Task and Feedback

Question 1 (0 points)
Look at this learner’s description of how she learnt a foreign language.
When I first arrived in the country, I did a two-week intensive course. Just to learn the
basics - you know - shopping, directions and so on. Then I just spoke to everyone I
could find. I even spoke to myself out loud sometimes. I bought a grammar book with a
key and did exercises on difficult things like the subjunctive. I found that it really helped
me to memorise verb conjugations, and then slowly I learned how to use them more or
less correctly. But I still make mistakes, and I’ve been living here for 11 years.
1. How would you characterise her learning style?

2. How would you describe your learning style as regards language learning? Provide as
much detailed information as you can.
Student response
According to Ellis (1985) it is field-dependent because there is a close connection

between her and the environment. She happens to sharpen her oral skills in
interpersonal, social relationships and there is no difficulty in achieving this. On the
other hand, she is also field-independent because by engaging herself in a personal
practice involving memory and drilling exercises, she is demonstrating to be quite
autonomous. However, she relies more on social acceptation. Considering Reid she is
the type of visual, auditory learner. She used a grammar book to see how the rules
worked and how she could practice them in a written form. She also used her aptitude
for listening and speaking as a way to practice and improve her use of the language.
Based on Willing, she belongs to three of the categories: concrete learning style,
because she used her interpersonal relationships to build up confidence and knowledge;
Analytic learning style since the grammar book contained more advanced aspects of the
language and it was used by her to make connections and inferences in a logical and
didactic presentation; Communicative learning style because at first she chose to
reaffirm and learn language to survive in a social environment. My style is quite visual.
I feel more confident if I can see a new structure or a word and I can make an
appropriate use of it in a written way before using it orally. Even my pronunciation
seems to rely highly on how the word is represented in phonetic symbols. It is easy for
me to close my eyes and imagine or recall letters or symbols, I can also do this with
shapes or images.
Correct answer
1. In answering the question it can be useful to highlight the points raised by the learner in
describing her learning experience.
a. She did a short intensive course – could be seen as field dependent falling under the
category of Personal orientation, but also as field independent, under the category
of Analytic learning. Also, depending on how the course was delivered, this could
suggest aspects of visual/auditory learning.
b. She spoke to a lot of people in L2 – Field dependent, under the category Socially
Sensitive, with traits of concrete and communicative learning styles.
c. She repeated words to herself – Auditory learning.
d. She did grammar exercises in a book – Analytic and visual learning style.
e. She worked on and memorized certain aspects of grammar – Analytic using
memory strategies. This could also be a sign of visual learning, depending on how
she memorized the grammar.
f. She is aware that she still makes mistakes – Field independence in that she is aware
of her level which could be a sign of a fairly autonomous learner.
Overall this learner appears to be a fairly balanced learner showing signs of both an
analytic and a communicative style, of both field dependence and field independence.
She seems to be field dependent in that she emphasizes how she ‘just spoke to everyone.’
This is typical of a socially sensitive learner with skills in interpersonal-social relationships.
The learner is clearly a person-orientated learner thus making it possible to characterize her
learning style as communicative and perhaps concrete. However, she also shows some
signs of field-independence in that she shows traits of being an analytic learner, evident in
the grammar exercises she decided to do and perhaps also in the course she enrolled on.
Speaking to herself suggests aspects of auditory learning as does the fact that she enrolled
on a course. The course and the grammar book further suggest that the learner is a visual
learner.
Reading 1.1 in your printed study materials describes a study by Nigel Pickard into a
group of German-speaking EFL learners’ out- of-class learning strategies. Look at
Reading 1.1, and answer the following questions.
1. What are “functional practice strategies”? Give 5 concrete examples of functional

