̇ − 𝑚𝜔𝑥
𝜕𝑦̇
𝑑 𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑦̈ − 𝑚𝜔𝑥̇
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦̇
𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝜔2 𝑦 + 𝑚𝜔𝑥̇
𝜕𝑦
− = 0 ⇔ 𝑚𝑦̈ − 𝑚𝜔𝑥̇ − 𝑚𝜔2 𝑦 − 𝑚𝜔𝑥̇ = 0 ⇔ 𝑦̈ − 2𝜔𝑥̇ − 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦̇ 𝜕𝑦
⇔ 𝑦̈ = 𝜔2 𝑦 + 2𝜔𝑥̇

𝒎 𝟐 𝟐
𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝟐
𝑳 = (𝒙̇ + 𝒚̇ ) + (𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐 ) + 𝒎𝝎(𝒙̇ 𝒚 − 𝒚̇ 𝒙)
𝟐 𝟐
𝒙 = 𝑹 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 and 𝒚 = 𝑹 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
Work out George’s Lagrangian and Euler-Lagrange equations in polar coordinates.
We work out some intermediary results first.
𝑥̇ = 𝑅̇ cos 𝜃 − 𝑅𝜃̇ sin 𝜃
𝑦̇ = 𝑅̇ sin 𝜃 + 𝑅𝜃̇ cos 𝜃
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑅 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑅 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑅 2
𝑥̇ 2 + 𝑦̇ 2 = 𝑅̇ 2 cos2 𝜃 + 𝑅 2 𝜃̇ 2 sin2 𝜃 − 2𝑅̇𝑅𝜃̇ cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 + 𝑅̇ 2 sin2 𝜃 + 𝑅 2 𝜃̇ 2 cos2 𝜃

+ 2𝑅̇ 𝑅𝜃̇ cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
= 𝑅̇ 2 + 𝑅 2 𝜃̇ 2
𝑥̇ 𝑦 − 𝑦̇ 𝑥 = 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃(𝑅̇ cos 𝜃 − 𝑅𝜃̇ sin 𝜃) − 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃(𝑅̇ sin 𝜃 + 𝑅𝜃̇ cos 𝜃)
= −𝑅 2 𝜃̇ sin2 𝜃 − 𝑅 2 𝜃̇ cos2 𝜃
= −𝑅 2 𝜃̇
Now we can easily plug these results into George’s Lagrangian.
𝑚 2 𝑚𝜔2 𝑅2
𝐿= (𝑅̇ + 𝑅 2 𝜃̇ 2 ) + − 𝑚𝜔𝑅 2 𝜃̇
2 2
For the Euler-Lagrange equations we start with the R coordinate.

− =0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑅̇ 𝜕𝑅
𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑅̇
𝜕𝑅̇
𝑑 𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑅̈
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑅̇
𝜕𝐿 2
= 𝑚𝑅𝜃̇ 2 + 𝑚𝜔2 𝑅 − 2𝑚𝜔𝑅𝜃̇ = 𝑚𝑅(𝜃̇ 2 + 𝜔2 − 2𝜔𝜃̇ ) = 𝑚𝑅(𝜃̇ − 𝜔)
𝜕𝑅
𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 2 2
− = 0 ⇔ 𝑚𝑅̈ − 𝑚𝑅(𝜃̇ − 𝜔) = 0 ⇔ 𝑅̈ = 𝑅(𝜃̇ − 𝜔)

We continue with the 𝜃 coordinate.
− =0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃̇ 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑅 2 𝜃̇ − 𝑚𝜔𝑅 2
𝜕𝜃̇
𝑑 𝜕𝐿
= 2𝑚𝑅̇ 𝑅𝜃̇ + 𝑚𝑅 2 𝜃̈ − 2𝑚𝜔𝑅̇ 𝑅
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃̇
𝜕𝐿
=0
𝜕𝜃
𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 2𝑚𝜔𝑅̇ 𝑅 − 2𝑚𝑅̇ 𝑅𝜃̇
− = 0 ⇔ 2𝑚𝑅̇ 𝑅𝜃̇ + 𝑚𝑅 2 𝜃̈ − 2𝑚𝜔𝑅̇ 𝑅 = 0 ⇔ 𝜃̈ =
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃̇ 𝜕𝜃 𝑚𝑅 2
2𝑅̇ 𝜔 − 2𝑅̇𝜃̇ −2𝑅̇
⇔ 𝜃̈ = ⇔ 𝜃̈ = (𝜃̇ − 𝜔)
𝑅 𝑅
Just for fun we work out the same exercise for Lenny’s Lagrangian.
𝒎 𝟐
𝑳= (𝒙̇ + 𝒚̇ 𝟐 )
𝟐
In polar coordinates this becomes:
𝑚 2
𝐿= (𝑅̇ + 𝑅 2 𝜃̇ 2 )
2
Now the equations of motion for the R coordinate.
− = 0 ⇔ 𝑚𝑅̈ − 𝑚𝑅𝜃̇ 2 = 0 ⇔ 𝑅̈ = 𝑅𝜃̇ 2
We continue with the 𝜃 coordinate.
𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 −2𝑅̇
− = 0 ⇔ 2𝑚𝑅̇ 𝑅𝜃̇ + 𝑚𝑅 2 𝜃̈ = 0 ⇔ 2𝑅̇ 𝜃̇ + 𝑅𝜃̈ = 0 ⇔ 𝜃̈ = 𝜃̇
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃̇ 𝜕𝜃 𝑅

