Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
N. H. Scott
(School of Mathematics, University of East Anglia,
Norwich, NR4 7TJ. United Kingdom)
1 Introduction
In a solid material (e.g. steel, rubber, wood, crystals, etc.) a deformation (i.e. a
change of shape) can be sustained only if a system of forces (loads) is applied to the
bounding surfaces, so setting up internally a distribution of stress (i.e. force per unit
area). The defining characteristic of an elastic material is that when these loads are
removed the body returns exactly to its original shape. The original state in which no
loads are applied is often called the natural state, or reference configuration.
Almost all engineering materials possess the property of elasticity provided the ex-
ternal loads are not too large. If the loads are increased beyond a certain limit, different
for each material, then the material will fail, either by fracture or by flow. In neither
case does the material return to its original shape when the loads are removed and we
say that the elastic limit has been exceeded. A solid material that fails by fracture is
said to be brittle and one that fails by flow is said to be plastic.
We do not consider atomic structure. We assume that matter is homogeneous and
continuously distributed over the material body, so that the smallest part of the body
possesses the same physical properties as the whole body. The theory of the mechanical
behaviour of such materials is called continuum mechanics. We consider therefore
only the macroscopic (large scale) behaviour of materials, which is adequate for most
engineering purposes, and ignore the microscopic (small scale) behaviour.
We further assume that the deformation is small so that the elastic material is lin-
early elastic. For almost all engineering materials the linear theory of elasticity holds
if the applied loads are small enough.
This unit discusses only the linear theory of elasticity.
1
Figure 1: Reference configuration Current configuration
The body undergoes a motion, or deformation, during which the material particle at
X when t = 0 is moved to
x = x(X, t) (2.1)
at time t and then has position vector
3
X
x= xi ei ,
i=1
X = Xi ei , x = xi ei .
We write
x = X + u(X, t), xi = Xi + ui (X, t), i = 1, 2, 3, (2.2)
so that u(X, t) is the particle displacement with components ui, i = 1, 2, 3. The
displacement gradient, h, is the 3 × 3 matrix with components
∂ui
hij = .
∂Xj
In the linear theory of elasticity we assume not only that the components ui are small
but also that each of the derivatives hij is small. This has an important consequence:
since x − X = u is small we can afford to replace coordinates X by x and write in place
of (2.2)
x = X + u(x, t), xi = Xi + ui (x, t), i = 1, 2, 3, (2.3)
and work in future only with the coordinates xi and the particle displacements ui (x, t).
2
The particle velocity is
∂x ∂u
v= ≈ ,
∂t X ∂t x
and the particle acceleration is similarly approximated by
∂ 2 x ∂ 2 u
a= ≈ .
∂t2 X ∂t2 x
The deformation enters into the linear theory of elasticity only through the linear
strain tensor, e, which has components
!
1 ∂ui ∂uj
eij = + (2.4)
2 ∂xj ∂xi
(i, j = 1, 2, 3). For example,
! !
1 ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u1 1 ∂u1 ∂u2
e11 = + = and e12 = + .
2 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1 2 ∂x2 ∂x1
A tensor is a linear map from one vector space to another; but all such maps can
be represented by matrices. So, for tensor, think matrix.
The strain tensor e is symmetric:
eT = e, eji = eij ,
i.e. e12 = e21 , e23 = e32 , e31 = e13 . We see this from (2.4):
! !
1 ∂uj ∂ui 1 ∂ui ∂uj
eji = + = + = eij .
2 ∂xi ∂xj 2 ∂xj ∂xi
The matrix (eij ) of strain components is therefore real and symmetric and so, by the
theory of linear algebra, has 3 real eigenvalues with corresponding unit eigenvectors
which are mutually orthogonal. The eigenvalues are known as the principal strains
and the unit eigenvectors are the principal axes of strain.