practice strategies.
2. How do you think Krashen would respond to Hafiz and Tudor’s study (summarised
on p.151)?
3. What does Pickard’s study tell us about these students’ out-of-class reading
strategies?
4. What does Pickard’s study tell us about these students’ out-of-class listening
strategies?
5. In his conclusion, Pickard talks about teachers as “facilitators of out-of-class
strategies” (p.158). How could teachers achieve this? Give three or four specific ways in
which a teacher could achieve this.
Student response
1. Functional Practice Strategies are tactics the learners use to increase their
opportunities to use the language for communication, such as going to the movies,
reading books, talking to native speakers, watching a news program or reading pages in
the internet. The main aim of the activity is to achieve exposure to meaningful language.
2. Positively. There is evidence of input presented in the form of L+1. The affective
filter is low because of the motivation students have for reading. Self-confidence is
boosted and anxiety diminished. 3. That practicality is a measurement to choose the
type of text. That is easier for learners to have texts for reading due to its availability out
of the school. That criterion for selection is more applied here because there is more
variety. That learners read for pleasure and do not take the texts as a grammar or
vocabulary practice. That different strategies can be used to meet the comprehension
needs. That interests in reading come out as learners start feeling more attracted for
what happens in everyday life and in the culture of the country. 4. That whenever there
are chances to listen to real English coming from the most popular media – radio and
TV – they are taken. That whenever there is an interesting topic for the learner, he/she
will find the way to approach to the language by listening. That it is seen as a way to get
accustomed to the language That there is no real economic effort to get access to the
language in this way. 5. By decreasing imposition, taking students’ interests into account
and suggesting materials Suggesting a book he has experienced as matching some
needs. Suggesting a scheduled radio program he knows the learner might enjoy.
Reading a book, a piece of news, a magazine article appropriate for the learners’ level as
a model. Listening to music students like.
Correct answer
1. ‘Functional practice strategies’ are strategies that if successfully employed enable

the learner to increase their opportunities to use the language for communication
and exposure to meaningful language
Examples of functional practice strategies for L2 acquisition and learning could be

attending films, reading books and magazines for pleasure, seeking out, making
relationships with and thus communicating with native speakers of the target
language, joining clubs and societies or doing volunteer work, entering internet chat
rooms and corresponding with pen pals.
2. Krashen would probably draw Hafiz and Tudor’s attention to four points from his
Input Hypothesis.
o Firstly, he would respond that humans acquire language in only one way,
which is by understanding messages or by receiving comprehensible input.
o Secondly, that the more comprehensible input the greater the L2 proficiency.
o Thirdly, that lack of comprehensible input delays language acquisition.
o Finally, that teaching methods work according to the extent that they use
comprehensible input.
However, he would probably add that this type of input should ideally lead to
improvement in oral communicative competence as well as in reading and writing.
He might argue that the lack of improvement that the students showed in this area
could be put down to affective factors such as the Affective Filter, or by being in an
EFL environment, where classroom-based instruction would lead to learning, but
not to acquisition. He might also make the point that merely reading/listening is an
impoverished type of input and that students really need comprehensible oral input.
3. The students in Pickard’s study read mainly novels, newspapers and magazines out
of class. Students either read magazines or other current affairs publications cover
to cover, or chose three or four articles to read in depth per week.
The vast majority of students in the study read for pleasure and used dictionaries
sparingly. Most of the students reported that they became interested in reading
newspapers during their later years at school, after leaving school and especially
after completing a study year in the USA. This suggests that reading for pleasure is
linked to an attempt to become integrated in the culture of the target language. Such
an approach tells us that the students are taking a holistic or field dependent path.
The students also read novels for pleasure as they felt it improved their passive
vocabulary. The choice of author suggests that, whether consciously or
unconsciously, the students were opting for texts that would provide them with
enough comprehensible input. This is borne out by the comment from a student
about not reading Passage to India properly at school. Most people would agree that
a work by E.M. Forster is a lot more challenging than anything by Jeffrey Archer.
It is clear that reading for pleasure is directly linked to the age and maturity of a
student. Nobody is likely to try and keep up with current affairs in a foreign
language if they do not already do it in their own. The students’ strategies depend
on their ages and maturity and as the students got older, they showed more initiative
by choosing to read for pleasure as well as reading magazines.
They used good reader strategies such as guessing vocabulary from context, not
relying too much on dictionaries, and showing initiative in finding reading material.
4. The most frequently practiced activity was listening to music radio. Listening to
language tapes, attending lectures and plays in English and going to the cinema to
see original English language versions of films were less popular activities. This
might be simply due to the fact that listening to the radio is free and enjoyable and
in the main easy to understand.
Much of the talk on music radio is repetitive and relatively simple to understand.
Students mentioned that they had the radio on in the background but tried to
concentrate on the news when it came on. It seems likely that a student is going to
get more comprehensible input from the news headlines on music radio then from a
station dedicated to a more in depth analysis of current events. This would tend to
confirm Krashen’s input hypothesis.
The study mentions that two thirds of students watched English language TV
although Pickard does not elaborate much on the point. Films in their original
version were watched as the students got older, around 17-18.
5. This is a fairly open question but you should have included a reference to the age
factor, the availability of resources in the country where the language is taught,
motivation, classroom activities and teacher advice.
In this task you are expected to draw on what you have read about learning strategies.
Do you think the following statement is true or false? Give a reasoned answer,
explaining why you think it is either true or false. You will need to write about 3-4 lines
for each answer.
Learning strategies are used by learners of all levels, and all learners are clearly aware
that they are using strategies.
Student response
TRUE Even though not theoretically supported or quite consciously, the learners use
different ways to approach the understanding of knowledge.
Correct answer
This statement is basically true in that learners do use strategies at all levels, but even if
they are generally aware of the strategies they use, they may not be consciously aware that
they are using them until someone asks them to reflect on how they revise or try to help
themselves learn. Some learning strategies are employed sub-consciously (Seliger’s, 1984
(in Ellis, 1994) type of strategies) and others consciously (tactics according to Seliger) and
therefore it can be difficult for a learner who does not consciously set out to use a particular
strategy to realize that s/he has used one.
According to Anderson (1980:1983) a strategy ceases to be a strategy or strategic, when it
becomes automatic and sub-consciously performed. Following from this definition
therefore, learners are aware of using them.
In this task, you are expected to draw on what you have read about learning strategies.
for each answer.
The strategies used by students of advanced levels seem to be somewhat different to