𝒎 𝟐
𝑳= (𝑹̇ + 𝑹𝟐 𝜽̇𝟐 )
𝟐
Use these results to predict the motion of a pendulum of length 𝒍.
The above Lagrangian describes a single particle of mass m moving in the 𝑥, 𝑦 plane but with no
𝑚
forces acting on it. In Cartesian coordinates it is 𝐿 = 2 (𝑥̇ 2 + 𝑦̇ 2 ).
The bob of the pendulum has mass 𝑚. We take 𝜃 to be the angle to the vertical axis and 𝑙 the length
of the rod. We can then replace 𝑅 in the above equations with the constant 𝑙.
So we only have the kinetic energy 𝑇 in the above Lagrangian. For a hanging pendulum we have to
bring in the potential energy 𝑉. This depends on the height ℎ which is 𝑙 − 𝑙 cos 𝜃.
𝑉 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑔(𝑙 − 𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
We also know that 𝑙 is a constant, so 𝑅̇ or 𝑙 ̇ is 0.
𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̇ 2
𝐿 =𝑇−𝑉 = − 𝑚𝑔𝑙 + 𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
2
We only need to derive the Euler-Lagrange equation of motion for the 𝜃 coordinate.
𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̇
𝜕𝜃̇
𝑑 𝜕𝐿
= 𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̈
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝜃̇
− = 0 ⇔ 𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̈ − (−𝑚𝑔𝑙 sin 𝜃) = 0 ⇔ 𝑙𝜃̈ + 𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 0
−𝑔 sin 𝜃
⇔ 𝜃̈ =
𝑙

𝒎
𝑳= (𝒙 ̇ 𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐̇ 𝟐 ) − 𝑽(𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 )
𝟐 𝟏
(𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 )
𝒙+ =
𝟐
(𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 )
𝒙− =
𝟐
The kinetic energy is 𝑻 = 𝒎(𝒙+̇ 𝟐 + 𝒙−̇ 𝟐 )
Explain how we derived this.
𝑚
We have to prove that 2
(𝑥1̇ 2 + 𝑥2̇ 2 ) = 𝑚(𝑥+̇ 2 + 𝑥−̇ 2 )
𝑑 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑥̇ 1 + 𝑥̇ 2
𝑥̇ + = ( )=
𝑑𝑡 2 2
𝑥̇ 1 2 + 𝑥̇ 2 2 + 2𝑥̇ 1 𝑥̇ 2
𝑥̇ + 2 =
4
𝑑 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 𝑥̇ 1 − 𝑥̇ 2
𝑥̇ − = ( )=
𝑑𝑡 2 2
𝑥̇ 1 2 + 𝑥̇ 2 2 − 2𝑥̇ 1 𝑥̇ 2
𝑥̇ − 2 =
4
2 2 𝑥̇ 1 2 + 𝑥̇ 2 2 + 2𝑥̇ 1 𝑥̇ 2 + 𝑥̇ 1 2 + 𝑥̇ 2 2 − 2𝑥̇ 1 𝑥̇ 2 2(𝑥̇ 1 2 + 𝑥̇ 2 2 ) 1

𝑥+̇ + 𝑥−̇ = = = (𝑥̇ 1 2 + 𝑥̇ 2 2 )
4 4 2
If we multiply both sides with 𝑚, we get:
𝑚
𝑚(𝑥+̇ 2 + 𝑥−̇ 2 ) = (𝑥 ̇ 2 + 𝑥2̇ 2 )
2 1

𝒎
𝑳= (𝒒 ̇ 𝟐 + 𝒒𝟐̇ 𝟐 ) − 𝑽(𝒒𝟏 − 𝒒𝟐 )
𝟐 𝟏
𝒑̇ 𝟏 = −𝑽′ (𝒒𝟏 − 𝒒𝟐 )
𝒑̇ 𝟐 = +𝑽′ (𝒒𝟏 − 𝒒𝟐 )
Derive the above equations and explain the sign difference.
𝑝̇1 = = = −𝑉 ′ (𝑞1 − 𝑞2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞̇ 1 𝜕𝑞1
𝑝̇2 = = = +𝑉 ′ (𝑞1 − 𝑞2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞̇ 2 𝜕𝑞2
In the expression −𝑉(𝑞1 − 𝑞2 ) there is a negative sign for 𝑉 and a positive sign for 𝑞1 . The product of
these signs gives a negative sign in front of the derivative.
Alternatively there is a negative sign for 𝑉 and a negative sign for 𝑞2 in −𝑉(𝑞1 − 𝑞2 ). So the product
of these signs becomes positive in front of the derivative.

𝒎
𝑳= (𝒒 ̇ 𝟐 + 𝒒𝟐̇ 𝟐 ) − 𝑽(𝒂𝒒𝟏 − 𝒃𝒒𝟐 )
𝟐 𝟏
𝒑̇ 𝟏 = −𝒂𝑽′ (𝒂𝒒𝟏 − 𝒃𝒒𝟐 )
𝒑̇ 𝟐 = +𝒃𝑽′ (𝒂𝒒𝟏 − 𝒃𝒒𝟐 )
Explain the conservation.
We multiply the first equation with 𝑏 and the second one with 𝑎 as instructed.
𝑏𝑝̇1 = −𝑎𝑏𝑉 ′ (𝑎𝑞1 − 𝑏𝑞2 )

𝑎𝑝̇ 2 = +𝑎𝑏𝑉 ′ (𝑎𝑞1 − 𝑏𝑞2 )
If we add these equations we get:
𝑏𝑝̇1 + 𝑎𝑝̇ 2 = 0
We say that in this case the quantity 𝑏𝑝1 + 𝑎𝑝2 is conserved. Why?
If a quantity is conserved, then this means that it doesn’t change over time. This is the same as saying
that its time derivative is 0. We know that 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants.
𝑑 𝑑𝑝1 𝑑𝑝2
(𝑏𝑝1 + 𝑎𝑝2 ) = 0 ⇔ 𝑏 +𝑎 = 0 ⇔ 𝑏𝑝̇1 + 𝑎𝑝̇2 = 0

𝒎
𝑳= (𝒒 ̇ 𝟐 + 𝒒𝟐̇ 𝟐 ) − 𝑽(𝒂𝒒𝟏 − 𝒃𝒒𝟐 )
𝟐 𝟏
𝒑̇ 𝟏 = −𝒂𝑽′ (𝒂𝒒𝟏 − 𝒃𝒒𝟐 )
𝒑̇ 𝟐 = +𝒃𝑽′ (𝒂𝒒𝟏 − 𝒃𝒒𝟐 )
𝒒𝟏 → 𝒒𝟏 − 𝒃𝜹
𝒒𝟐 → 𝒒𝟐 − 𝒂𝜹
Show that the combination 𝒂𝒒𝟏 − 𝒃𝒒𝟐 , along with the Lagrangian, is invariant under the above
transformations.
We replace 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 with the transformations.
𝑎𝑞1 − 𝑏𝑞2 = 𝑎(𝑞1 − 𝑏𝛿) − 𝑏(𝑞2 − 𝑎𝛿) = 𝑎𝑞1 − 𝑎𝑏𝛿 − 𝑏𝑞2 + 𝑎𝑏𝛿 = 𝑎𝑞1 − 𝑏𝑞2
We do the same with the Lagrangian.

