Research in Hydrology Sodis Final With Chapter 4edited

Solar Disinfection Using Pet Bottles as Economical Water Treatment In Water Well In Montalban,
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Rizal To Provide Potable Water
CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUD
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 HISTORY OF “SODIS”
Solar disinfection is one of the simplest and least expensive methods for providing acceptable quality
drinking water. It is an ideal method for use when economic and sociocultural conditions in the community
are not amenable to other treatment or disinfection alternatives, such as filtration or chlorination, even
though these are also acknowledged to be simple and inexpensive. It should be pointed out that solar
disinfection is a more appropriate water treatment method for households or a small number of houses than
for use in conventional or more complex systems. Furthermore, it is obviously possible only where
convenient solar radiation exists.
Solar water purification system is a water purification system at household level based on solar radiation
treatment and water distillation with additional use of solar heating. It is a combination of two water
purification processes, the Solar Water Disinfection System (SODIS) and the solar distillation process.
Since SODIS, initiated by Professor Aftim Acra, is only ideal to disinfect small quantities of low turbidity,
micro-biologically contaminated water, a solar heated still is added to the system to address the issue of
heavily contaminated water( such as sea water, water with high turbidity and water contaminated by heavy
metal or pathogenic microorganisms).
1.1.2 WATER SUPPLY IN MONTALBAN, RIZAL PHILIPPINES
Water supply is the process of providing water in a systematic way through installed pumps and pipe
lines. The Philippines’ main sources of water are rivers, lakes, river basins, and groundwater reservoirs.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_Philippines#Water_Resources)
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Potential Water Source Options
Source: TA for the Strengthening of MWSS's Planning Capability in Water Supply, Sewerage and
Sanitation Service Provision IBRD Grant No. TF053321
Water Treatment in Montalban (Rodriguez), Rizal
Manila Water recently began the first phase of the P4.6-billion Rodriguez Water System project, which
includes a new water treatment plant and water distribution mainline, the company said.
It will be able to treat up to 150 million liters of water per day and will serve a population of over 940,000
and address the demand for reliable surface water supply in areas that are dependent on deep wells.
These include Rodriguez and San Mateo in Rizal province, and some areas of Marikina City, the company
said.
Manila Water starts P4.6-B Rodriguez Water System project Published June 19, 2012 8:40pm
http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/262475/money/companies/manila-water-starts-p4-6-b-rodriguez-
water-system-project#sthash.150HtGcQ.dpuf
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1.1.3 WATER QUALITY IN MONTALBAN, RIZAL PHILIPPINES
Fifteen (15) water quality stations were established as follows: 6 along Montalban River; 2 along Wawa
River; 2 along Boso-Boso river; 3 along Tayabasan River; 1 along Sapang Bute-Bute river, 1 station
located in Mt. Purro. Samples were analyzed for temperature, DO, pH, BOD, oil and grease and TSS and
compared with Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 (R.A 9275) standard. Majority of parameters were within
the Class C standards across all stations except for exceed at the following points: SW15 (close to a
piggery farm) DO was at 0.65mg/L for a minimum standard of 5.0mg/L 5 out of the 15 stations with a pH
above (8.6 – 8.8) the maximum standard range of 8.5 3 out of the 15 stations with BOD levels (10mg/L –
64mg/L) above the maximum standard of 7 mg/L.
Source: “ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT “500MW WAWA PUMPED- STORAGE