Triaxial stretch
Consider a unit cube aligned with the coordinate axes and subjected to the deformation
u1 = e1 x1 , u2 = e2 x2 , u3 = e3 x3 , (2.5)
independent of time t, in which ei are the constant (small) strains. Note that ei > 0
corresponds to a stretch, and ei < 0 to a contraction.
From (2.5) we see that the strain components are given by
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
e11 = = e1 , e22 = = e2 , e33 = = e3 ,
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
with all the other components vanishing: e12 = e21 = e23 = e32 = e31 = e13 = 0. Thus
e1 0 0
(eij ) = 0
e2 0
0 0 e3
3
Figure 2: Triaxial stretch
and we see that the principal strains are given by e1 , e2 , e3 . Also, the principal axes of
strain are aligned with the coordinate axes of Figure 2 and have components
1 0 0
0 , 1 , 0 ,
0 0 1
respectively.
After the triaxial stretch the new volume is
(1 + e1 )(1 + e2 )(1 + e3 ) = 1 + e1 + e2 + e3 + e1 e2 + e2 e3 + e3 e1 + e1 e2 e3 .
Since the ei are small, the relative change in volume, known as the dilatation, is
change in volume
∆ = e1 + e2 + e3 = .
original volume
But in this case e1 = e11 , e2 = e22 , e3 = e33 , so
where k is summed over. In fact, for any deformation, with e not necessarily diagonal,
the dilatation is given by (2.6). To see this we observe that any strain tensor e can be
diagonalized (because symmetric) by a suitable rotation of coordinates and then in the
new coordinates the deformation is necessarily of the form (2.5). So the dilatation is
given by (2.6). But tr e = ekk is an invariant quantity, unchanged by any rotation of
coordinates. Therefore (2.6) represents the dilatation for general e.
4
Conservation of mass
The mass m of the cube and the cuboid in Figure 2 are the same. Let ρ0 and ρ be the
initial and final densities:
m m
ρ0 = , ρ = ⇒ ρ = ρ0 (1 + ∆)−1 .
1 1+∆
So, by the binomial theorem, with ∆ small, the conservation of mass reads
ρ = ρ0 (1 − ∆). (2.7)
Simple shear
Consider the same unit cube aligned with the coordinate axes but subjected to the shear
deformation
u1 = γx2 , u2 = 0, u3 = 0, (2.8)
with γ a positive constant.
∂u1
Then = γ, with all other components of deformation gradient vanishing. So
∂x2
!
1 ∂u1 ∂u2 1 γ
e12 = + = (γ + 0) = = e21 ,
2 ∂x2 ∂x1 2 2
with all other strain components vanishing:
1
0 2
γ 0
1
(eij ) = 2 γ 0 0
.
0 0 0
For general strain tensor e the diagonal components e11 , e22 , e33 are termed the
normal strains, whereas the off-diagonal elements e12 = e21 , e23 = e32 , e31 = e13 , are
termed the shear strains.
5
3 The theory of stress: equations of motion
The forces acting on a deformed body are of two kinds.
1. Body force, b, measured per unit mass, acts on volume elements, e.g. gravity,
inertial forces.
Take an arbitrary surface element da with unit normal vector n. The material on
the side of da into which n points exerts a force t(n)da, across the surface element da,
on the material on the other side of da. The vector t(n) is the traction vector.
cuboid in the x1 -direction causing extension in the x1 -direction and (usually) lateral
contraction. Now
t(e1 ) = T e1 , but t(e2 ) = 0,
so t(n) depends on n, even for fixed x and t.
Example 2: Simple shear In this case t(e2 ) = T e1 , so t(n) is not necessarily parallel
to n.
6
Consider a cuboid of deformed material with sides δx1 , δx2 , δx3 parallel to the coor-
dinate axes. The tractions on each face are as shown.
σ31
σ12
the traction vector t(e2 ) on the face with normal e2 has components σ22 ,
σ32
σ13
the traction vector t(e3 ) on the face with normal e3 has components σ23 .