𝑚
(𝑞 ̇ 2 + 𝑞2̇ 2 ) − 𝑉(𝑎𝑞1 − 𝑏𝑞2 )
2 1
2 2
𝑚 𝑑 𝑑
= [( (𝑞1 − 𝑏𝛿)) + ( (𝑞2 − 𝑎𝛿)) ] − 𝑉[𝑎(𝑞1 − 𝑏𝛿) − 𝑏(𝑞2 − 𝑎𝛿)]
2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
We know that 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants and that 𝛿 doesn’t depend on time.
𝑚
= (𝑞 ̇ 2 + 𝑞2̇ 2 ) − 𝑉(𝑎𝑞1 − 𝑏𝑞2 )
2 1

𝒎 𝟐
𝑳= (𝒙̇ + 𝒚̇ 𝟐 ) − 𝑽(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 )
𝟐
𝒙 → 𝒙 + 𝒚𝜹 and 𝒙̇ → 𝒙̇ + 𝒚̇ 𝜹
𝒚 → 𝒚 − 𝒙𝜹 and 𝒚̇ → 𝒚̇ − 𝒙̇ 𝜹
𝜹𝒙 = 𝒚𝜹 and 𝜹𝒚 = −𝒙𝜹
The Lagrangian does not change to first order in 𝜹. Show this to be true.
𝑚 2
(𝑥̇ + 𝑦̇ 2 ) − 𝑉(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
2
𝑚
= (𝑥̇ 2 + 𝑦̇ 2 𝛿 2 + 2𝑥̇ 𝑦̇𝛿 + 𝑦̇ 2 + 𝑥̇ 2 𝛿 2 − 2𝑥̇ 𝑦̇𝛿) − [𝑉(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝛿𝑉(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )]
2
The terms with 𝛿 2 are 0 for an infinitesimally small 𝛿.
𝑚 2 𝜕𝑉(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝜕𝑉(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
= (𝑥̇ + 𝑦̇ 2 ) − [𝑉(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑦]
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑚 2
= (𝑥̇ + 𝑦̇ 2 ) − [𝑉(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 2𝑥𝛿𝑥 + 2𝑦𝛿𝑦]
2
𝑚
= (𝑥̇ 2 + 𝑦̇ 2 ) − [𝑉(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 2𝑥𝑦𝛿 − 2𝑦𝑥𝛿]
2
𝑚
= (𝑥̇ 2 + 𝑦̇ 2 ) − 𝑉(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
2

Determine the equation of motion for a simple pendulum of length 𝒍 swinging through an arc in
the 𝒙, 𝒚 plane from an initial angle of 𝜽.
We choose 𝜃 to be the angle from the vertical axis. The bob of the pendulum has mass 𝑚 and the
length of the rod is 𝑙. The coordinates of the bob are 𝑥 and 𝑦.
𝑥 = 𝑙 sin 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑙 cos 𝜃
𝑥̇ = 𝑙𝜃̇ cos 𝜃 and 𝑦̇ = −𝑙𝜃̇ sin 𝜃
The kinetic energy is given by 𝑇.
𝑚 2 𝑚 2 2 𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̇ 2
𝑇= (𝑥̇ 2) ̇ 2 2 ̇2 2
+ 𝑦̇ = (𝑙 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑙 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) =
2 2 2
The potential energy 𝑉 depends on the height ℎ which is 𝑙 − 𝑙 cos 𝜃.
𝑉 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑔(𝑙 − 𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) = 𝑚𝑔𝑙 − 𝑚𝑔𝑙 cos 𝜃

The Lagrangian is:
𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̇ 2
𝐿 =𝑇−𝑉 = − 𝑚𝑔𝑙 + 𝑚𝑔𝑙 cos 𝜃
2
The Euler-Lagrange equation of motion can be given in terms of the one degree of freedom, which is
𝜃.
− =0
𝑑
⇔ 𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̇ − (−𝑚𝑔𝑙 sin 𝜃) = 0
𝑑𝑡
⇔ 𝑚𝑙 2 𝜃̈ = −𝑚𝑔𝑙 sin 𝜃
⇔ 𝑙𝜃̈ = −𝑔 sin 𝜃
−𝑔 sin 𝜃
⇔ 𝜃̈ =
𝑙