HYDROPOWER PROJECT ANTIPOLO CITY AND THE MUNICIPALITIES OF SAN MATEO AND
RODRIGUEZ, RIZAL”
1.1.4 GROUNDWATER IN MONTALBAN, RIZAL PHILIPPINES
Update Source (March 5, 2017)
Source:
122.54.214.222/databank/well.asp?prov=RIZ&province=Rizal&munic=Rodriguez%20(Montalban)&pg=1
According to EMB, under this DAO, 33 parameters define the desired water quality per water body
classification. Source: Greenpeace: The state of water resources in the Philippines
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Fecal coliform, nitrates, and salinity (chloride content) for groundwater as defined in the Philippine National
Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW). Source: Greenpeace: The state of water resources in the
Philippines
While salinity is not directly related to pollution, it is also used as a common parameter for groundwater
quality assessment to measure the level of contamination from saline water. Source: Greenpeace: The
state of water resources in the Philippines
1.1.5 WATER RESOURCES IN MONTALBAN, RIZAL PHILIPPINES
The Philippines obtains its water supply from different sources. These include: rainfall, surface water
resources, i.e. rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, and groundwater resources. It has 18 major river basins and
421 principal river basins as defined by the National Water Regulatory Board (NWRB ).
As a tropical country, rainfall in the Philippines ranges from 1000 to 4000 mm per year, of which 1,000-
2,000 mm are collected as runoff by a natural topography of more than 421 principal river basins, some 59
natural lakes and numerous small streams, with significant variation from one area to another due to the
direction of the moisture-bearing winds and the location of the mountain ranges (Kho, J., 2005; NWRB,
2003).
Overall, the Philippines’ total available freshwater resource is at 145,900 MCM/year based on 80 percent
probability for surface water, and groundwater recharge or extraction at 20,000 MCM/year (NWRB-SPM,
2003; PEM, 2003; ASEAN, 2005).
Source: Greenpeace: The state of water resources in the Philippines
1.1.6 CASES OF DISEASES DUE TO LACK OF POTABLE WATER SUPPLY
Over one billion people each year are exposed to unsafe drinking water due to poor source water quality
and lack of adequate water treatment. This results in 900 million cases of diarrhea each year (Rijal and
Fujioka, 2001). Five out of every 1000 of those exposed to unsafe drinking water will die from diseases
carried by the contaminated water; another 2.5 will die from dehydration due to diarrhea (Burch and
Thomas, 1998).Children are particularly affected; the average child in developing countries has more than
two episodes of diarrhea per year. Diarrheal illness results in malnutrition, weakness, and an increase in
susceptibility to diseases, and can be life threatening (Burch and Thomas, 1998). The estimated number
children that die each year due to water related diseases ranges from 2.5 million to 15 million (Burch and
Thomas, 1998; Jorgensen et al., 1998).
1.2 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
As early as the 1980s, Lebanese scientists discovered that sunlight can disinfect water. This revolutionary
discovery, however, did not receive the attention it deserved, and systematic scientific studies and
adaptations to the user’s needs were not done. In the 1990s, the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic
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Sciences and Technology (Eawag) decided to investigate this discovery to create a safe, simple method
that could be used in developing countries. (http://www.sodis.ch/about/geschichte/index_EN)
An interdisciplinary research team, consisting of microbiologists, virologists, engineers and drinking water
specialists, developed the SODIS method, which requires only PET bottles and sunlight. Eawag tested this
method in the laboratory and under field conditions in developing countries to evaluate its effectiveness and
applicability. These tests showed that the SODIS method was effective, user-friendly, and
affordable.(http://www.sodis.ch/about/geschichte/index_EN)
Famous research establishments, such as the Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland, and the University of
Uppsala, Sweden, also studied the SODIS method. Their studies confirmed that the method does kill germs
and has a positive effect on people's health. Eawag also carried out research projects that dealt with
microbiology and that examined health aspects, education strategies and PET bottles.
(http://www.sodis.ch/about/geschichte/index_EN)
To ensure that the SODIS method is made available to the people who need it most, Eawag started
implementing projects in more than 25 developing countries in 2001. In 2011, Eawag und the Swiss NGO
Helvetas Swiss Inter cooperation entered into a partnership with the goal to jointly promote the SODIS
method worldwide. In the context of this partnership, various projects supporting the promotion of
household water treatment, including the SODIS method, are being carried out by Helvetas.
Eawag
Eawag, the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Sciences and Technology, is one of the leading institutions in
water and water conservation research in the world. Its research is designed to serve the needs of society
and is used as the basis for creative concepts and technologies relating to water. Through a close network
of experts in industry, administration and professional associations, Eawag serves as an important link
between theory and practice. (http://www.sodis.ch/about/geschichte/index_EN)
SODIS is an initiative of Eawag. Eawag carries out research into the SODIS method in the areas of
microbiology, health, educational strategies and PET bottles. But promoting the method in SODIS projects
is not part of Eawag's core business, which is research. This is why the funds for spreading the SODIS
method must come from donations. (http://www.sodis.ch/about/geschichte/index_EN)
Helvetas
Helvetas Swiss Inter cooperation is a non-profit organization that does development cooperation work and
is a well-known Swiss organization. It is neutral concerning religion and politics. Our goal is a peaceful and
just world, in which all people live in dignity, according to their own wishes, with access to sustainable
natural resources and caring for the environment. (http://www.sodis.ch/about/geschichte/index_EN)
In our 33 partner countries in Africa, Asia, South America and Eastern Europe we have approximately 1210
local and 67 international (mostly Swiss) employees. In our main offices in Zürich and Bern, and our district
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offices in Lausanne and Balerna, we have 140 employees.

