Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Review
Effect of ultrasound
on the technological Introduction
Over the past few years, there has been an increasing
consumer’s interest toward functional food which, beyond
properties and the basic function of supplying nutrients, claims to have
health-promoting or disease-preventing properties. In this
apparent viscosity accompanied by an increase in the con- Several substrates have been targeted by UAE as sources
sistency coefficient have been related to changes in the of bioactive compounds; details on operating conditions
binding capacity of water when hydrophilic parts of amino and performance for some of them are shown in Table 1.
acids are opened toward water surroundings. Ghafoor, Choi, Jeon, and Jo (2009) have optimised, by
Changes in the functionality of dairy products due to ul- means of an experimental design, the operating conditions
trasonic processing have also been demonstrated. Thus, the (ethanol concentration, extraction temperature, extraction
effect of ultrasound on the physical properties of yoghurt time) in the ultrasound-assisted extraction of phenolic com-
has been studied by Wu, Hulbert, and Mount (2001) and pounds, antioxidants, and anthocyanins from grape seeds.
Vercet, Oria, Marquina, Crelier, and López-Buesa (2002). The extraction variables, particularly extraction time and
The former authors found that ultrasound homogenization temperature, strongly influenced the UAE of all these com-
of milk prior to starter inoculation improved, in some ex- pounds, which showed a high correlation in their contents.
periments, yoghurt viscosity. The latter group showed that UAE was as effective as any other high temperature long-
the simultaneous application of heat (40 C) and ultrasound time extraction process because it could greatly decrease
(12 s at 20 kHz) under moderate pressure (2 kg cm2) im- the extraction time. The efficiency of UAE could be ex-
proved the rheological properties of yoghurt by still un- plained by the fact that sonication simultaneously enhanced
known mechanisms. Although measurements on intact the hydration and fragmentation process while facilitating
and slowly stirred samples showed that treated yoghurts the mass transfer of solutes to the extraction solvent.
had stronger structures, it was also proved that the homog- The effect of ultrasound conditions (frequency and dura-
enization of milk fat globules by means of a manothermoso- tion of ultrasonication) on the extraction efficiency of isofla-
nication treatment was not the cause of the textural vones and trans-resveratrol from peanuts has been recently
differences observed. Further research should be done to studied by Chukwumah, Walker, Verghese, and Ogutu
evaluate the contribution of longer fermentation times, the (2009). The results obtained showed that sonication at
denaturalization of proteins, etc, to the increased consis- 80 kHz facilitates the extraction of biochanin A and trans-re-
tency and viscosity of MTS yoghurts. sveratrol, whereas 25 kHz was effective in the extraction of
It has been described that a prolonged exposure to high- daidzein and genistein, being multifrequency more efficient
intensity ultrasonic waves causes significant tenderization than single frequency. The higher amount of analytes ex-
of meat (Jayasooriya, Bhandari, Torley, & D’Arcy, 2004). tracted by dual-frequency radiation could be explained by
The application of ultrasound also facilitates the release the increased cavitation bubble collision which caused fur-
of myofibrillar proteins, which are responsible for binding ther reduction in particle size and promoted leaching.
the pieces of meat together in the formed meat products. UAE has also been successfully applied combined with
Therefore, improved physical properties such as water- other alternative methods such as supercritical-CO2 extrac-
binding capacity, tenderness and cohesiveness are obtained tion for fractionation of isoflavones from soybeans
in US treated meat products (McClements, 1995). (Rostagno, Araújo, & Sandi, 2002) and gingerols from gin-
ger (Balachandran, Kentish, Mawson, & Ashokkumar,
Extraction 2006), with improved rates and final yields. The ultrasonic
High-intensity ultrasound is used as an inexpensive, re- enhancement of the supercritical extraction could be attrib-
producible, simple and efficient alternative method of in- uted to the disruption of the cell structures and an increase
dustrial relevance to improve the extraction process of in the accessibility of the solvent to the internal particle
food bioactives. structure, which enhances the intra-particle diffusivity. Fur-
All the mechanical effects involved in ultrasound can ac- thermore, by reducing the substrate particle size, significant
celerate the eddy and internal diffusion giving rise to an in- improvements in both the extraction efficiency and the time
creased mass transfer (Jian-Bing, Xiang-hong, Mei-qiang, reduction could be achieved.