those used by more elementary learners.
Student response
TRUE Different factors like stage of learning or degree of awareness can affect the
ways students learn. So we can easily see an advanced learner mastering one strategy
the beginner is just starting to practice.
Correct answer
This statement is true since advanced learners are, according to research, found to employ
more metacognitive strategies than elementary students. In a study by Cohen and Aphek
(1981) on vocabulary learning strategies, evidence suggested that beginner level students
preferred using listing strategies while more advanced learners used contextualization, and
studies involving children (i.e. Chesterfield & Chesterfield 1985) seem to suggest that the
use of strategies changes with the development of TL knowledge: receptive strategies
preceded interpersonal which in turn preceded metacognitive strategies, thus adding to the
suggestion that strategies used at advanced levels differ from those used at more
elementary levels.
for each answer.
The number of years spent in studying the language stands out as an important variable
affecting the learner's choice of strategies.
Student response
FALSE It is a variable that accounts for the way a learner copes with different
strategies, but it is not a general one, therefore it might not be importance for every
single learner.
Correct answer
According to the evidence found by Ehrman (1990), students with more years of study
appear to use a higher frequency of functional practice strategies than students with less
years of study. More experienced learners were also found to employ a greater variety of
strategies than less-experiences learners (Chamot et al. 1987/1988) and were able to
employ these in a more automatic manner so tackling problems more effectively suggesting
that more experienced learners are also able to choose strategy according to the task-type in
question. It would seem logical that a learner will become refined in the use of learning
strategies the more time s/he spends studying since s/he will be constantly trying out
hypotheses as to how the learning process can be speeded up. Also, the more time a learner
spends studying, the less time s/he is probably going to have for learning and will thus look
for effective means to shorten the time devoted to learning. The statement is subsequently
true.
for each answer.
Strategy use seems to be directly connected with the complexity of the task learners
have to complete. Thus, the more complex the task, the more strategies a learner will
employ.
Student response
TRUE The more demanding the task, the more actions the learner will have to use. This
means that the learner has to think and implement different ways to achieve the task.
Correct answer
There does seem to be a correlation between the use of strategies and the complexity of
tasks in that learners tend to employ different strategies to different type of tasks. A
complex task may be made up of different components and consequently needs the
application of a greater variety of strategies. If the definition of strategies is taken to be that
they are problem-oriented, and the idea that more complex tasks involve more problem-
solving, then the learner will have to employ a greater variety of strategies to tackle the
problems than in a simple, linear question.
for each answer.
Motivation and the learner's attitudes towards the learning of the foreign language do
not affect the use of language learning strategies.
Student response
FALSE High motivation and a more committed attitude will lead to develop more
strategies.
Correct answer
Considering the research carried out by Oxford and Nyikos (1989) this statement is false.
The study showed that “motivation was the single most powerful influence on the choice of
learning strategies” (as quoted in Ellis 1994: 542) resulting in more strategies being used
in a variety of different formal, functional, general and conversational situations by highly
motivated learners than by un-motivated learners. The type of motivation manifested by the
learner also had correlation with the type of strategies used so that students having mainly
instrumental motivation to obtain good grades would use more analytic strategies than
students with integrative motivation. Being motivated will inevitably affect the use of
learning strategies since there is more interest involved on the student’s part to understand
and improve both as a learner and in learning. The learners’ attitudes also have certain
reciprocity with motivation in that one can lead to the other. Learners with positive
attitudes towards the TL language and native-speakers would tend to feel a stronger
incentive to find out about and speak the language and thus employ strategies in
accordance to what they want to use the language for.
for each answer.
Sex and ethnic differences influence the choice of strategies.
Student response
TRUE The choice of strategies is tightly connected to the culture.
Correct answer
Sex has been found to have strong influence on strategy choice in a number of studies (i.e.
Bacon 1992; Bacon and Finnemann 1992; Oxford and Nyikos 1989; Ehrman 1990)
suggesting that women tend to use more overall learning strategies than men. One study
found that men used translation strategies more than women whereas women made more
use of metacognitive strategies involving monitoring their comprehension. Another study
provided evidence that women used conversation input elicitation strategies more than
men, which was accredited to the fact that women are more oriented towards engaging in
social interactions. These findings seem to be closely linked with the differences in how
men and women use language found identified in socio-linguistic research. Sex is also
linked with other factors such as social class, age and ethnic origin which all play a role in
the choice of learning strategies.
Ethnic origin is likely to influence the choice of strategies due to the difference in beliefs
and attitudes existing in different parts of the world. A learner coming from a country
where it is seen as improper to reflect on learning and ask for assistance may be reluctant of
using communicative/co-operative or metacognitive strategies, while a learner coming
from a background that encourages individualism may not employ social strategies.
Taking all this into account the statement can hence be seen as true.
for each answer.
People with different personalities, learning styles and psychological types will often
apply the same kinds of learning strategies.
Student response
FALSE Learning strategies vary as learners show differences in personalities, learning