748 milion people worldwide have no access to clean drinking water or to sanitation facilities. The
installation of water supplies and latrines and our engagement for a just water politics is also part of the
mission of Helvetas. (http://www.sodis.ch/about/geschichte/index_EN)
1.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The solar radiation through Ultra-Violet rays can effectively make the biologically-contaminated water safe.
SODIS can also make the water pathogen free allowing it to get drink as you heated it by the sunlight
within the required site condition which operate almost continuously while the sun shines.
1.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Solar water disinfection is an effective way to disinfect drinking water as it is recommended by World Health
Organization. The solar water purification system uses only solar energy and can be built using recycling
materials, thus, the system is environmentally sustainable. Contaminated water would be contained in
clean, transparent Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles and are exposed to the sunlight for a certain
amount time (depending on the intensity of the sunlight) allowing the solar radiation to deactivate
any waterborne pathogens in the contaminated water.
For the cases where low turbidity water is not available, contaminated water will be distilled to drinking
water using the solar heated still to remove any non-volatile solid impurities such as salts, sediment, heavy
metals and microorganisms.
1.5 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
Apart from continuously economic growing, Philippines which is a third world country still have a places
particular in the rural community specifically in Montalban, Rizal such as some part of San Isidro which is
still suffering from a water scarcity particularly in the problem in potable water scarcity since they still don’t
have access on NAWASA water supply that’s why Solar Disinfection known as “SODIS” which still studying
and developing upon the different countries around the world and yet here in the Philippines is still not
being popularly promoted especially for the rural communities who has a lack of access in water supply will
definitely help this kind of problem not just on some part of Montalban such as San Isidro but also on the
other rural area here in the Philippines. Although according to what the researchers found out that there is
a one place in the Philippines which practices SODIS water treatment in barangay Sta. Maria, Bulacan and
yet it is still unknown and not widely being practiced here in the Philippines.
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We are conducting this research to help people in Montalban to maximize the use of their resources by
making the non-potable water from the deep well into drinking water, in that way it could make difference.
We know for some they don’t take this as a problem because they have class 3 water system. But for some
here in Montalban it means a lot. That when we have strong data and proven test that when SODIS is
applied to their non-potable water can make it drinkable they can already save money and also the health
of their family member who’s sometimes take the risk to use that bacteria infected water.
More than one third of the people living in developing countries do not have access to save drinking water.
Microbiologically contaminated drinking water can cause diarrheal diseases, which are particularly
dangerous to children. Roughly one third of infant mortality is caused by such diarrheal diseases, and every
day around 6.000 children die due to the direct or indirect effects of diarrheal diseases – in many cases
caused by contaminated drinking water.
Source:http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/publikationen/papers/tamas_diss_2009.pdf
In the Philippines, endemic diarrhoeal diseases are the second leading cause of morbidity (DoH 2004).
Source: Developing a National Plan for Scaling Up Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage
November 2007
Diseases associated with contaminated water also exact a heavy economic load in the Philippines, both on
the public heath care system for treatment and on persons affected for transport to clinics, medicines and
lost productivity. Source: Developing a National Plan for Scaling Up Household Water Treatment and Safe
Storage November 2007
The objective of this research is the investigation of how will the SODIS will be successfully promoted to the
Filipinos for better and safe drinking for healthy living of Filipinos especially those who are on the rural
community who have lack of access on the potable water.
1.6 HYPOTHESIS
SODIS can effectively treat the water from Montalban, Rizal from the water well that is biologically-
contaminated since the site can receive sufficient amount of sunlight.
The greater the amount of time the PET bottle exposed to radiation of sun and the more the intensity it, the
more biologically-contaminated water will be safe to drink as it received greater amount of solar radiation
that can kill pathogen microorganisms
1.7 SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This study focus on treating the contaminated water acquired in Barangay Manggahan, Montalban, Rizal
from the water well by means of Solar Radiation and PET bottles as the container of water which will be
exposed to the sunlight with sufficient amount of 6 hours to 12 hours.
1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

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The Philippines which is a developing country with most of the population cannot afford an expensive
household water treatment for their contaminated water and since SODIS has been studied that can treat
water by means only of Solar Radiation and can prevent borne diseases such as diarrhea and diseases
due to pathogens which was proven that can be killed by UV-C Solar Radiation.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2008), solar water disinfection (SODIS) is one of the
most promising and accessible technologies for household water treatment. The method consists of
exposing water-filled, transparent plastic bottles to full sunlight for about one day.
http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/publikationen/papers/tamas_diss_2009.pdf
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Aquifer - a geologic formation that will yield water to a well in sufficient quantities to make the production of
water from this formation feasible for beneficial use; permeable layers of underground rock or sand that
hold or transmit groundwater below the water table
Beneficial use - use of the environment or any element or segment thereof conducive to public or private
welfare, safety and health; and shall include, but not be limited to, the use of water for domestic, municipal,
irrigation, power generation, fisheries, livestock raising, industrial, recreational and other purposes.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) - rate at which organisms use the oxygen in water or wastewater while
stabilizing decomposable organic matter under aerobic conditions.
Coliform - a type of bacteria. The presence of coliform-group bacteria is an indication of possible

pathogenic bacteriological contamination.
EAWAG - Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology
Groundwater – subsurface water that occurs beneath a water table in soils and rocks, or in geological
formations
Groundwater recharge - inflow to a groundwater reservoir
Groundwater reservoir - an aquifer or aquifer system in which groundwater is stored. The water may be
placed in the aquifer by artificial or natural means
Leachate - water containing contaminants which leaks from a disposal site such as a landfill or dump.
Point source - any identifiable source of pollution with specific point of discharge into a particular water
body
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WHO - World Health Organization
Reservoir - a pond, lake, tank, or basin (natural or human-made) where water is collected and used for
storage. Large bodies of groundwater are called groundwater reservoirs; water behind a dam is also called
a reservoir of water.
SODIS or SODIS - method Standard water treatment method based on the principle of solar (water)
disinfection
UNICEF - United Nations Children's Fund
Environmental Management Bureau - (EMB) is a line bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural
Resources who is mainly responsible for the implementation and enforcement of RA 8749, otherwise
known as the Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999
PET Bottle - can be "recycled" to reuse the material out of which they are made and to reduce the amount
of waste going into landfills.
Pathogenic microorganism - of a bacterium, virus, or other microorganism) causing disease.
Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of individual particles that are
generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. The measurement of turbidity is a key test of
water quality.
Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW) –
National Water Resources Board (NWRB) - is the leading government agency for the water sector in the
Philippines, regarding water resources and potable water; it is conferred with policy-making regulatory and
quasi-judicial functions within the Philippine government.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) - s an organization of countries in southeast Asia set up
to promote cultural, economic and political development in the region. ASEAN was officially formed in 1967
with the signing of the Bangkok Declaration.
Protein–energy malnutrition (PEM) or protein–calorie malnutrition refers to a form of malnutrition where