σ33
These column vectors are put together to form the 3 × 3 matrix of components of the
stress tensor, σ:
σ11 σ12 σ13
(σij ) = σ21 σ22 σ23 . (3.1)
so the traction components ti are a linear combination of the unit surface normal com-
ponents ni .
7
The normal component of traction is
tn = t(n) · n = ti ni = σij nj ni = σij ni nj , (3.3)
from (3.2). The normal stress tn is tensile when positive and compressive when
negative.
3 6 1
(a) find the traction components at P on a plane whose outward unit normal has com-
ponents ( 35 , 0, 54 ),
(b) find the normal and shear stresses at P on the given plane.
8
The equations of motion
The balance of linear momentum
Consider an elementary cuboid of material with sides δx1 , δx2 , δx3 parallel to the
coordinate axes. The cuboid has volume δv = δx1 δx2 δx3 . We calculate all the forces
∂σ22
acting on the element in the x2 -direction. Unbalanced normal stress δx2 acts on an
∂x2
∂σ22
area δx1 δx3 , giving a normal force on the element in the x2 -direction of δx2 ×δx1 δx3
∂x2
∂σ22 ∂σ23 ∂σ21
= δv. Unbalanced shear stresses δx3 and δx1 act on areas δx1 δx2 and
∂x2 ∂x3 ∂x1
∂σ23 ∂σ21
δx2 δx3 , respectively, giving shear forces in the x2 -direction of δv and δv ,
∂x3 ∂x1
respectively. The mass of the element is ρδv and so the component of body force (per unit
mass) b2 in the x2 -direction contributes a force ρb2 δv on the element in that direction.
By Newton’s second law the total of these forces can be equated to the rate of change
of linear momentum in the x2 -direction:
9
∂σ21 ∂σ22 ∂σ23 ∂ 2 u2
+ + + ρb2 = ρ 2 , (3.5)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂t
∂σ31 ∂σ32 ∂σ33 ∂ 2 u3
+ + + ρb3 = ρ 2 .
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂t
These equations are conveniently written in suffix notation as
∂σij ∂ 2 ui
+ ρbi = ρ 2 (3.6)
∂xj ∂t
for each i = 1, 2, 3, and summing over j.
In the static case, in which no quantities vary with time t then (3.6) reduce to the
equilibrium equations
∂σij
+ ρbi = 0. (3.7)
∂xj
σ21 = σ12 .
Similarly, we obtain
σ31 = σ13 , σ23 = σ32 .
So the balance of angular momentum reduces to the
symmetry of the stress tensor:
10
If the stress has diagonal form
σ1 0 0
0 σ2 0
0 0 σ3
then the principal stresses are σ1 , σ2 , σ3 with corresponding principal axes of stress
e1 , e2 , e3 , along the coordinate axes. The traction on a plane with normal components
(n1 , n2 , n3 ) is
σ1 0 0 n1 σ1 n1
t(n) = 0 σ2 0 n2 = σ2 n2 .
0 0 σ3 n3 σ3 n3
The normal stress is therefore, from (3.3),
and the squared shear stress can, from (3.4), be shown to be given by
τn2 = (σ1 − σ2 )2 n21 n22 + (σ1 − σ3 )2 n21 n23 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 n22 n23 . (3.10)
in other words the components of the unit tensor I, it is said to be spherical (or
hydrostatic) and p is the pressure. For a surface segment with unit normal n
so that the normal stress and shear stress are, from (3.3) and (3.4),
If the stress is spherical, therefore, the traction is purely normal on every surface element,
so that there is no shear stress on any surface element.
find the principal stresses and the corresponding principal axes of stress.
11
Solution Let σ denote the eigenvalues and n the eigenvectors of the stress tensor σ.
Then, by definition, σn = σn, so that (σ − σI)n = 0, or, in components,
σ11 − σ σ12 σ13 n1 0
σ 21 σ22 − σ σ 23 2 = 0 .
n
There are non-trivial solutions (i.e. n 6= 0) if and only if the determinant of coefficients
vanishes:
σ −σ σ12 σ13
11
σ21 σ22 − σ σ23
= 0.