𝟐
𝜽̇𝟐 𝜽̇𝟐 + (𝜽̇ + 𝜶̇ )
𝑳= + + 𝜽̇(𝜽̇ + 𝜶̇ ) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶 + 𝒈[𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝜽 − 𝜶)]
𝟐 𝟐
Work out the Euler-Lagrange equations for 𝜽 and 𝜶.
3𝜃̇ 2 𝛼̇ 2
𝐿= + + 𝜃̇ 𝛼̇ + 𝜃̇ 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝜃̇ 𝛼̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 2𝑔 cos 𝜃 + 𝑔 cos 𝜃 cos 𝛼 + 𝑔 sin 𝜃 sin 𝛼
2 2
− =0
𝑑
⇔ (3𝜃̇ + 𝛼̇ + 2𝜃̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝛼̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼) − (−2𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔 sin 𝜃 cos 𝛼 + 𝑔 cos 𝜃 sin 𝛼) = 0
𝑑𝑡
⇔ 3𝜃̈ + 𝛼̈ + 2𝜃̈ cos 𝛼 − 2𝜃̇ 𝛼̇ sin 𝛼 + 𝛼̈ cos 𝛼 − 2𝛼̇ sin 𝛼 + 2𝑔 sin 𝜃 + 𝑔 sin(𝜃 − 𝛼) = 0
⇔ (3𝜃̈ + 𝛼̈ ) + (2𝜃̈ + 𝛼̈ ) cos 𝛼 − (𝜃̇ + 1)2𝛼̇ sin 𝛼 + 2𝑔 sin 𝜃 + 𝑔 sin(𝜃 − 𝛼) = 0
− =0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝛼̇ 𝜕𝛼
𝑑
⇔ (𝛼̇ + 𝜃̇ + 𝜃̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼) − (−𝜃̇ 2 sin 𝛼 − 𝜃̇ 𝛼̇ sin 𝛼 − 𝑔 cos 𝜃 sin 𝛼 + 𝑔 sin 𝜃 cos 𝛼) = 0
𝑑𝑡
⇔ 𝛼̈ + 𝜃̈ + 𝜃̈ cos 𝛼 − 𝜃̇ 𝛼̇ sin 𝛼 + 𝜃̇ 2 sin 𝛼 + 𝜃̇ 𝛼̇ sin 𝛼 + 𝑔 cos 𝜃 sin 𝛼 − 𝑔 sin 𝜃 cos 𝛼 = 0
⇔ (𝛼̈ + 𝜃̈ ) + 𝜃̈ cos 𝛼 + 𝜃̇ 2 sin 𝛼 − 𝑔 sin(𝜃 − 𝛼) = 0

𝟐
𝜽̇𝟐 𝜽̇𝟐 + (𝜽̇ + 𝜶̇ )
𝑳= + + 𝜽̇(𝜽̇ + 𝜶̇ ) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶
𝟐 𝟐
Work out the form of the angular momentum for the double pendulum and prove that it is
conserved when there is no gravitational field.
We first rewrite the Lagrangian a little bit.
3𝜃̇ 2 𝛼̇ 2
𝐿= + + 𝜃̇ 𝛼̇ + 𝜃̇ 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝜃̇ 𝛼̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
2 2
𝜕𝐿
𝑝𝜃 =
𝜕𝜃̇
⇔ 𝑝𝜃 = 3𝜃̇ + 𝛼̇ + 2𝜃̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝛼̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = (3𝜃̇ + 𝛼̇ ) + (2𝜃̇ + 𝛼̇ ) cos 𝛼

𝜕𝐿
𝑝𝛼 =
𝜕𝛼̇
⇔ 𝑝𝛼 = 𝛼̇ + 𝜃̇ + 𝜃̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = (𝜃̇ + 𝛼̇ ) + 𝜃̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
We have to check if the action or the Lagrangian changes when we rotate the complete system
around the origin by an infinitesimally small 𝛿. If we do that, then 𝜃 changes, but since 𝛼 is relative to
𝜃, it doesn’t change.
𝜃 →𝜃+𝛿
𝛼→𝛼
All the terms of the Lagrangian stay the same under this transformation, namely 𝜃̇, 𝛼̇ and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼.
Now we know from Noether’s theorem that the following quantity is conserved:
𝑄 = ∑ 𝑝𝑖 𝑓𝑖 (𝑞)
𝑖
Here 𝑓𝜃 = 1 and 𝑓𝛼 = 0. So the angular momentum 𝑝𝜃 is conserved:
𝑝𝜃 = (3𝜃̇ + 𝛼̇ ) + (2𝜃̇ + 𝛼̇ ) cos 𝛼

𝒎𝒙̇ 𝟐 𝒌 𝟐
𝑳= − 𝒙
𝟐 𝟐
𝟒
Start with the above Lagrangian and show that if you make the change in variables 𝒒 = √𝒌𝒎 𝒙,
the Lagrangian has the form of Eq. (14).
Eq. (14)
𝟏 𝟐 𝝎 𝟐
𝑳= 𝒒̇ − 𝒒
𝟐𝝎 𝟐
We first compute some intermediary values.

𝑞
𝑥= 4
√𝑘𝑚
𝑞̇
𝑥̇ = 4
√𝑘𝑚
Now we plug this into the Lagrangian.
𝑚𝑥̇ 2 𝑘 2 𝑚 𝑞̇ 2 𝑘 𝑞2
𝐿= − 𝑥 = −
2 2 2 √𝑘𝑚 2 √𝑘𝑚
To get to the form of Eq. (14) we see that:
√𝑘𝑚 𝑘
𝜔= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 =
𝑚 √𝑘𝑚
For both expressions to be correct, the following should be true:
√𝑘𝑚 𝑘
=
𝑚 √𝑘𝑚
⇔ √𝑘𝑚√𝑘𝑚 = 𝑘𝑚
⇔ 𝑘𝑚 = 𝑘𝑚
What is the connection among 𝒌, 𝒎 and 𝝎?
By squaring 𝜔 we could express the connection between 𝑘, 𝑚 and 𝜔 as follows:
√𝑘𝑚
𝜔=
𝑚
𝑘𝑚 𝑘
⇔ 𝜔2 = =
𝑚2 𝑚
This connection is still the same as in the Newtonian formulation of mechanics.

Starting with Eq. (14), calculate the Hamiltonian in terms of 𝒑 and 𝒒.
Eq. (14)
𝟏 𝟐 𝝎 𝟐
𝑳= 𝒒̇ − 𝒒
𝟐𝝎 𝟐
First we calculate the conjugate momentum to 𝑞.