there is inadequate calorie or protein intake.
MPN Most Probable Number
Non-governmental organization (NGO) - is any non-profit, voluntary citizens' group which is organized on a
local, national or international level.
Department of Health (DOH) - is the executive department of the Philippine government responsible for
ensuring access to basic public health services by all Filipinos through the provision of quality health care
and the regulation of all health services
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United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) is a United Nations (UN) programme
headquartered in New York City that provides humanitarian and developmental assistance to children and
mothers in developing countries.
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CHAPTER 2
RELATED STUDIES AND LITERATURE
FOREIGN RELATED STUDIES AND LITERATURE
Solar Water Disinfection
('SoDis') is a type of portable water purification that uses solar energy to make biologically-contaminated
(e.g. bacteria, viruses, protozoa and worms) water safe to drink. Water contaminated with non-biological
agents such as toxic chemicals or heavy metals require additional steps to make the water safe to drink.
(https://www.stem.org.uk/system/files/elibrary-resources/legacy_files_migrated/24386
Catalyst_23_2_536.pdf)
Cloudy Water
If the water is very cloudy (turbid), as is often the case, you might expect that solar disinfection would
struggle to inactivate the cells since the UV light is scattered and absorbed very quickly by the suspended
matter and thus does not penetrate far into the water. However SODIS is still surprisingly effective. Turbid
water is very good at absorbing heat so we find that the maximum water temperature can rise to above
50°C causing a slow pasteurization. (https://www.stem.org.uk/system/files/elibrary-
resources/legacy_files_migrated/24386-Catalyst_23_2_536.pdf)
SODIS pros and cons Apart from lack of sufficient sunlight (in which case we recommend that the bottles
are left out for 2 days so that the diffuse UV that filters through clouds can complete the disinfection) there
are some significant obstacles to wider usage of SODIS. SODIS does not change the taste or appearance
of the treated water. Consequently, many people find it hard to believe that SODIS actually works. The
problem here is that to prove that the system works you have to conduct a full exposure and then incubate
cultures from the before-and-after water samples, all of which can take up to 48 hours.
(https://www.stem.org.uk/system/files/elibrary-resources/legacy_files_migrated/24386-
Catalyst_23_2_536.pdf)
Point-of-Use Water Treatment
The choice of a point-of-use water technique should fulfill the following criteria
(Lehr et al., 1980; Shultz et al., 1984):
1. Effective on many types and large numbers of pathogens