σ31 σ32 σ33 − σ
−σ 3 + 6σ 2 + 40σ = 0.
σ1 = 0, σ2 = 10, σ3 = −4.
3 6 1 n3 0
2nd equation same as 1st. 1st and 3rd give n3 = 0, and then n1 = 2, n2 = −1 are
1
possible solutions. The unit vector n1 therefore has components 5− 2 (2, −1, 0).
1
For σ = σ2 = 10 we find the unit vector n2 has components 70− 2 (3, 6, 5).
1
For σ = σ3 = −4 we find the unit vector n3 has components 14− 2 (1, 2, −3).
12
4 Linear isotropic elasticity: constitutive equations
and homogeneous deformations
The constitutive equation of isotropic linear elasticity (the stress-strain law) is
known as the generalized Hooke’s law, with eij defined by (2.4). The material con-
stants (or elastic moduli) λ and µ are known as the Lamé moduli and must be
measured experimentally for each material.
In the absence of body force the equations of equilibrium (3.7) are
∂σij
= 0. (4.2)
∂xj
Homogeneous deformations
A deformation is said to be homogeneous if the strain tensor e is independent of x, i.e.
spatially uniform. From (4.1) the stress tensor σ is also uniform in space. Thus (4.2)
is satisfied trivially. Therefore, any homogeneous deformation satisfies the equations of
equilibrium and so is possible in an elastic material, in the absence of body force.
We examine various examples of homogeneous deformation.
so σ11 = σ22 = σ33 = −p, where p = −α(3λ + 2µ), with all shear stresses vanishing.
We have
p = −K∆
where
1
σ
3 pp −p 2
K := , or K = =λ+ µ (4.4)
epp ∆ 3
is the bulk modulus of the material.
13
(b) Simple shear
The displacements are
u1 = γx2 , u2 = 0, u3 = 0,
so that
1
0 2
γ 0
1
(eij ) = 2 γ 0 0
and epp = 0.
0 0 0
So from (4.1),
0 0 0
Therefore, σ12 = γµ, e12 = 21 γ are the only non-zero stresses and strains.
The quantity
σ12
µ=
2e12
is known as the shear modulus of the material.
0 0 0
We assume a displacement
where α > 0 corresponds to extension of the rod and β > 0 to lateral contraction. So
α 0 0
(eij ) = 0 −β 0 , epp = α − 2β.
0 0 −β
14
Figure 12: Uniaxial tension
From (4.1)
From the second equation we get β and then from the first we get T :
αλ αµ(3λ + 2µ)
β= , T = .
2(λ + µ) λ+µ
both in terms of λ and µ. E is the tension per unit axial extension and ν is the transverse
contraction per unit axial extension.
Elastic constants
We have introduced elastic constants K, E, ν in addition to the Lamé constants λ, µ
and have provided clear mechanical interpretations of K, E, ν and µ. Any three of
λ, µ, K, E, ν can be expressed in terms of the other two by manipulating (4.4), (4.5)
and (4.6).
We shall suppose, on physical grounds, that
9Kµ 3K − 2µ
E= , ν= (4.8)
3K + µ 2(3K + µ)
15
and so inequalities (4.7) imply that
1
E > 0, −1 < ν < . (4.9)
2
To obtain (4.9)2 , write (4.8)2 as
K
3
−2
µ
ν= ! (4.10)
K
2 3 +1
µ
K 1 K
and observe that ν −→ −1 as −→ 0, and ν −→ as −→ ∞.
µ 2 µ
The inequalities (4.7) imply that
(a) pressure produces a decrease in volume in dilatation (K > 0)
(b) the shear is in the same direction as the shear stress
in simple shear (µ > 0)
(c) axial tension results in axial elongation in simple extension (E > 0)
Thus inequalities (4.7) ensure physically reasonable response of the material in the three
homogeneous deformations discussed above. However, (4.9)2 permits the possibility of
axial extension being accompanied by lateral expansion (ν < 0). But no known isotropic
1
material responds to simple extension in this way. Therefore in practice 0 < ν < .