𝜕𝐿 𝑞̇
𝑝𝑖 = ⇔ 𝑝 = ⇔ 𝑞̇ = 𝜔𝑝
𝜕𝑞̇ 𝑖 𝜔
We use this to replace 𝑞̇ in the definition of the Hamiltonian.
𝐻 = ∑ 𝑝𝑖 𝑞̇ 𝑖 − 𝐿
𝑖
𝜔 2 𝑝2 𝜔 2
= 𝑝𝜔𝑝 − + 𝑞
2𝜔 2
𝜔 𝜔
= (𝜔 − ) 𝑝2 + 𝑞 2
2 2
𝜔 𝜔
= 𝑝2 + 𝑞 2
2 2
𝜔
= (𝑝2 + 𝑞 2 )
2

𝝏𝑭(𝒒, 𝒑)
{𝑭(𝒒, 𝒑), 𝒑𝒊 } =
𝝏𝒒𝒊
Prove this equation.
We use the definition of Poisson brackets for the left side of the equation.
{𝐹(𝑞, 𝑝), 𝑝𝑖 }
𝜕𝐹(𝑞, 𝑝) 𝜕𝑝𝑖 𝜕𝐹(𝑞, 𝑝) 𝜕𝑝𝑖

= ∑( − )
𝜕𝑞𝑗 𝜕𝑝𝑗 𝜕𝑝𝑗 𝜕𝑞𝑗
𝑗
𝜕𝑝𝑖 𝜕𝑝
𝜕𝑝𝑗
is equal to 1 if 𝑖 = 𝑗 and equal to 0 if 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗. So in fact 𝜕𝑝 𝑖 = 𝛿𝑖𝑗 .
𝑗
𝜕𝑝𝑖
𝜕𝑞𝑗
is always equal to 0 because 𝑝𝑖 ≠ 𝑞𝑗 .
So only one term survives.

𝜕𝐹(𝑞, 𝑝) 𝜕𝑝𝑖
=
𝜕𝑞𝑖 𝜕𝑝𝑖
𝜕𝐹(𝑞, 𝑝)
=
𝜕𝑞𝑖

Hamilton’s equations can be written in the form 𝒒̇ = {𝒒, 𝑯} and 𝒑̇ = {𝒑, 𝑯}.
𝟏
Assume that the Hamiltonian has the form 𝑯 = 𝟐𝒎 𝒑𝟐 + 𝑽(𝒒).
Using only the Poisson brackets axioms, prove Newton’s equations of motion.
Newton’s equations of motion are 𝐹𝑞 = 𝑚𝑞̈ .
We also know from the definition of momentum that 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑞̇ .
So it’s clear that 𝑝̇ = 𝑚𝑞̈ = 𝐹𝑞 .
𝑚𝑞̈
= 𝑝̇
= {𝑝, 𝐻}
1 2
= {𝑝, 𝑝 + 𝑉(𝑞)}
2𝑚
1 2
= {𝑝, 𝑝 } + {𝑝, 𝑉(𝑞)}
2𝑚
1
= {𝑝, 𝑝𝑝} − {𝑉(𝑞), 𝑝}
2𝑚
𝑝 𝑝 𝜕𝑉(𝑞)
= {𝑝, 𝑝} + {𝑝, 𝑝} −
2𝑚 2𝑚 𝜕𝑞
𝜕𝑉(𝑞)
=−
𝜕𝑞
= 𝐹𝑞

{𝒙, 𝑳𝒛 } = {𝒙, (𝒙𝒑𝒚 − 𝒚𝒑𝒙 )}
{𝒚, 𝑳𝒛 } = {𝒚, (𝒙𝒑𝒚 − 𝒚𝒑𝒙 )}
{𝒛, 𝑳𝒛 } = {𝒛, (𝒙𝒑𝒚 − 𝒚𝒑𝒙 )}
Using both the definitions of Poisson brackets and the axioms, work out the Poisson brackets in
the above equations. Hint: in each expression, look for things in the parentheses that have nonzero
Poisson brackets with the coordinate 𝒙, 𝒚 or 𝒛. For example in the first Poisson bracket 𝒙 has a
nonzero Poisson bracket with 𝒑𝒙 .
{𝑥, 𝐿𝑧 } = {𝑥, (𝑥𝑝𝑦 − 𝑦𝑝𝑥 )}
= {𝑥, 𝑥𝑝𝑦 } − {𝑥, 𝑦𝑝𝑥 }
= 𝑥{𝑥, 𝑝𝑦 } + 𝑝𝑦 {𝑥, 𝑥} − 𝑦{𝑥, 𝑝𝑥 } − 𝑝𝑥 {𝑥, 𝑦}
=0+0−𝑦−0
= −𝑦
{𝑦, 𝐿𝑧 } = {𝑦, (𝑥𝑝𝑦 − 𝑦𝑝𝑥 )}
= {𝑦, 𝑥𝑝𝑦 } − {𝑦, 𝑦𝑝𝑥 }
= 𝑥{𝑦, 𝑝𝑦 } + 𝑝𝑦 {𝑦, 𝑥} − 𝑦{𝑦, 𝑝𝑥 } − 𝑝𝑥 {𝑦, 𝑦}
=𝑥+0−0−0
=𝑥
{𝑧, 𝐿𝑧 } = {𝑧, (𝑥𝑝𝑦 − 𝑦𝑝𝑥 )}
= {𝑧, 𝑥𝑝𝑦 } − {𝑧, 𝑦𝑝𝑥 }
= 𝑥{𝑧, 𝑝𝑦 } + 𝑝𝑦 {𝑧, 𝑥} − 𝑦{𝑧, 𝑝𝑥 } − 𝑝𝑥 {𝑧, 𝑦}
=0+0−0−0
=0

⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑨⃗) = ∑ ∑ 𝝐𝒊𝒋𝒌 𝑽𝒋 𝑨𝒌
(𝑽 𝒊
𝒋 𝒌
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑨⃗) .
Confirm this equation. Also prove that 𝑽𝒊 𝑨𝒋 − 𝑽𝒋 𝑨𝒊 = ∑𝒌 𝝐𝒊𝒋𝒌 (𝑽 𝒌
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) = ∑ ∑ 𝜖𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑉𝑗 𝐴𝑘
(𝑉 𝑖
𝑗 𝑘
If in the above equation 𝑖 is fixed to 𝑥, 𝑦 or 𝑧, then 𝑘 cycles through 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 with 𝑗 respectivally
cycling through 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧. So this will give us one term on the left side and nine terms on the right
side.
If we let 𝑖 = 𝑥, then the indices of 𝜖 become 𝑥𝑥𝑥, 𝑥𝑥𝑦, 𝑥𝑥𝑧, 𝑥𝑦𝑥, 𝑥𝑦𝑦, 𝑥𝑦𝑧, 𝑥𝑧𝑥, 𝑥𝑧𝑦, 𝑥𝑧𝑧. Any time we
have at least two equal letters, 𝜖𝑖𝑗𝑘 becomes 0. This reduces the nine terms to two terms, namely
the ones with the indices 𝑥𝑦𝑧 and 𝑥𝑧𝑦.
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) = 𝜖𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑉𝑦 𝐴𝑧 + 𝜖𝑥𝑧𝑦 𝑉𝑧 𝐴𝑦 = 𝑉𝑦 𝐴𝑧 − 𝑉𝑧 𝐴𝑦