& Zhi-chao, 2006) and they allow a greater penetration of In spite of the known beneficial effects of UAE, some
solvent into the sample matrix (Rostagno, Palma, & aspects related to the stability of the extracted compounds
Barroso, 2003). If the substrate is dry then ultrasound have been poorly studied and should therefore be consid-
may be used to facilitate swelling and hydration and cause ered. Thongson, Davidson, Mahakarnchanakul, and Weiss
an enlargement of the pores of the cell wall (Vinatoru, (2004) used ultrasound to obtain extracts of ginger, finger-
2001). Additional benefits result from the disruption of root and turmeric. The application of this technique re-
the biological cell walls during the ultrasonically induced duced the time of extraction to 5 min as compared with
cavitation to facilitate the release of contents the 24 h conventional extraction. However, a slightly re-
(Dolatowski, Stadnik, & Stasiak, 2007). Furthermore, duced antimicrobial activity of the extracts against Listeria
mild operating conditions usually employed in ultrasonic was observed, whereas that against Salmonella was main-
assisted extraction (UAE) show no significant changes in tained. Zhao et al. (2006) applied high-intensity ultrasound
the structural/molecular properties and functionality of in the extraction of a variety of biologically active com-
most bioactives, being this aspect of paramount importance pounds including carotenoids and they found that one of
in the case of heat-sensitive food components. the studied carotenoids, (all-E )-astaxanthin, was degraded
A.C. Soria, M. Villamiel / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 323e331 327
to unidentified colourless compounds, the degradation be- temperature in UAE may also lead to an enhanced extraction
ing higher when both the treatment time and the ultrasonic of thermolabile food bioactives.
power increased.
Vilkhu, Mawson, Simons, and Bates (2008) have re- Other applications
cently revised the main applications and opportunities for Several papers have addressed the requirement of mild
ultrasound assisted extraction in the food industry. Nowa- processing technologies such as radiofrequency and infrared
days, developments in ultrasonic equipment are such that heating as an alternative to conventional food hot air drying
it is feasible to consider commercial opportunities based (Marra, Zhang, & Lyng, 2009; Nowak & Lewicki, 2004).
on industrial-scale ultrasonic-aided extraction of bioactives With this aim, extensive research has recently been pub-
from plant and animal materials, with worthwhile econom- lished on the exploitation of ultrasound in food drying (De
ics gains (Hielscher, 2006; Vinatoru, 2001). la Fuente-Blanco, Riera-Franco de Sarabia, Acosta-
The application of UAE in food processing is extremely in- Aparicio, Blanco-Blanco, & Gallego-Juárez, 2006). Ultra-
teresting as it enables an increase in both the extraction yield sound produces a series of effects (microagitation, creation
and rate leading to a significant reduction in the extraction of microscopic channels and water cavitation) which facili-
time and a higher throughput (Mason et al., 2005; tate moisture removal from food (Mulet, Cárcel, Sanjuán, &
Dolatowski et al., 2007). It is possible to apply UAE to en- Bon, 2003). The synergic effect of US and temperature in
hance the aqueous extraction and also in cases where organic convective drying assisted by high-power ultrasound im-
solvents can be replaced with generally-recognised-as-safe proves the rate of the process and allows dehydration to be
(GRAS) solvents, which may provide economical, environ- carried out at milder temperatures (Garcı́a Pérez, Roselló,
mental as well as health and safety benefits (Vilkhu et al., Cárcel, de la Fuente, & Mulet, 2007), thus preserving the
2008). As previously mentioned, the mild processing bioactivity of heat-sensitive food constituents and giving
328 A.C. Soria, M. Villamiel / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 323e331
rise to dehydrated food of premium quality. As far as our hydroxyl radicals can be produced and these sonochemi-
knowledge, no commercial scale installation has yet been de- cally generated radicals can react with easily oxidable
veloped for this application. food compounds. Depending on the process and the matrix,
Ultrasound can assist crystallization by controlling the the chemical effects of acoustic cavitation may be either
nucleation and growth rate of crystals in frozen food beneficial or detrimental. Chemat, Grondin, Shum
(Luque de Castro & Priego-Capote, 2007). It also reduces Cheong Sing, and Smadja (2004) studied the effect of ultra-
textural softening and the release of cellular liquid on thaw- sound treatment during food emulsification and processing
ing (Zheng & Sun, 2006), being this of capital importance of sunflower, olive and soybean oils and they found signif-
for the consumer’s acceptance of meat, fruit and vegetable icant negative changes in their composition, due to the ox-
products as well as for a better preservation of their nutri- idation produced during the ultrasound treatment.