2
16
From (4.15)1 we may recover our previous definition (4.4) of bulk modulus:
1
σ
3 pp
K= .
epp
Equation (4.15)2 makes clear the proportionality of shear stresses and strains, connected
by the shear modulus µ.
Incompressibility
An incompressible material is one whose volume cannot be changed, though it can be
changed in shape, i.e. distorted.
In an incompressible material, therefore, every deformation is such that the dilatation
vanishes:
∆ = epp = 0.
The uniform dilatation (4.3), i.e. u = αx, cannot occur in an incompressible material
as epp = 0 implies α = 0.
For arbitrary hydrostatic pressure p there is no change of volume and so the stress-
strain law (4.1) is replaced by
σij = −pδij + 2µeij (4.16)
in which p(x, t) is an arbitrary pressure, not dependent on the strains eij .
The bulk modulus K is defined at (4.4) by
−p 2
K= = λ + µ.
epp 3
In the limit of incompressibility epp −→ 0 and so
K −→ ∞, λ −→ ∞ (4.17)
and µ is unaltered.
For the simple shear discussed previously, epp = 0 and so simple shear is possible in
any incompressible material.
For the uniaxial tension considered before:
u1 = αx1 , u2 = −βx2 , u3 = −βx3
to be possible in an incompressible material the dilatation must vanish, so that
β 1
epp = α − 2β = 0 ⇒ = .
α 2
But Poisson’s ratio is given by (4.6) to be
−e22 β 1
ν= = = ,
e11 α 2
so that
1
ν= (4.18)
2
for all incompressible materials. We can see this another way — from (4.6)
λ
ν=
2(λ + µ)
and for incompressibility λ −→ ∞, so that ν −→ 21 , as at (4.18).
17
5 Conservation of energy: the strain energy func-
tion
The equations of motion (3.6) are
∂σij ∂ 2 ui
+ ρbi = ρ 2 . (5.1)
∂xj ∂t
Then !
∂vi ∂eij ∂ωij
σij = σij + ,
∂xj ∂t ∂t
∂ω
But ω is skew-symmetric, i.e. ω T = −ω or ωji = −ωij , so also is skew-symmetric
∂t
∂ωij
and it follows that σij = 0.
∂t
Then (5.2) may be written
∂ ∂eij 1 ∂ 2
(σij vi ) + ρbi vi = σij + ρ (v ).
∂xj ∂t 2 ∂t
Integrate over an arbitrary sub-region Rt of the body Bt and use the divergence theorem:
Z Z Z
∂eij Z
1 ∂ 2
σij vi nj da + ρb · v dv = σij dv + ρ (v ) dv.
∂Rt Rt Rt ∂t Rt 2 ∂t
But t(n) = σn and ρ is assumed constant to this order:
∂eij ∂ 1 2
Z Z Z Z
t(n) · v da + ρb · v dv = σij dv + ρ v dv. (5.3)
∂Rt Rt Rt ∂t ∂t Rt 2
The terms of this equation are interpreted as follows:
1st term: rate of working of surface tractions
2nd term: rate of working of body forces
3rd term: stress power
4th term: rate of change of kinetic energy
18
The stress power per unit volume is defined by
∂eij
P := σij . (5.4)
∂t
Suppose this is wholely derived as the rate of change of a single function W (e), the
strain energy, measured per unit volume, which depends on the strain e:
∂W ∂eij
= σij .
∂t ∂t
Now by the chain rule
∂W ∂eij ∂eij
= σij
∂eij ∂t ∂t
so that !
∂W ∂eij
− σij = 0.