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2. Should perform regardless of water fluctuations
3. Must operate in appropriate pH and temperature range
4. Should not make the water toxic or unpalatable
5. Should be safe and easy to handle
6. Any chemical concentrations should be minor
7. Must provide residual protection against possible recontamination
8. Units must be affordable to all 9. Should be adaptable to local conditions and variations
10. Specialized equipment should be produced locally
11. Must be accepted by local traditions, customs, and cultural standards
12. Must comply with national sanitation and pollution policies
Source: SOLAR DISINFECTION FOR POINT OF USE WATER TREATMENT IN HAITI by Peter M. Oates
Research
Many scientific studies confirmed the effectiveness of the SODIS method. It kills germs in water very
efficiently. The method has even been shown to improve the health of the population. Research
into training strategies gave insight about which communication methods are most suitable. It has also
been proven that the use of PET bottles in the SODIS method is harmless.
http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/pet/index_EN
International recognition
“Solar disinfection is an example of another measure with proven health impact that requires little capital
investment on the part of end-users, and is thus appropriate for the very poor.” WHO, 2007
“UNICEF promotes a variety of treatment methods such as user-friendly filtration, simple solar water
disinfection (SODIS) and home chlorination. These are all low-cost, effective and manageable at the
household level.” UNICEF, 2009
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Red Cross Prize, 2006: "The jury considers SODIS an impressive way of contributing by the simplest
means to making water supplies better and safer, thereby reducing diarrhea and other diseases like it, and
mortality in developing countries." Red Cross, 2006 http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/pet/index_EN
Turbidity
The filled PET bottle must be placed on top of a newspaper headline. Now one must look at the bottom of
the bottle from the neck at the top and through the water. If the letters of the headline are readable, the
water can be used. http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/pet/index_EN
If the letters are not readable, the water must be filtered. This test corresponds to a turbidity of 30 NTU.
Factsheet Turbidity (EN, FR, ES). http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/pet/index_EN
Cloudiness
Cloudiness affects the strength of solar radiation and thus also the effectiveness of the method.
Rule of thumb:
If less than half of the sky is clouded over, 6 hours will be enough to completely disinfect the water.
If more than half of the sky is covered with clouds, the bottle must be placed in the sun for 2 consecutive
days.
Preventing recontamination
The treated water should be kept in the bottle and drunk directly from the bottle, or poured into a cup or
glass immediately before it is drunk. In this way, it is possible to prevent the treated water from becoming
contaminated again. http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/pet/index_EN
Microbiology
When developing the SODIS method, it was important to know which germs die and how much sunlight is
required to kill them. These questions have been answered for most of the germs that threaten the health
of humans. The SODIS method kills bacteria, viruses, and most parasites.
Health
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Many tests confirmed the positive effect of the SODIS method; the occurrence of diarrhoea is much less
frequent among people who treat their water using the SODIS method than among their neighbours who
drink untreated water. The study was conducted in Kenya and showed that 16-24% of diarrhoea-type
illnesses and 86% of cholera occurrences were avoided with the aid of the SODIS method. Children in
families that treat their water with the SODIS method have a by 42% reduced risk to fall ill from diarrhoea
than their neighbours whose parents do not treat their water. The World Health Organisation (WHO)
estimates that 94% of all occurrences of diarrhoeal diseases are avoidable.
How UV-A kills germs
Recent studies have shown that UV-A light is the main bandwidth involved in the eradication of
microorganisms (Acra et al, 1984; Acra et al., 1990; Reed et al., 1997; McGuigan et al., 1998). UV-A has
direct effects on DNA and forms highly destructive oxygen species as a secondary product. In addition,
water strongly absorbs red and infrared light creating heat, which results in pasteurization. Source:SOLAR
DISINFECTION FOR POINT OF USE WATER TREATMENT IN HAITI by Peter M. Oates
Water temperature affects disinfection
A warmer water temperature speeds up the process. However, bacteria, viruses, giardia and cryptosporidia
are killed by UV-A radiation even when water is cooler.
Indicator Organism
Fecal Coliform and E. coli
In 1984 Acra et al; demonstrated that E. coli serves as good indicator organism for SODIS as it is more
resistant to the lethal effects of sunlight than other bacteria. Coliform bacteria have become the general
standard in assessing microbial water quality but many other organisms have been put to the SODIS test.
Source:SOLAR DISINFECTION FOR POINT OF USE WATER TREATMENT IN HAITI by Peter M. Oates
Inactivation of Specific Microorganism and Heat Sensitivity
The inactivation of microorganisms by the SODIS process is fairly well established. However, there has
been some concern of secondary UV effects enhancing bacterial growth and the possible regrowth of
enteric pathogens.
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Source: SOLAR DISINFECTION FOR POINT OF USE WATER TREATMENT IN HAITI by Peter M. Oates
Bacterial Regrowth
Based on lab experiments, Bosshard et al. postulate that the damage done to the cell as an effect of UV-A
radiation is irreversible. Several studies found no re-growth after SODIS treatment (McGuigan et al. 1998;
Boyle et al. 2008; Bosshard et al. 2009; Dessie et al. 2014).
Wegelin at al. (1994) observed a regrowth of E.coli to original concentration within one week after a short
(32 min) irradiation with artificial light, but no re-growth after 3 hours of irradiation with sunlight.
Amin and Han (2009) observed only very limited regrowth of E-coli and total coliforms even for moderate
treatment efficacy under weak sunlight conditions.
Rincon and Pulgarin (2004a) observed re-growth of E-coli to initial levels within 24 hours after irradiation.
Gelover, Gómez et al. (2006 ) found moderate regrowth of total coliform within the first day after SODIS
treatment. Sciacca,
AL-Gheethi, Norli et al. (2013) found decreasing concentrations of bacteria when the SODIS treated water
was stored at room temperature, but re-growth if the treated water was stored at 37ºC.
The apparent re-growth in water samples could indicate an incomplete inactivation and sub-sequent repair
of cells or could relate to the analytical procedures overestimating the inactivation effect (Reed 2004;
Khaengraeng & Reed 2005).
Source: Sandec: Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development: SODIS manual Guidance on solar
water disinfection
While the reasons and conditions for re-growth or revival are not yet completely clear, it is advisable to
store SODIS treated water in a cool place and to consume it within a short time (a few hours up to one day)
after treatment.
Source: Sandec Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development: SODIS manual Guidance on solar
water disinfection
PET Bottles
Studies show that when the SODIS method is applied correctly with PET bottles, there is no danger to
human health.
water disinfection
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Aging of plastic bottles
SODIS efficiency depends on the physical condition of the plastic bottles, with scratches and other signs of
wear reducing the efficiency of SODIS. Heavily scratched or old, blind bottles should be replaced. Source:
Sandec: Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development: SODIS manual Guidance on solar water
disinfection
Antimony
Antimony speeds up chemical processes in the manufacture of PET (catalyst). However, antimony does
not get into the water unless the bottles are stored for a very long time or heated to very high temperatures.
water disinfection
Adipates and phthalates
They do represent a threat to health if they are consumed in large quantities. However, softeners are not
needed in the production of PET. If softeners are found in the water from PET bottles, they must have been
in the water before the bottles were filled. Source: Sandec: Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for
Development: SODIS manual Guidance on solar water disinfection
Aldehydes
It was found that exposure to the sun has no effect on the concentration of acetaldehydes, though the
concentration of form aldehydes does increase with the length of exposure. However the concentrations of
aliphatic aldehydes remained far below the state regulatory limit for drinking water in all samples.
Therefore, the SODIS method does not pose a health risk. Source: Sandec: Sanitation, Water and Solid
Waste for Development: SODIS manual Guidance on solar water disinfection
List of germs that are terminated from UV-A sunlight exposure at 6 hours
Bacteria – Escherichia coli
Bacteria – Vibrio cholera
Bacteria – Salmonella
Bacteria – Shigella flexneri
Bacteria – Campylobacter jejuni
Bacteria – Yersinia enterocolitica