styles and psychological types.
Correct answer
Since people are individuals they will perceive different learning situations in different
ways, at different times and deal with them applying different methods conforming to their
own beliefs, attitudes, motivation, age, sex etc. and as a result use different learning
strategies. However, the range of strategies that these people will apply tends to fit into a
certain category and as such the strategies can be basically the same in kind, but employed
differently according to each individual’s criteria. Strategy appears to be more determined
by task type.
for each answer.
Successful and unsuccessful learners do not seem to make a similar use of language
learning strategies.
Student response
TRUE Successful learners get the best of their strategies. On the contrary, although
unsuccessful learners do use strategies they do not get the best out of them.
Correct answer
Considering the fact that the use of learning strategies is seen as having a major influence
on L2 learning it would seem illogical if there was no difference between how these two
groups of learners used strategies. Drawing on evidence from research concerning “good
language learner” studies it appears that successful learners are much more proficient at
choosing strategies appropriate for determined tasks, using metacognitive strategies to
monitor their needs and progress in order to take more control and responsibility for their
learning, and use the knowledge they already possess (linguistic and general). Successful
learners appear to make a more effective use of strategies.
for each answer.
The number of communication strategies used by students correlates with their

proficiency rating. In other words, the more strategies a learner uses, the 'better' his/her
English is.
Student response
FALSE There is no general rule. The more strategies will provoke a likely readiness for
the learner but there is not guarantee his English will be better.
Correct answer
It is true that Good Language Learners tend to make use of a more varied range of
strategies, but I would be inclined to say that rather than considering the quantity of
strategies a learner uses, what is important is how s/he uses them. Also it would depend for
what purpose the learner needs his/her English for. For a learner who is going to use the
language for communication, the use of communicative strategies would probably enhance
his/her proficiency rating in interactive and perhaps oral communication, but it may not be
the case for someone who needs language to read technical texts or write extensive essays
in which case the communicative strategies would have to be complemented by cognitive
and probably metacognitive strategies as well.
for each answer.
Teachers, on the whole, are relatively aware of their own students' use of strategies.
Student response
TRUE Teachers are aware of their own students’ use of strategies but fail to plan their
classes having this in mind. Some teachers even teach some way to use strategies.
Correct answer
In the case where the students are children this is probably true since children tend to use
observable strategies such as social and discourse strategies. However if the students in
question are adults the matter is more complicated since adults tend to emphasize the use of
cognitive and metacognitive strategies that occur inside the learner’s head and can thus not
be as readily observed.
for each answer.
Language learning strategies are teachable and students can be trained in their use.
Student response
TRUE Students can be instructed and trained in learning strategies by means of showing
them how to use some metacognitive strategies.
Correct answer
According to Ellis (Ellis, R.1994: 556):
“...not enough is yet known about the relations between learning strategies and language
learning to justify attempts to train learners to use particular strategies. In particular, not
enough is known about what combinations of strategies are most effective.”
However, another Ellis (Guy Ellis) has together with Sinclair written a course in Learner
training, (Ellis and Sinclair 1989 Learning to Learn English: A Course in Learner Training
CUP) and there are plenty of coursebooks nowadays that include a aspects of LS, either as
a separate section, or intercalated in the “normal” coursework.
From the evidence suggesting that learning strategies are not fixed entities, and that
learners employ them consciously, together with all the research done on both Sociological
and Psychological aspects of learning, it would however appear that they can be influenced
and taught, if only by awareness raising, to help students help themselves.
for each answer.
It is quite difficult to introduce a 'learner training' component into a language course.
Student response
FALSE It is part of the metacognitive strategies that can be easily included in the
programs.
Correct answer
Considering the second part of the quote by Ellis included in the previous question on the
effectiveness of different combinations, together with the fact that it is rather difficult to
include every learner’s preferred strategies if the class is big, the minor problem involving
acceptance on the part of learners who may not see the relevance of such training, and the
question of how to include it in the teaching materials, does make the introduction of such a
component rather laborious. However, the very fact that learning strategies are being dealt
with in research, articles and literature as well as in coursebooks, on a much greater scale
than a couple of years ago, does appear to point towards a greater acceptance of the
importance of such a component in language courses, and as such it is nowadays easier to
include learner training in the classroom.
1. Of the four motivational types examined above, which are your students most likely
to display? Why?
2. Which of these motivational types can we as language teachers directly influence in

the language classroom? How?
Student response
1. Students are most likely to display instrumental motivation because they know what
the proficiency of a second language will mean for them in the future. Better job
opportunities, saving time at the university because they do not have to study English as
another subject if they achieve a high score in exams such as MELICET or TOEFL,
having the capacity to access a wider range of texts, etc. 2. Teachers can have a direct
influence on extrinsic motivation by praising students, acknowledging their better
performance and making them aware of their own improvements among others.
Correct answer
1. This part of the task encourages you to reflect on the motivation present in your
particular situation. Insights into such aspects can be extremely helpful in planning
coursework and dealing with classroom management issues. As such we
recommend that you take a couple of minutes to reflect on your students and the
type of motivation they tend to display.
2. In the classroom, teachers can directly influence extrinsic motivation by using