∂eij ∂t
∂eij
But at each position x and corresponding value of e, may be selected arbitrarily,
∂t
∂eij
so since the brackets do not depend on , we may conclude:
∂t
∂W
σij = . (5.5)
∂eij
Thus W (e) is a potential function for the stress σ. It is often termed the potential
energy. These ideas carry over into nonlinear elasticity.
∂W
eij = 2W
∂eij
so from (5.5)
1
W = σij eij . (5.6)
2
Using the generalized Hooke’s law (4.1) allows the strain energy to be expressed entirely
in terms of the strain components eij :
1
W = λ(epp )2 + µeij eij . (5.7)
2
19
Written out in full
1
W = λ(e11 + e22 + e33 )2 + µ{e211 + e222 + e233 + 2e212 + 2e223 + 2e231 }. (5.8)
2
On physical grounds we expect the quadratic form (5.7) to be positive definite:
Any straining of the body (e 6= 0) requires work to be done on the body (W > 0):
W < 0 for some e 6= 0 would imply that starting from an unstressed state of rest work
could spontaneously be done on the surroundings.
We now seek necessary and sufficient conditions on λ and µ for W (e) given by (5.8)
to be positive definite. From (4.4) the bulk modulus is K = λ + 23 µ and elimination of
λ from (5.8) in favour of K gives, after much manipulation,
1 1 n o
W = K(e11 + e22 + e33 )2 + µ (e11 − e22 )2 + (e22 − e33 )2 + (e33 − e11 )2
2 3
n o
+ 2µ e212 + e223 + e231 . (5.10)
For the uniform dilatation e11 = e22 = e33 = α, eij = 0 for i 6= j, (5.10) becomes
9K 2
W = α ,
2
so that W > 0 for α 6= 0 requires K > 0.
For the simple shear e12 = e21 = γ/2, all other eij vanishing, (5.10) becomes
µ 2
W = γ ,
2
so that W > 0 for γ 6= 0 requires µ > 0. Therefore, necessary conditions for the
positive definiteness of W are
K > 0, µ > 0. (5.11)
These are also sufficient as they ensure that, from (5.10), W is expressed as a sum of
squares with positive coefficients such that W (e) = 0 requires e = 0.
But conditions (5.11) are precisely those adopted before, on different physical grounds,
see (4.7) and the following text.
At (4.13)2 we introduced the strain deviator
1
e′ij = eij − epp δij e′pp = 0, (5.12)
3
in terms of which it may be shown that the strain energy W , taken in the form (5.7),
may be written
1
W = K(epp )2 + µe′ij e′ij . (5.13)
2
Conditions (5.11) may also be deduced from this form of W .
20
6 The torsion problem
We consider an isotropic elastic cylinder of length l and arbitrary cross-section, placed
with its generators parallel to the x3 -axis and with the origin 0 in one end face, as shown
in Figure 12. The cylinder is twisted about 0x3 by an amount α per unit length by the
application of shear tractions to its end faces, the curved surface remaining stress free.
The total angle of twist, αl, is sufficiently small for its square to be neglected.
It follows from (6.1) and (2.4) that e11 = e22 = 0. We assume that e33 = 0 also,
the torsional deformation consisting entirely of shear with no axial extension. Thus
∂u3 /∂x3 = 0, implying that u3 is a function of x1 and x2 only:
u3 = αφ(x1 , x2 ).
The function φ, specifying the axial deviation of S from its initially plane form, is
called the warping function. The displacements of the simple torsion deformation are
21
therefore
u1 = −αx2 x3 , u2 = αx1 x3 , u3 = αφ(x1 , x2 ), (6.2)
with strain components
∂φ
0 0 − x2
∂x1
α ∂φ
(eij ) = 0 0 + x1
2
∂x2
∂φ ∂φ
− x2 + x1 0
∂x1 ∂x2
satisfying epp = 0, so that from (4.1) the stress components are
∂φ
0 0 − x2
∂x1
∂φ
(σij ) = αµ 0 0 .