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Virus – Rotavirus
Parasites – Giardia
Parasites – Cryptosporidium (needs 10 hours exposure
http://modernsurvivalblog.com/health/how-to-purify-water-with-sunlight/
Acceptance of SODIS
SODIS demonstration projects were carried out in seven countries by local intuitions to assess the socio-
cultural acceptance of SODIS. The participating countries include: Columbia, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Togo,
Indonesia, Thailand, and China. A survey was then conducted to see how people felt about using SODIS to
treat their water. Source: SOLAR DISINFECTION FOR POINT OF USE WATER TREATMENT IN HAITI by
Peter M. Oates
The researchers found the results that SODIS is widely embraced by the citizens as they answered
certainly to the question of, will they continue to use SODIS? Average are; Certainly is 84; Maybe is 12.6;
Probably Not is 0.4; Definitely Not is 3.
Advantage and Disadvantage of SODIS
The SODIS methd has specific comparative advantages and drawbacks:
Specific comparative advantages of SODIS
• Effectiveness against pathogenic bacteria
• Easy to understand and to apply
• Zero or very low cost • Independent from energy sources other than sunlight
• Independent from supply chains for products other than PET bottles
• Integrated protection from re-contamination if water is stored in the SODIS bottles
• No adverse effect on the water’s taste
Specific comparative drawbacks of SODIS
• Limited effectiveness against certain pathogenic viruses and protozoa

18
• Dependent on access to sufficient numbers of PET-bottles
• Dependent on sufficient sunlight
• Relatively high daily labour demand
• Relatively high treatment time
• Limited aspirational appeal (poor people’s method)
water disinfection
LOCAL RELATED STUDIES AND LITERATURE
CONVENTIONAL WATER HOUSEHOLD TREATMENT VS SODIS
1. Chemical Disinfection.
Most household-based interventions employ hypochlorous acid derived from liquid sodium hypochlorite,
solid calcium hypochlorite or high test hypochlorite (HTH) which are frequently available and affordable.
Tablets formed from dichloroisocyanurate (e.g., NaDCC). Free chlorine inactivates more than 99.99% of
enteric pathogens, the notable exceptions being Cryptosporidium and Mycobacterium species.
2 Filtration.
Higher quality ceramic filters treated with bacteriostatic silver have been shown effective in the lab at
reducing waterborne protozoa by more than 99.9% and bacteria by more than 99.9999%, and their
potential usefulness as a public health intervention has been shown in development and emergency
settings (Clasen 2004; 2006). Slow-sand filters, which remove suspended solids and microbes by means of
a slime layer (schmutzdecke) that develops within the top few centimetres of sand, are capable of removing
99% or more of enteric pathogens if properly constructed, operated and maintained (Hijnen 2004). Source:
Developing a National Plan for Scaling Up Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage
3. Combination Flocculation and Disinfection.
Certain manufacturers have combined flocculation and time-released disinfection in a single product that is
sold in sachets for household use. Tests of one product have shown that it reduces waterborne cysts by
more than 99.9%, viruses by more than 99.99% and bacteria by more than 99.99999% (Souter 2003).
Unlike the other methods of household water treatment discussed above, it has also been shown effective
19
in reducing arsenic, an important non-microbial contaminant in certain settings. Field studies have shown
such flocculation-disinfection products to be effective in preventing diarrhoeal diseases (Reller 2003).
Scaling Up HWTS in the Philippines
Governmental authorities, WHO and UNICEF, certain NGOs, research institutions and the private sector
have established the foundations for an effective programme to promote household water treatment and
safe storage in the Philippines.
Potable Water in the Philippines
Only 39 percent of the 525 water bodies may be considered as potential sources of drinking water.
Groundwater Assessment
In assessing quality of groundwater resources, the standard for TDS is 500 mg/L and a “negative” for
coliform. “Negative” means total coliform must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample, while “positive”
means the presence of total coliform in the water sample (PEM, 2003).
A more updated data, though limited in number of samples, is the result of the 2005 Tapwatch Monitoring
Program by the EMB. From the 88 wells monitored in depressed areas in the country, the project found 21
sites with potable groundwater, while 27 sites were found to be contaminated with fecal coliform. The
remaining 40 other sites required further testing to confirm potability (EMB, 2006). The sampling sites
found not potable are located in the following:
Region I - San Fernando La Union
Region II - Cagayan, Nueva Viscaya
Region III - Pampanga
Region IV-B - Oriental Mindoro
Region VI - Iloilo City
Region VII - Cebu City