materials that are meaningful to the learner, and to which s/he can relate, by using a
methodology or combination of methodologies that agree with the learner’s learning
style and individual needs, and by making sure that the learner is a part of the
learning process.
Instrumental motivation can be influenced to some extent by providing the learner

with attainable objectives or by promising some kind of reward for learning
particular features etc. The nature of the reward or objective would determine to
what extent the motivation will be sustained once the objective is reached or the
reward has been given out.
Intrinsic motivation can not be directly influenced as such as it comes from within
the learner. It can however, result from certain types of extrinsic motivation, and
therefore be indirectly influenced. It can also be argued that providing positive input
about the target language, culture and speakers can greatly enhance the intrinsic
motivation the students have.
Integrative motivation is probably the most difficult type for the teacher to influence
since it is part of the learner’s personality, although there is a possibility that
cultural awareness raising and information about the country and its people could
have some effect on it. As in the previous point, positive input about the target
country, language and its people does tend to have an impact on the integrative
motivation.
Reading 2.1 in your printed study materials consists of a short extract from a book on
Second Language Acquisition detailing Gardner’s socio-educational model of
motivation. The extract describes the components of Gardner’s model below. Read the
extract and fill in the blank squares in the model.
Student response
social and cultural background --> Stage 1 Correct

motivation and attitude --> Stage 2 Correct
formal language learning --> Stage 3 Correct
intelligence --> Stage 2 Correct
bilingual proficiency --> Stage 4 Correct
situational anxiety --> Stage 2 Correct
language aptitude --> Stage 2 Correct
non-linguistic outcomes --> Stage 4 Correct
informal language experience --> Stage 3 Correct
Score 100%
List the pros and cons of introducing the study of a foreign language at an early age.
Student response
Pros According to Penfield and Roberts (1959) the plasticity of the brain, which is a
characteristic of the first years, allows a more natural and simple L2 acquisition.
According to Larsen and Smalley (1972) young learners have fewer problems in
adapting themselves to a foreign language culture because their personality has not
already been consolidated. According to Guiora (1972) there is more pronunciation
ability at the early stages of development of the personality consolidation. Curran
(1976) believes that children acquire second languages more easily because they are not
threatened by the sounds and structures of the new language. Brown (1973) says that
children tend to be more flexible to acculturation because they are less culture-bound
than adults. Neufeld (1978) says that young children acquire the capacity to manipulate
complex grammatical structures and different language styles much better than adults.
Rosansky (1975) believes that the child is more open and flexible towards the new
language than the adult. Cons According to Krashen (1982) children are inferior in the
rate of acquisition because as you grow older there are more chances to get more
comprehensible input and to have means of producing language earlier. Adults may
experience more negotiation of meaning which leads to learning. Children’s attention
span is short. Learning an L2 can slow down the rate of L1 acquisition and can cause
interference.
Correct answer
Pros of introducing the study of a foreign language at an early age:

 Less afraid to make mistakes.
 Less self-conscious.
 Critical period hypothesis states that the optimal period for language learning is
before the age of ten (Penfield & Roberts 1959; Critical Period Hypothesis
proposed by Lenneberg 1967).
 Before puberty the lateralization of the language function in the brain has not yet
taken place making the brain more receptive (Penfield & Roberts 1959).
 Children have a lower “affective filter” (Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis) due
to less stress, anxiety, set beliefs, fixed attitudes.
 The learner will benefit from more years of language learning thus allowing them to
proceed through the stages of development.
 Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device can still be used.
 Since L1 and L2 information is stored separately, children are less likely to transfer
information from the L1.
 Children are usually allowed to take more time in producing in the TL (i.e. allowed
a silent period) and can thus concentrate on the receptive and understanding skills.
 Due to children’s intolerance to boredom, activities that provide variety and action
would have to be used, providing a more memorable contexts to learn in; children
are allowed to learn through action more than adults, making the experience more
invigorating.
 Children are exposed to more comprehensible input.
 The articulatory (sound) system is still flexible and many different sounds can be
produced. As time goes by the muscles responsible for forming different sounds get
moulded according to our mother tongue sound system, thus making it more
difficult to adopt new sounds. Children are thus in an advantageous position when it
comes to attaining native-like pronunciation, which in turn, and especially in an L2
situation, can increase the integrative motivation.
 Children do not have fixed social identities and are thus more open to adopt
different accents and behaviours.
Cons of introducing the study of a foreign language at an early age:
 Formal classroom learning of an L2 needs the ability and skill to be able to analyse
the language as an abstract system (Spolsky 1989:19).This ability develops over
time and is thus more prominent in young adults and adults than in children.
According to Piaget this would be part of formal operational thinking which
happens during adolescence (Williams and Burden 1997:22).
 If pressure is put on the child to produce, or the learning experience is a negative
one, s/he will be negatively inclined towards future language learning which could
lead to fossilization.
 Teachers may not have the necessary training to effectively introduce children into a
new language, given that the way in which a child is taught for optimum learning is
not the same as the way in which an adult is taught (Williams and burden 1997).
 Preparing teachers and adapting the schools for this sector would mean more
investment in teacher training and resources.
 More emphasis would have to be given to the language since children require
exposure to the language to learn effectively, meaning that more class hours would
have to be designated for foreign language learning, again constituting greater
investment in staff and other resources.
 People tend to develop/mature at different rates, something which is more
noticeable in early childhood, introducing the question of mixed-ability at a very
early and crucial stage.
 Research into the benefits of earlier English starts in EFL countries are inconclusive
and seem to suggest that early starts only benefit the learner in terms of phonology.
 The decision to include a language at a particular age is often based on political or

economic decisions that later try to find an educational justification (Spolsky
1989:91) thus questioning the reliability of some research.
In this task we would like you to review your assumptions about age and language
learning. Do you think the following statement is true or false? Why? (You will need to
write about 3-4 lines for each answer.)
Younger children learn languages better than older ones; children learn better than
adults.
Student response
TRUE The younger the learner is, the less socially frightened he/she is to try and use a
language other than the native.
Correct answer
It would appear that in a naturalistic setting children are better at learning the TL than
adults since they are more likely to interact with other native-speaking children while
engaging in play etc., resulting in the exposure to more TL input, and they are also less
likely to have adhered strongly to their original culture and are thus more open to
integrating fully into the new society and culture. The vehicle for this integration would
primarily be language. Adults however are more likely to feel identified with their original