+ x1 (6.3)
∂x2
∂φ ∂φ
− x2 + x1 0
∂x1 ∂x2
The equilibrium equations (3.7) in the absence of body force are
∂σij
= 0. (6.4)
∂xj
The i = 1 and i = 2 equations are satisfied trivially and the i = 3 equation gives
! !
∂ ∂φ ∂ ∂φ ∂2φ ∂2φ
− x2 + + x1 = + = ∇2 φ = 0, (6.5)
∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x21 ∂x22
the warping function thus being a harmonic function.
The outward unit normal n to C, the boundary of S, has components (n1 , n2 , 0),
see Figure 13. The components of the stress vector acting on the curved surface of the
cylinder are, from (3.2) and (6.3),
0 0 σ31 n1 0
t(n) = σn or 0 0 σ32 n2 = 0 .
22
The twisting torque
The outward unit normal to the end face x3 = l has components (0, 0, 1). The traction
vector acting on this face therefore has components σi3 and the components of the
resultant force F acting on the face are,
ZZ
Fi = σi3 da.
S x3 =l
From the i = 3 equilibrium equation (6.4) and the stress (6.3), and its symmetry
∂σ31 ∂σ32 ∂σ13 ∂σ23
+ = + = 0.
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x2
It follows that
!
∂(x1 σ13 ) ∂(x1 σ23 ) ∂σ13 ∂σ23
+ = x1 + + σ13 = σ13 ,
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x2
!
∂(x2 σ13 ) ∂(x2 σ23 ) ∂σ13 ∂σ23
+ = x2 + + σ23 = σ23 ,
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x2
and ZZ ( )
∂(x1 σ13 ) ∂(x1 σ23 )
I
F1 = + da = x1 (σ31 n1 + σ32 n2 ) ds = 0,
S ∂x1 ∂x2 C
ZZ ( )
∂(x2 σ13 ) ∂(x2 σ23 )
I
F2 = + da = x2 (σ31 n1 + σ32 n2 ) ds = 0,
S ∂x1 ∂x2 C
using the two-dimensional divergence theorem and the boundary condition (6.6). Thus
F = 0,
and, in exactly the same way, the resultant force on the end face x3 = 0 is zero.
The torque per unit area about 0 acting on the face x3 = l is
e1 e2 e3
x × t(e3 ) = x1 x2
l ,
and so, remembering that σ33 = 0, the resultant torque M acting on the face x3 = l has
components
RR
M1 = S (x2 σ33 − lσ32 )|x3 =l da = −lF2 = 0,
RR
M2 = S (lσ31 − x1 σ33 )|x3 =l da = lF1 = 0,
RR
M3 = S (x1 σ32 − x2 σ31 )|x3 =l da
ZZ ( ! !)
∂φ ∂φ
= µα x1 + x1 − x2 − x2 da = αD,
S ∂x2 ∂x1
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where !
∂φ ∂φ
ZZ
D=µ x21 + x22 + x1 − x2 da. (6.8)
S ∂x2 ∂x1
Thus M = αDe3 , where e3 is the unit vector in the direction of x3 increasing, and the
resultant torque on the end face x3 = 0 is similarly −αDe3 .
The cylinder is therefore maintained in equilibrium by equal and opposite twisting
torques of magnitude αD acting about 0x3 on the end faces. The quantity D, defined
by (6.8), is called the torsional rigidity of S. D/µ has physical dimension (length)4
and depends only on the form of the cross-section S.
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Simpler results are obtained by introducing the Prandtl stress function
1
Ψ = ψ − (x21 + x22 ). (6.12)
2
From (6.11), Ψ satisfies the Poisson equation
∇2 Ψ = −2 in S, (6.13)
Since
∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂(x1 Ψ) ∂(x2 Ψ)
+ x2
x1 = + − 2Ψ,
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x2
the application of the two-dimensional divergence theorem gives
!