(𝑉 𝑥
If we take 𝑖 = 𝑦 and 𝑖 = 𝑧, we get analogous results.
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) = 𝜖𝑦𝑥𝑧 𝑉𝑥 𝐴𝑧 + 𝜖𝑦𝑧𝑥 𝑉𝑧 𝐴𝑥 = −𝑉𝑥 𝐴𝑧 + 𝑉𝑧 𝐴𝑥 = 𝑉𝑧 𝐴𝑥 − 𝑉𝑥 𝐴𝑧

(𝑉 𝑦
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) = 𝜖𝑧𝑥𝑦 𝑉𝑥 𝐴𝑦 + 𝜖𝑧𝑦𝑥 𝑉𝑦 𝐴𝑥 = 𝑉𝑥 𝐴𝑦 − 𝑉𝑦 𝐴𝑥

(𝑉 𝑧
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗)
𝑉𝑖 𝐴𝑗 − 𝑉𝑗 𝐴𝑖 = ∑ 𝜖𝑖𝑗𝑘 (𝑉 𝑘
𝑘
Here we have to fix 𝑖 and 𝑗 to 𝑥, 𝑦 or 𝑧 and let 𝑘 cycle through 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧. So we will have one term
on the left and three terms on the right side.
It’s clear that if we take 𝑖 = 𝑗, then both the left and right side becomes 0.
So let’s take 𝑖 = 𝑥, 𝑗 = 𝑦. The indices of 𝜖 are then 𝑥𝑦𝑥, 𝑥𝑦𝑦, 𝑥𝑦𝑧. The three terms reduce to one,
with the index of 𝜖 being 𝑥𝑦𝑧.
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) = (𝑉
𝑉𝑥 𝐴𝑦 − 𝑉𝑦 𝐴𝑥 = 𝜖𝑥𝑦𝑧 (𝑉 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗)
𝑧 𝑧
We get analogous results by letting 𝑖 = 𝑦 and 𝑗 = 𝑧 and also 𝑖 = 𝑧 and 𝑗 = 𝑥.
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) = (𝑉
𝑉𝑦 𝐴𝑧 − 𝑉𝑧 𝐴𝑦 = 𝜖𝑦𝑧𝑥 (𝑉 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗)
𝑥 𝑥
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) = (𝑉
𝑉𝑧 𝐴𝑥 − 𝑉𝑥 𝐴𝑧 = 𝜖𝑧𝑥𝑦 (𝑉 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗)
𝑦 𝑦
The same analogy is true for the reversed orders 𝑖 = 𝑦, 𝑗 = 𝑥 and 𝑖 = 𝑧, 𝑗 = 𝑦 and 𝑖 = 𝑥, 𝑗 = 𝑧.
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) = −(𝑉
𝑉𝑦 𝐴𝑥 − 𝑉𝑥 𝐴𝑦 = 𝜖𝑦𝑥𝑧 (𝑉 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗)
𝑧 𝑧
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) = −(𝑉
𝑉𝑧 𝐴𝑦 − 𝑉𝑦 𝐴𝑧 = 𝜖𝑧𝑦𝑥 (𝑉 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗)
𝑥 𝑥
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) = −(𝑉
𝑉𝑥 𝐴𝑧 − 𝑉𝑧 𝐴𝑥 = 𝜖𝑥𝑧𝑦 (𝑉 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗)
𝑦 𝑦

⃗𝛁⃗ × [𝛁
⃗⃗ 𝑽(𝒙)] = 𝟎
Prove the above equation.
We start with a vector field ∇⃗⃗ 𝑉(𝑥) that is defined as the gradient of the scalar field 𝑉(𝑥).
The scalar field is a function of space, depending on 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧. So the vector field that is derived from it
has three components:
𝜕𝑉
∇𝑥 𝑉 =
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑉
∇𝑦 𝑉 =
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑉
∇𝑧 𝑉 =
𝜕𝑧
Now we take the curl ⃗∇⃗ × [∇
⃗⃗ 𝑉(𝑥)] of the vector field, of which the components are second order
partial derivatives. We use our knowledge here that the order in which the derivatives are taken
doesn’t matter. This leads to the conclusion that all the components of the vector ⃗∇⃗ × [∇
⃗⃗ 𝑉(𝑥)] are
0.
𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝜕𝑉
⃗⃗ × ⃗∇⃗ 𝑉) =
(∇ − = − =0
𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝜕𝑉
⃗⃗ × ⃗∇⃗ 𝑉) =
(∇ − = − =0
𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝜕𝑉
⃗⃗ × ⃗∇⃗ 𝑉) =
(∇ − = − =0
𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

⃗𝑨⃗(𝒙) is a vector potential with components 𝑨𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝑨𝒚 = 𝒃𝒙 and 𝑨𝒛 = 𝟎.
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨′(𝒙) is a vector potential with components 𝑨′𝒙 = −𝒃𝒚, 𝑨′𝒚 = 𝟎 and 𝑨′𝒛 = 𝟎.
Show that the above vector potentials both give the same uniform magnetic field.
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗. These are the components of the magnetic field.

