Pyke 1

Michelle K. Pyke
University of Washington
Professor Karam Dana, Honors 231 B
Response Paper #3
In his novel entitled The Politics of Islamophobia, Dr. David Tyrer offers a contemporary

framework for the highly contested form of discrimination known as Islamophobia.1 In his study,

he refers to the text of Runnymede Trust’s 1997 report that paved the way towards an open

discussion about the phenomenon of discrimination against Muslims, given that it was, and

continues to be, a prominent sign of Western implicit bias. The report defined Islamophobia as

“unfounded hostility towards Islam” and further proposed that Islamophobia “refers also to the

exclusion of Muslims from mainstream political and social affairs.”2 With this definition in

mind, the Runnymede Trust report suggests that Islamophobia should be understood as a form of

religious, rather than racial, discrimination. However, Tyrer argues that it can, in fact, involve

both. Muslims are followers of Islam, the religion founded by the prophet Muhammad and

preserved by the holy text of the Qur’an. This implies that there is no phenotypic basis for

Muslims. In the context of western culture, this fact is blatantly disregarded due to the

implications of Orientalism, a theory originally introduced by Palestinian-American scholar and

activist Edward Said. Said argues the notion that anti-Arab sentiment is deeply rooted in Western

efforts to use preconceptions to understand the unfamiliar.3 The progression of Islamophobia in

1
David Tyrer. “Framing Islamophobia.” The Politics of Islamophobia: Race, Power and
Fantasy, Pluto Books, 2013, pp. 21–40.
2
The Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia. Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All.
England, Runnymede Trust, Oct. 1997.
3
Edward W. Said. “ORIENTALISM.” The Georgia Review, vol. 31, no. 1, 1977, pp. 162–206.
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recent years indicates widespread ignorance about the principles of Islam and unfortunately,

religious views have become an invitation for racial judgment. This definition of Islamophobia

serves as the basis for my exploration of why anti-Muslim feelings persist in the context of

European society. I argue that Islamophobic rhetoric found in European history and modern

politics is largely due to the innate fear of strangers and unjustified insecurities to protect

national identity.

Even without threatening provocations, unifying pluralistic communities remains a

difficult task. According to Jewish-American political theorist Hannah Arendt:

What unites the citizens is not some set of common values but the world they set
up in common, the public spaces they inhabit together, the acknowledgment of its
rules and the commitment to the continuance of its institutions.4

Following this logic, Ash Amin, a geography professor at the University of Cambridge, suggests

that the European Union is an “imagined community” because it does not meet its ideals for

universalism and multiculturalism; it is ultimately a “land of strangers.”5 Humankind’s innate

fear of strangers prevents a means for “coexistence with the preservation of difference” as Said

notably puts it.6 Arendt explicitly states that a “world of institutions” must be fabricated to

manifest the plurality of human beings.7 She further suggests, “this plurality arises out of the fact

that not man (in the singular), but men (in the plural), inhabit the earth.” This assertion may be

4
Roland Axtmann. “Globality, Plurality and Freedom: The Arendtian Perspective.” Review of
International Studies, vol. 32, no. 1, 2006, pp. 93–117.
5
Leigh Nanney Hersey. “Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit
Organizations.” Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, vol.
24, no. 3, 2013, pp. 909–910.
6
Said. “ORIENTALISM.” pp. 162–206.
7
Axtmann. “Globality, Plurality and Freedom.” pp. 93–117.
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regarded as idealistic, but it also carries an underlying solution to this fear of “the Other.”8 It is

no question that one who appears like a stranger is regarded as such until there is evidence to

suggest otherwise. Islamophobia exists because of society’s tendency to rely on its perceptions as

a means to shape truth; in other words, society’s observations are falsely regarded as accurate

depictions of what is true about the world. I believe that this misconception is the root of why

Islamophobia persists across time. This is a fight against ourselves - our implicit biases and

natural reaction to the unfamiliar.

In his collection of poetry entitled The August Sleepwalker, Bei Dao writes the following:

In the world I am
Always a stranger
I do not understand its language
It does not understand my silence9

Dao’s profound words reflect the stories of all who have been condemned to exile in both a

physical and an ideological sense. Islamophobia is a direct result of the failure to welcome

“strangers” due to racial and religious prejudices. The last two verses of Dao’s poem are all too

telling. When silence is mistaken for an invitation for domination, the words of the “stranger” are

left unsaid. The definition of a “stranger” is a social construct because identifying an individual

as such is a common defensive mechanism to justify an unreasonable excuse to not engage with

the unfamiliar. In other words, the widespread fear of strangers is really an issue of loyalty - of

attempting to retain a sense of “community” in the face of diversity. Oftentimes, citizens confuse

community with some sense of national identity that “strangers” are not welcome to. It is