∂Ψ ∂Ψ
ZZ ZZ I
x1 + x2 da = −2 Ψ da + µ Ψ(x1 n1 + x2 n2 )ds
S ∂x1 ∂x2 S C
ZZ I
= −2 Ψ da + µ Ψ0 (x1 n1 + x2 n2 )ds,
S C
Ψ = 0 on C, (6.18)
ZZ
D = 2µ Ψ da. (6.19)
S
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Figure 14: The elliptical cylinder
Examples
1. Torsion of an elliptical cylinder
Suppose that C is an ellipse and that 0x3 is the line of centres of the right cross-sections.
If a1 and a2 are the semi-axes of the ellipse in the x1 - and x2 -directions, the equation of
C is
x21 x22
+ = 1.
a21 a22
The function !
x21 x22
Ψ(x1 , x2 ) = A 2 + 2 − 1
a1 a2
clearly satisfies the boundary condition (6.18), i.e. vanishes on C, and
!
2 ∂2Ψ ∂2Ψ 2 2
∇ Ψ= 2
+ 2
=A 2 + 2 .
∂x1 ∂x2 a1 a2
The Poisson equation (6.13) therefore holds if
!
2 2 a21 a22
A 2+ 2 = −2 ⇒ A=− ,
a1 a2 a21 + a22
and so the Prandtl stress function for the elliptical cylinder is
!
a2 a2 x21 x22 a21 a22 − a22 x21 − a21 x22
Ψ=− 21 22 + − 1 = .
a1 + a2 a21 a22 a21 + a22
From (6.12), i.e. ψ = Ψ + 21 (x21 + x22 ),
a21 a22 − a22 x21 − a21 x22 1 2
ψ(x1 , x2 ) = + (x1 + x22 )
a21 + a22 2
1
= (2a2 a2 − 2a22 x21 − 2a21 x22 + a21 x21 + a21 x22 + a22 x21 + a22 x22 )
2(a1 + a22 ) 1 2
2
1 n
2 2 2 2 2 2
o
= (a1 − a2 )(x1 − x 2 ) + 2a1 a 2
2(a21 + a22 )
1 n o
= ℑm 2 2
(a21 − a22 )iz 2 + 2ia21 a22
2(a1 + a2 )
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where z = x1 + ix2 and so z 2 = x21 − x22 + 2ix1 x2 and iz 2 = i(x21 − x22 ) − 2x1 x2 . The
warping function φ is therefore
1 n
2 2 2 2 2
o
φ(x1 , x2 ) = ℜe (a1 − a2 )iz + 2ia1 a2
2(a21 + a22 )
a21 − a22
= − x1 x2 .
a21 + a22
When a1 > a2 the warping pattern is as shown in Figure 15. The curves φ = constant
are rectangular hyperbolae.
x1 = a1 r cos θ, x2 = a2 r sin θ.
x21 x22
Since + = r 2 the limits of integration are 0 ≤ r ≤ 1, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
a21 a22
The Jacobian is
∂x1 ∂x1
∂(x1 , x2 )
a1 cos θ − a1 r sin θ
∂r ∂θ
=
=
∂(r, θ)
∂x2 ∂x2
a2 sin θ a2 r cos θ
∂r ∂θ
= a1 a2 r(cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = a1 a2 r,
so that dx1 dx2 7→ a1 a2 rdrdθ. Then the double integral is
a2 r 2 cos2 θ a22 r 2 sin2 θ
! !
x2 x2 2πZ 1
ZZ Z
1 − 21 − 22 dx1 dx2 = 1− 1 2 − a1 a2 rdrdθ
S a1 a2 θ=0 r=0 a1 a22
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" #1
2πZ 1 r2 r4 πa1 a2
Z
2
= a1 a2 1−r rdrdθ = 2πa1 a2 − = .
θ=0 r=0 2 4 0
2
Therefore
2µa21 a22 πa1 a2 πµa31 a32
D= × = ,
a21 + a22 2 a21 + a22
the torsional rigidity of an elliptical cylinder.
1
= πµ(a4 − b4 )
2
for the torsional rigidity of a circular tube.
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