We first compute the components of ∇
𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) =
(∇ − =0−0=0
𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑧
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) =
(∇ − =0−0=0
𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑥
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) =
(∇ − =𝑏−0=𝑏
𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Now we compute the components of ⃗∇⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴′ to see if this generates the same magnetic field.
⃗⃗⃗⃗) = 𝜕𝐴′𝑧 𝜕𝐴′𝑦

⃗⃗ × 𝐴′
(∇ − =0−0=0
𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐴′𝑥 𝜕𝐴′𝑧
⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
(∇ 𝐴′) = − =0−0=0
𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝐴′𝑦 𝜕𝐴′𝑥
⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
(∇ 𝐴′) = − = 0 − (−𝑏) = 𝑏
𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
This means that the two differ by a gradient. Find the scalar whose gradient, when added to the
components of ⃗𝑨⃗(𝒙), gives ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨′(𝒙).
We call the scalar 𝑆(𝑥). We distract 𝐴⃗(𝑥) from ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴′(𝑥) to find the components of the gradient ⃗∇⃗𝑆(𝑥).
𝜕𝑆
= 𝐴′𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 ⇔ −𝑏𝑦 − 0 = −𝑏𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑆
= 𝐴′𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 ⇔ 0 − 𝑏𝑥 = −𝑏𝑥
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑆
= 𝐴′𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 ⇔ 0 − 0 = 0
𝜕𝑧
Now we integrate both sides of the equations. The letter 𝑐 stands for a constant.
𝜕𝑆
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ −𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑥 ⇔ 𝑆 = −𝑏𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑆
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ −𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑦 ⇔ 𝑆 = −𝑏𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑆
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 0 𝑑𝑧 ⇔ 𝑆 = 𝑐
𝜕𝑧
Combining these results we find that the scalar 𝑆(𝑥) = −𝑏𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐.

𝟏 𝒆 𝒆
𝑯 = ∑{ [𝒑𝒊 − 𝑨𝒊 (𝒙)] [𝒑𝒊 − 𝑨𝒊 (𝒙)]}
𝟐𝒎 𝒄 𝒄
𝒊
Using the above Hamiltonian, work out Hamilton’s equations of motion and show that you just get
back to the Newton-Lorentz equation of motion.
First we write the Hamiltonian in a more explicit form.

1 𝑒 𝑒 1 𝑒 𝑒 1 𝑒 𝑒
𝐻= (𝑝𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 ) (𝑝𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 ) + (𝑝𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 ) (𝑝𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 ) + (𝑝𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 ) (𝑝𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 )
2𝑚 𝑐 𝑐 2𝑚 𝑐 𝑐 2𝑚 𝑐 𝑐
𝜕𝐻
Now we use the definition 𝑞̇ = 𝜕𝑝
explicitly for the three dimensional components.
𝜕𝐻 2 𝑒 1 𝑒 𝑒
𝑥̇ = = (𝑝𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 ) = (𝑝𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 ) ⇔ 𝑚𝑥̇ = (𝑝𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 )
𝜕𝑝𝑥 2𝑚 𝑐 𝑚 𝑐 𝑐
𝜕𝐻 2 𝑒 1 𝑒 𝑒
𝑦̇ = = (𝑝𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 ) = (𝑝𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 ) ⇔ 𝑚𝑦̇ = (𝑝𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 )
𝜕𝑝𝑦 2𝑚 𝑐 𝑚 𝑐 𝑐
𝜕𝐻 2 𝑒 1 𝑒 𝑒
𝑧̇ = = (𝑝𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 ) = (𝑝𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 ) ⇔ 𝑚𝑧̇ = (𝑝𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 )
𝜕𝑝𝑧 2𝑚 𝑐 𝑚 𝑐 𝑐
−𝜕𝐻
We continue with 𝑝̇ = 𝜕𝑞
for the x component and use the above results to plug in on the way.
−𝜕𝐻 1 𝑒 𝑒 𝜕𝐴𝑥 1 𝑒 𝑒 𝜕𝐴𝑦 1 𝑒 𝑒 𝜕𝐴𝑧

𝑝̇𝑥 = = (𝑝𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 ) + (𝑝𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 ) + (𝑝𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 )
𝜕𝑥 𝑚 𝑐 𝑐 𝜕𝑥 𝑚 𝑐 𝑐 𝜕𝑥 𝑚 𝑐 𝑐 𝜕𝑥
1 𝑒 𝑒 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝑒 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝑒 𝜕𝐴𝑧
= [(𝑝𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 ) + (𝑝𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 ) + (𝑝𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 ) ]
𝑚 𝑐 𝑐 𝜕𝑥 𝑐 𝜕𝑥 𝑐 𝜕𝑥
1 𝑒 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧

= (𝑚𝑥̇ + 𝑚𝑦̇ + 𝑚𝑧̇ )
𝑚 𝑐 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑒 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧

= (𝑥̇ + 𝑦̇ + 𝑧̇ )
𝑐 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
With this result we get back to 𝑚𝑥̇ and take its time derivative.
𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑒 𝑑𝐴𝑥 𝑒 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑥
𝑚𝑥̇ = (𝑝𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 ) = 𝑝̇𝑥 − = 𝑝̇𝑥 − ( 𝑥̇ + 𝑦̇ + 𝑧̇ )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑐 𝑐 𝑑𝑡 𝑐 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑒 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝑒 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑥
⇔ 𝑚𝑥̈ = (𝑥̇ + 𝑦̇ + 𝑧̇ )− ( 𝑥̇ + 𝑦̇ + 𝑧̇ )
𝑐 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑐 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑒 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝑒 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑥

⇔ 𝑚𝑥̈ = ( − ) 𝑦̇ + ( − ) 𝑧̇
𝑐 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑐 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝑒
⇔ 𝑚𝑥̈ = (𝐵𝑧 𝑦̇ − 𝐵𝑦 𝑧̇ )
𝑐
This is the Newton-Lorentz equation of motion for the 𝑥 component of the system.
We will get analogous results for the 𝑦 and 𝑧 components, by calculating 𝑚𝑦̈ and 𝑚𝑧̈ .