ents and/or bioactives. It is known that the activity of antioxidants in food and
Airborne ultrasonic technology also represents a clean and biological systems is dependent on the degree of hydroxyl-
commercial alternative to conventional methods for defoam- ation (Wanasundara, Shahidi, & Shukla, 1997). Radical for-
ing carbonated beverages, fermentation systems and other mation is considered as a disadvantage for preserving the
food processes, where foaming adversely affects the product bioactivity of food components such as phenols (Wan
quality or yield (Villamiel, Verdurmen, & de Jong, 2000; et al., 2005). However, it may enhance the antioxidant ac-
Gallego-Juárez et al., 2007). The breaking and destruction tivity of other components, such as flavonoids, by increas-
of foams by ultrasound-based defoamers is assumed to be ing the extent of hydroxylation (Ashokkumar et al., 2008).
a combination, among others, of the following effects: partial It is also worth noting that for those applications where OH
vacuum on the foam bubble surface produced by high acous- radicals adversely affect the integrity of food constituents,
tic pressure, resonance of the foam bubbles which create in- low frequency ultrasound is preferred. This is because
tersticial friction causing bubble coalescence, cavitation both stable cavitation and an increase in the number of ac-
and acoustic streaming (Mason et al., 2005). From the point tive bubbles may be expected to increase the amount of
of view of manufacture, advances in ultrasonic defoamer sys- OH radicals generated at high ultrasound frequency. More-
tems have overcome the initial limitation of those based on over, OH radicals formed in extraction processes can be
aerodynamic acoustic sources regarding energy consumption quenched by the addition of selective additives such as as-
and difficulties in sterilization (Gallego et al., 2002). The in- corbic acid and ethanol (Ashokkumar et al., 2008).
creased production throughput, the reduction or elimination The functional properties of proteins are influenced by
of antifoam chemicals and the reduction of wastage in bot- their molecular structure that determines inter- and intra-
tling production lines are additional advantages of the use molecular interactions (e.g. formation of covalent and/or
of US as an efficient additional step in food processing. non-covalent bonds). The radicals and superoxides gener-
ated during the sonolysis of water can be used to induce
Chemical effects of ultrasound on the functionalities crosslinking of protein molecules in an aqueous medium.
of food Cavalieri, Ashokkumar, Grieser, and Caruso (2008) syn-
Whilst the physical effects of acoustic cavitation have thesised, for the first time, stable and functional air micro-
been extensively studied, much less attention has been bubbles, coated with cross-linked lysozyme by means of
paid to its chemical effects on food. During cavitation, ultrasound (Fig. 2). Free thiol groups of lysozyme, which
Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of ultrasound-induced crosslinking of lysozyme clusters at the airewater interface (Acoustic cavitation in water gen-
erates oxidants, which promote interprotein disulfide crosslinking of cysteine residues). Reprinted with permission from Cavalieri et al., Langmuir,
24, 10078e10083. Copyright 2008 American Chemical Society.
A.C. Soria, M. Villamiel / Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (2010) 323e331 329
induced the aggregation of protein clusters at the bub- relationship between the duration, intensity and frequency
bleesolution interface, were exposed by chemical reduc- of ultrasonic waves and their effects on the technological
tion with DL-dithiothreitol prior to sonication. In and functional properties of food, would also contribute
addition, the microbubbles formed retained the antimicro- to reinforce the presence of ultrasonic applications other
bial activity of lysozyme. than UAE in the future of the food industry.
Gülseren, Güzey, Bruce, and Weiss (2007) found that
cavitation-generated hydrogen peroxide may alter the Acknowledgements
chemical structure of bovine serum albumin (BSA), oxidiz- This work has been funded by Ministry of Education and
ing its free sulfhydryl groups and leading to the undesirable Science of Spain (projects AGL2007-63462 and Consolider
formation of sulfinic and sulfonic acid. The change in free CSD2007-00063 INGENIO 2010). A.C.S. also thanks
sulfhydryl content observed after US treatment of BSA CSIC and the EU for a postdoctoral I3P contract.
suggests that the protein aggregates are not due to the
formation of intermolecular disulfide bridges but maybe
to non-covalent interactions such as electrostatic and References
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