culture and language and are thus less concerned with not sounding foreign. Retaining an
accent may be a way to hold on to that original L1 culture.
In a formal language setting however, adults possessing more cognitive abilities and
metalinguistic awareness would have an advantage over children who would not be able to
treat the language as a separate entity to the same extent. The adult’s previous knowledge
(of the L1 linguistic system and of the world) would also help in the rate at which the
language is learned, especially in the fields of reading and writing.
Generally speaking, children appear to be better at acquiring (in Krashen’s sense of the
word) and adults are better at formally and consciously learning a new language.
Children tend to have ‘better accents’ than adult learners.
Student response
TRUE The flexibility of the brain of a young learner makes him/her adopt features of a
second language attached to pronunciation and sound perception.
Correct answer
Children seem to be better at acquiring a native-like accent than adults or older children
probably due to a number of different factors such as their articulary muscles being less
fixed, they are better at imitating (pronunciation does not require pulling apart the
components and cognitive thinking in the same way as grammar) and they tend to spend
more years learning the language. In a naturalistic setting the integrative motivation factor
plays an important role since children usually want to “belong” where they are. Group
pressure and loose identification with their L1-cuture can also be seen as influential.
Foreign language learning in schools should be started at as early an age as possible.
Student response
FALSE Exposure time in classrooms is very limited and the atmosphere does not help
children to receive the appropriate amount of individual input.
Correct answer
Research into the benefits of earlier English starts in EFL countries is inconclusive. Most
studies appear to point in the direction that the benefits are mainly in relation to
phonological aspects of language and tend to consider second language situations rather
than foreign language situations. The following is therefore a possible answer to the above
statement.
If the child receives a lot of TL input both in the school and at home, or at least in one of
these environments, (as in the case of bilingual schools or bilingual or native TL- family
settings) then the child will probably benefit from learning the language from an as early
age as possible. However, if the foreign language learning is to take the characteristics of a
couple of hours a day or a week, in the confinement of a classroom, then it could be argued
that the child would benefit more from the learning once some basic fundamental aspects
of his/her L1 have been laid down. The type of instruction the child receives is also
important to consider as, according to the research conducted by Piaget concerning the
child’s ability to see the language as an abstract system (Williams & Burden 1997), young
children would not benefit from having to analyse rules and grammar but would rather
need to experience language in relation to the world around them through i.e. games and
songs etc.
Children learn languages in basically the same way.
Student response
TRUE The route of learning a second language is the same for all learners,
independently from any other factor such as age, cognitive characteristics, type of unit
and so on.
Correct answer
Due to the fact that all individuals are different, with their own make-up of general and
personal factors, it can safely be concluded that children do not learn languages in the same
way. The actual route of learning may be similar, but the way in which each child learns the
language will depend on motivational factors, individual learning style, social and cultural
aspects, previous experience with the language and/or with the school environment, degree
of self-consciousness, affective factors, whether he/she is more field dependent or field
independent, etc.
Adults have a longer concentration span than children.
Student response
TRUE The process of acquiring cognitive skills and self-discipline, which are basic
requirements for achieving concentration, is weak if yet present in the child as learner.
Correct answer
Children have less tolerance than adults if they think that something is boring, and require
more variety in their activities, while adults are able to concentrate on something due to its
instrumental value, as well as the interest the actual item/text/activity generates. It can be
said that adults have a more disciplined concentration span while children need constant
variation.
A normal attention span is approximately 3 to 5 minutes per year of a child's age.