𝒆𝒃
𝒂𝒚 = − 𝒗
𝒎𝒄 𝒙
and
𝒆𝒃
𝒂𝒙 = 𝒗
𝒎𝒄 𝒚
Show that in the 𝒙, 𝒚 plane, the solution to the above equations are a circular orbit with the centre
of the orbit being anywhere on the plane. Find the radius of the orbit in terms of the velocity.
We know that 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣̇𝑥 and that 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑣̇𝑦 . So we can rewrite the equations in terms of the velocity
components.
𝑒𝑏
𝑣̇𝑦 = − 𝑣
𝑚𝑐 𝑥
and
𝑒𝑏
𝑣̇𝑥 = 𝑣
𝑚𝑐 𝑦
Now we make another switch from the 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 plane to the 𝑥, 𝑦 plane. So 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 .
𝑒𝑏
We can also put all the constants in one expression = 𝜔.
𝑚𝑐
𝑦̇ = −𝜔𝑥 and 𝑥̇ = 𝜔𝑦
This is something we recognise. These are Hamilton’s equations of motion that describe the
trajectories in phase space of the harmonic oscillator. These trajectories are concentric circular orbits
in the 𝑞, 𝑝 plane. Here it is in the 𝑥, 𝑦 plane or in the 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 plane.
We know the Hamiltonian for the harmonic oscillator in terms of 𝑞 and 𝑝.

𝜔 2
𝐻= (𝑞 + 𝑝2 )
2
Since this Hamiltonian represents energy and energy is conserved, we see that the quantity 𝑞 2 + 𝑝2
is constant with time. In other words, the distance from the origin of phase space is constant and the
phase point moves on a circle with fixed radius. We also know that the point moves with a constant
angular velocity 𝜔 about the origin.
The fixed radius of this circle can be expressed as 𝑟. Now we just use the Pythagorean theorem.
𝑟 2 = 𝑞 2 + 𝑝2
⇔ 𝑟 = √𝑞 2 + 𝑝2 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2
This is the radius in terms of the velocity.
We also notice that he angular velocity is

𝑒𝑏
𝜔=
𝑚𝑐

The Theoretical Minimum – Classical Mechanics – Exercise A1.1
𝒂 = 𝝎𝟐 𝒓
This is the acceleration of an object moving in a circular orbit. Show that this equation is a
consequence of Equations (3) from Lecture 2.
Equations (3) from Lecture 2
𝑎𝑥 = −𝑅𝜔2 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑎𝑦 = −𝑅𝜔2 sin 𝜔𝑡
These were derived as the second order time derivatives of the position coordinates.
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑅 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑅 sin 𝜔𝑡
In our circular planetary orbit example we have defined polar coordinates from the Cartesian
coordinates in a similar way.
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑥
cos 𝜃 = ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑟
𝑦
sin 𝜃 = ⇔ 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑟
So we can further derive that:
𝑅=𝑟
𝜔𝑡 = 𝜃 and so 𝜃̇ = 𝜔
Now we take the time derivatives to first and second order to get the acceleration.
𝑥̇ = 𝑣𝑥 = −𝑟 𝜃̇ sin 𝜃 = −𝑟𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝑦̇ = 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑟 𝜃̇ cos 𝜃 = 𝑟𝜔 cos 𝜃
𝑥̈ = 𝑎𝑥 = −𝑟 𝜃̇ 2 cos 𝜃 = −𝑟𝜔2 cos 𝜃
𝑦̈ = 𝑎𝑦 = −𝑟 𝜃̇ 2 sin 𝜃 = −𝑟𝜔2 sin 𝜃
The components 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 are the components of the acceleration vector 𝑎⃗.
We look for the magnitude of this vector.
𝑎 = |𝑎| = √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑦 2 = √(−𝑟𝜔 2 cos 𝜃)2 + (−𝑟𝜔 2 sin 𝜃)2 = √𝑟 2 𝜔 4 = 𝜔2 𝑟


Classical Mechanics: The Theoretical Minimum

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Classical Mechanics

The Theoretical Minimum

Stanford University, Continuing Studies

Exercises by Filip Van Lijsebetten

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟒 + 𝟑𝒕𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝒕𝟐 + 𝒕 − 𝟔

𝒈(𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒕 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

2𝐴⃗ and −𝐴⃗

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

We start on the right side of the equation.

Of course this also works in component form.

|𝐴⃗| = √𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐴𝑧 = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

|𝐴⃗| = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2 = √4 + 9 + 1 = √14

⃗⃗| = √𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐵𝑧 2 = √16 + 9 + 4 = √29

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

(𝟏, 𝟏, 𝟏) (𝟐, −𝟏, 𝟑) (𝟑, 𝟏, 𝟎) (−𝟑, 𝟎, 𝟐)

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

We go back to the definition of the dot product of two vectors.

By definition in both these cases the vectors are orthogonal.

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟒 + 𝟑𝒕𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝒕𝟐 + 𝒕 − 𝟔

𝒈(𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒕 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒕𝟒 + 𝟑𝒕𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝒕𝟐 + 𝒕 − 𝟔

𝒈(𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒕 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

𝒈(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒕𝟐 ) − 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒕𝟐 )

𝜽(𝜶) = 𝒆𝟑𝜶 + 𝟑𝜶 𝐥𝐧(𝟑𝜶)

𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 (𝒕𝟐 ) − 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒕𝟐 )

We work on the left side first.

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

Now we bring the two terms together.

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

For the sum rule we define ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥).

For the product rule we define ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥).

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

There is nothing else involved to determine 𝑇.

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

Two vectors are orthogonal if their dot product is equal to 0.

⇔ 𝑅 2 𝜔3 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑅 2 𝜔3 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 0

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

⃗⃗ = (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕, 𝒆𝝎𝒕 )

|𝑣⃗| = √(−𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡)2 + (𝜔 𝑒 𝜔𝑡 )2 = 𝜔 √𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑒 2𝜔𝑡

⃗⃗ = (𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝝓), 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝝓))

= 3𝑐 sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡 √𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 = 3𝑐 sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

= −3𝑐 cos 𝑡 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡) = −3𝑐 cos 𝑡 (1 − 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡)

⃗⃗ = (𝒄 (𝒕 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕), 𝒄 (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕))

|𝑣⃗| = 𝑐 √(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡)2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 = 𝑐 √1 − 2 cos 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 = 𝑐 √2 − 2 cos 𝑡

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014

Filip Van Lijsebetten 18/11/2014