20
Region VIII - Leyte
Region IX - Zamboanga City
Region XI - Davao City
Solar Disinfection in the Philippines
Solar disinfection, which combines thermal and UV radiation, has been repeatedly shown to be effective for
eliminating microbial pathogens and reducing diarrhoeal morbidity (Hobbins 2004) including epidemic
cholera (Conroy 2001).
Among the most practical and economical is the “Sodis” system, developed and promoted by the Swiss
Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology (http://www.sodis.ch) and promoted in the
Philippines by Hevetas.
It consists of placing lower turbidity (30<NTU) water in clear plastic bottles (normally 1.5- 2.0L PET
beverage bottles) after aerating it to increase oxygenation and exposing the bottles to the sun, usually by
placing them on roofs. Exposure times vary from 6 to 48 hours depending on the intensity of sunlight. Like
filters, thermal and solar disinfection do not provide residual protection against recontamination.
Accordingly, householders must have a sufficient number of bottles to allow them to cool and maintain
treated water in the bottles until it is actually consumed.
21
CHAPTER 3
DESIGN METHODOLOGY
Many scientific studies confirmed the effectiveness of the SODIS method. It kills germs in water very
efficiently. The method has even been shown to improve the health of the population. Research
into training strategies gave insight about which communication methods are most suitable. It has also
been proven that the use of PETbottles in the SODIS method is harmless.The SODIS method is ideal for
treating water for drinking in developing countries. All it requires is sunlight and PET bottles. How does it
work? Clear PET bottles are filled with the water and set out in the sun for 6 hours. The UV-A rays in
sunlight kill germs such as viruses, bacteria and parasites (giardia and cryptosporidia). The method also
works when air and water temperatures are low.People can use the SODIS method to treat their drinking
water themselves. The method is very simple and its application is safe. It is particularly suitable for treating
relatively small quantities of drinking water.
1. Wash the bottle well the first time you use it.
Material, color and shape of the bottle
We recommend using PET bottles in the application of the SODIS method because they are light and do
not break. They are also easy to obtain in many regions. However, glass bottles or special bags can also
be used. PET bottles are usually labelled as such, but they are not called by the same name in all
countries.
2. Fill the bottle with water and close the lid well (TURBIDITY)
If the water is very turbid, the effectiveness of the method is reduced. It is very easy to determine whether
the water is sufficiently clear:The filled PET bottle must be placed on top of a newspaper headline. Now
one must look at the bottom of the bottle from the neck at the top and through the water. If the letters of the
headline are readable, the water can be used.If the letters are not readable, the water must be filtered. This
test corresponds to a turbidity of 30 NTU.
3. Expose the bottles to the sun morning to evening for at least 6 hours (Cloudiness)
Cloudiness affects the strength of solar radiation and thus also the effectiveness of the method.If less than
half of the sky is clouded over, 6 hours will be enough to completely disinfect the water.If more than half of
the sky is covered with clouds, the bottle must be placed in the sun for 2 consecutive days. For the rain,the
method does not work satisfactorily during lengthy periods of rain. On these days, we recommend
collecting rainwater.
4. The water is now ready for consumption (Preventing recontamination)

22
Removal of solids by sedimentation + Inactivation of microorganism by UV radiation and thermal

treatment.
The treated water should be kept in the bottle and drunk directly from the bottle, or poured into a cup or
glass immediately before it is drunk. In this way, it is possible to prevent the treated water from becoming
contaminated again.
In order to confirm the effectiveness of the SODIS method, it was necessary to carry out microbiological
tests. These tests showed that the method reliably kills germs that cause diarrhea. Besides research in the
field of microbiology, several health studies examined the effect of the SODIS method on the spread of
diarrheal diseases among people who use SODIS. These studies confirm the positive effect of the method
for the population.
Detailed design work

In developed countries like Philippines, pathogens are typically destroyed by elaborate centralized water
treatment plants. Unfortunately, it is not financially possible to upgrade to conventional water treatment
technologies in Haiti. As a more plausible alternative, low-cost point-of-use disinfection technologies can
treat water and are more economically realistic. (Lehr et al., 1980; Shultz et al., 1984):
Other household disinfection mechanisms include boiling the water and filtering. In Haiti, boiling water uses
energy in the form of firewood, which is no longer possible due to extensive deforestation. Filtration is often
unaffordable and is subject to frequent. Clogging and leaking. In addition, filtering typically requires
additional disinfection steps.
These problems call for the development of an alternative disinfection technology that is effective, practical,
and simple enough to be applied by individuals at the household Level. Under the right conditions, solar
water disinfection, or SODIS, may be that alternative.
Solar radiation and disinfection