Therefore, and along these lines, a 2-year-old should be able to concentrate on a particular
task for at least 6 minutes, and a child entering kindergarten should be able to concentrate
for at least 15 minutes which is clearly much less than what most adults are capable of.
Developing a longer attention span is like building muscle strength. As time goes by, the
child develops and so does his/her mind and cognitive abilities, and as a result also the
ability to make a conscious effort to concentrate on something past the initial period of
interest. It should be mentioned however, that the optimum concentration span of an adult
is in fact 40 minutes, which would correspond, according to the above mentioned
calculation of 3-5 minutes per year of age, to that of an 8-year-old. We would thus need to
distinguish between a very young learner and a primary school learner in order to
determine whether an adult has a longer concentration span than a child.

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Question 1 (0 points)

Look at this learner’s description of how she learnt a foreign language.

1. How would you characterise her learning style?

According to Ellis (1985) it is field-dependent because there is a close connection

1. What are “functional practice strategies”? Give 5 concrete examples of functional

1. ‘Functional practice strategies’ are strategies that if successfully employed enable

Examples of functional practice strategies for L2 acquisition and learning could be

The strategies used by students of advanced levels seem to be somewhat different to

Sex and ethnic differences influence the choice of strategies.

TRUE The choice of strategies is tightly connected to the culture.

FALSE Learning strategies vary as learners show differences in personalities, learning

The number of communication strategies used by students correlates with their

According to Ellis (Ellis, R.1994: 556):

It is quite difficult to introduce a 'learner training' component into a language course.

2. Which of these motivational types can we as language teachers directly influence in

2. In the classroom, teachers can directly influence extrinsic motivation by using

Instrumental motivation can be influenced to some extent by providing the learner

social and cultural background --> Stage 1 Correct

Pros of introducing the study of a foreign language at an early age:

Cons of introducing the study of a foreign language at an early age:

 The decision to include a language at a particular age is often based on political or

Children tend to have ‘better accents’ than adult learners.

Children learn languages in basically the same way.

Adults have a longer concentration span than children.

A normal attention span is approximately 3 to 5 minutes per year of a child's age.

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