23
SODIS uses the destructive power of different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum todestroy pathogens.
Photodynamic inactivation of microorganisms was first demonstrated by Raab in 1900. The sun emits
energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation that covers the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared range. The
most important bandwidths for SODIS are the UV-A, red, and infrared, which are shown in relation to the
electromagnet Spectrum.
Recent studies have shown that UV-A light is the main bandwidth involved in the eradication of
microorganisms (Acraet al, 1984; Acraet al., 1990; Reed et al., 1997; McGuiganet al., 1998). UV-A has
direct effects on DNA and forms highly destructive oxygen species as a secondary product. In addition,
water strongly absorbs red and
infrared light creating heat, which results in pasteurization.shows the combined effects of UV-A and water
temperature on coliform bacteria.
DNA Alteration by UV
To assure pathogenic organisms are eradicated, DNA must be damaged faster than microbes can repair it.
DNA has a maximum UV absorbance at around 260 nm that causes mutagenesis and results in cellular
death (Raven and Johnson, 1996). Absorbed UV light causes adjacent thymine bases to covalently bond
together, forming thymine
dimers:
When this damaged DNA replicates, nucleotides do not complementary base pair with the thymine dimers
and this terminates replication. Organisms may also replace thymine dimers with faulty base pairs, which
causes mutations, leads to faulty protein synthesis, and may result in death. The effect of thymine dimer
formation may be reversed to some extent by exposure to visible light in a process called photoreactivation.
Visible light can activate the enzyme DNA photolyase that breaks the bond joining the thymine bases. DNA
can also be repaired by excision, where DNA polymerase and DNA ligase cut out damaged DNA and
replace it with a stretch of error-free DNA (Mathews and Van Holde, 1996).
24
Photo-Oxidative Disinfection
UV-induced reactive oxygen species can be lethal if they are present in numbers higher than the organism
is capable of attenuating. Natural dissolved organic matter can absorb ultraviolet radiation to induce
photochemical reactions (Miller, 1998). The energy transfer of a high-energy photon to absorbing molecule
produces highly reactive species
such as superoxides (O2-), hydrogen peroxides (H2O2), and hydroxyl radicals (OH•) (Stumm and Morgan,
1995; Miller 1998). These highly reactive species in turn oxidize microbial cellular components such as
nucleic acids, enzymes, and membrane lipids, which kill the microorganisms (McGuiganet al., 1999; Reed
1996; Reed 1997).
Thermal Inactivation
Thermal effects can act synergistically in the disinfection process if they can overcome microbial heat
resistance. As temperatures rise past the maximum growth value, it becomes difficult for proteins to form
their proper structures and it causes already formed proteins to unfold. Denatured proteins do not function
properly and may eventually kill the organism (Brock, 2000).
Drawings
25
Wash the bottle well the first time you use it.
Fill the bottle with water and close the lid well.
Expose the bottles to the sun morning to evening for at least 6 hours.
26
CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA
Table 4.1 Water Test Result
Figure 4.1 Weather Temperature
The result of the test shown that Bottle A which is not exposed to sun and was directly collected from the
bottle came from the laboratory is potable meaning it doesn’t needed to be treated. Bottle B which is water
collected to PET bottle and exposed from the sun for 6 hours is not potable and according to the result of
the laboratory test it contains a total coliform of >8 MPN/100ml. Bottle C which is water collected to PET
Bottle and exposed from the sun for 12 hours has the same result.
The results simply say that using Pet Bottle that was already used have an effect on who the
microbiological component of the water that is intended to treat. 2 out of 3 Bottles are exposed at the same
site at the same average temperature 32°C of and the same quality of PET Bottles, the only difference on
27
the variables is the number of hours where the 3 bottles was exposed, this means that there is something
components with the used PET Bottles that affects microbiological component of a water that is intended to
be treated.
CHAPTER 5 FINDINGS CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

28

Research in Hydrology Sodis Final With Chapter 4edited

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Solar Disinfection Using Pet Bottles as Economical Water Treatment In Water Well In Montalban,

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUD

1.1.1 HISTORY OF “SODIS”

1.1.2 WATER SUPPLY IN MONTALBAN, RIZAL PHILIPPINES

Potential Water Source Options

Water Treatment in Montalban (Rodriguez), Rizal

1.1.3 WATER QUALITY IN MONTALBAN, RIZAL PHILIPPINES

Source: “ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT “500MW WAWA PUMPED- STORAGE

1.1.4 GROUNDWATER IN MONTALBAN, RIZAL PHILIPPINES

Update Source (March 5, 2017)

1.1.5 WATER RESOURCES IN MONTALBAN, RIZAL PHILIPPINES

Source: Greenpeace: The state of water resources in the Philippines

1.1.6 CASES OF DISEASES DUE TO LACK OF POTABLE WATER SUPPLY

1.2 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

offices in Lausanne and Balerna, we have 140 employees.

1.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

1.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

1.5 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM/OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

1.7 SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Coliform - a type of bacteria. The presence of coliform-group bacteria is an indication of possible

EAWAG - Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology

Groundwater recharge - inflow to a groundwater reservoir

WHO - World Health Organization

UNICEF - United Nations Children's Fund

Pathogenic microorganism - of a bacterium, virus, or other microorganism) causing disease.

Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW) –

Protein–energy malnutrition (PEM) or protein–calorie malnutrition refers to a form of malnutrition where

MPN Most Probable Number

RELATED STUDIES AND LITERATURE

FOREIGN RELATED STUDIES AND LITERATURE

Solar Water Disinfection

Point-of-Use Water Treatment

(Lehr et al., 1980; Shultz et al., 1984):

1. Effective on many types and large numbers of pathogens

2. Should perform regardless of water fluctuations

3. Must operate in appropriate pH and temperature range

4. Should not make the water toxic or unpalatable

5. Should be safe and easy to handle

6. Any chemical concentrations should be minor

7. Must provide residual protection against possible recontamination

10. Specialized equipment should be produced locally

11. Must be accepted by local traditions, customs, and cultural standards

12. Must comply with national sanitation and pollution policies

How UV-A kills germs

Water temperature affects disinfection

Fecal Coliform and E. coli

Inactivation of Specific Microorganism and Heat Sensitivity

Aging of plastic bottles

Adipates and phthalates

Bacteria – Escherichia coli

Bacteria – Vibrio cholera

Bacteria – Shigella flexneri

Bacteria – Campylobacter jejuni

Bacteria – Yersinia enterocolitica

Parasites – Cryptosporidium (needs 10 hours exposure

Advantage and Disadvantage of SODIS

The SODIS methd has specific comparative advantages and drawbacks:

Specific comparative advantages of SODIS

• Effectiveness against pathogenic bacteria

• Easy to understand and to apply

• Integrated protection from re-contamination if water is stored in the SODIS bottles

• No adverse effect on the water’s taste

Specific comparative drawbacks of SODIS