8
Edward W. Said. “The Myth of 'The Clash of Civilizations.’” Media Education Foundation,
1998, University of Massachusetts. Speech transcript.
9
Dao, Bei. The August Sleepwalker. Translated by Bonnie S. McDougall, London, Anvil Press
Poetry, 1988.
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essential to acknowledge that historically speaking, this misconception is prevalent. In order to

transform the present into a time of “cooperation and humanistic exchange,” the negative

association to the word “stranger” needs to be amended.10

The consequences of orientalism as a reaction to pre-existing differences within civil

society is further explored by Ash Amin in his work Land of Strangers. In her review of Amin’s

novel, Leigh Nanney Hersey questions how these inclusive societies adapt to ever-growing

populations of “strangers,” or those who bear differences to the host population.11 One response

is deeply rooted in state interests. Ash Amin suggests that domestic security policies intended to

protect a singular culture actually escalate “fear, insecurity, and animosity among majorities.”

This is an intriguing point because it is often assumed that minorities, or those who are directly

targeted by these formal declarations, are the ones who would respond in this manner. However,

both parties may feel threatened in reality. Dr. David Tyrer used Switzerland as an example of

this in his report about Islamophobia. He notes that:

Although Switzerland’s Muslim population had hitherto been thought of as well-

integrated, in a 2009 referendum over 50 per cent voted in favour of a move to
ban the erection of new minarets on mosques...The ban was based on the notion
that minarets are political rather than religious symbols.12

The results of the referendum indicate that Muslims are perceived as a political threat and that

their ideals cannot be tolerated given the democratic laws of western societies. This

misunderstanding relates to the civic duty of protecting one’s community in terms of security in

freedom and shared values. Policies that increase surveillance, control, and compliance imply

10
Said. "The Clash of Civilizations." Speech transcript.
11
Hersey. “Voluntas: International Journal.” pp. 909–910.
12
Tyrer. “Framing Islamophobia.” pp. 21–40.
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that there is a reason to suspect those around us. What may have been a mundane task for one

could be interpreted as a danger to the wellbeing of the community for another. In any case, it

invites citizens to actively search for a reason to be afraid - even when no threat truly exists.

Thus, “strangers” are perceived as not only outsiders, but also outsiders with a dangerous

agenda. Islamophobia continues to exist because of this very reason. The anti-Muslim rhetoric

employed by the far right across Europe publicly manipulates its overtly discriminatory language

into nationalistic messages. As Tory leader William Hague warned at the Conservative Party

conference in 2001, “Britain would be turned into a foreign land” if immigration was

encouraged.13 According to Liz Fekete, the unfortunate reality is that “politicians use a coded

language that avoids overtly racist terminology while tapping into the prejudices of key voters

who fully understand the unstated idea expressed.” Because the leaders of these political parties

ultimately shape the future direction of the party itself, these false statements are never corrected.

They serve as a reminder that the illusion of knowledge is the actual enemy of the state, not the

socially constructed figure whose name fits the crime in theory. Whether it is the natural fear of

the unfamiliar or unjustified nationalistic agendas, the cause of Islamophobia must be further

explored in the coming years. Until the majority recognizes the need for amending both their

personal prejudices and their actions, anti-Muslim sentiments will remain. Followers of Islam

deserve a place in our shared world and the movement to achieve such a dream ultimately begins

with the efforts of one.

13
Liz Fekete. “The Growth of Xeno-Racism and Islamophobia in Britain.” Race, Racism and
Social Work: Contemporary Issues and Debates, edited by Michael Lavalette and Laura Penketh,
Policy Press at the University of Bristol, 2014, pp. 33–52.
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Bibliography

Axtmann, Roland. “Globality, Plurality and Freedom: The Arendtian Perspective.” Review of
International Studies, vol. 32, no. 1, 2006, pp. 93–117.

Dao, Bei. The August Sleepwalker. Translated by Bonnie S. McDougall, London, Anvil Press
Poetry, 1988.

Fekete, Liz. “The Growth of Xeno-Racism and Islamophobia in Britain.” Race, Racism and
Social Work: Contemporary Issues and Debates, edited by Michael Lavalette and Laura
Penketh, Policy Press at the University of Bristol, 2014, pp. 33–52.

Hersey, Leigh Nanney. “Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit

Organizations.” Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit
Organizations, vol. 24, no. 3, 2013, pp. 909–910.

Said, Edward W. “ORIENTALISM.” The Georgia Review, vol. 31, no. 1, 1977, pp. 162–206.

Said, Edward W. “The Myth of 'The Clash of Civilizations.'" Media Education Foundation,
1998, University of Massachusetts. Speech transcript.

The Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia. Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All.
England, Runnymede Trust, Oct. 1997.

Tyrer, David. “Framing Islamophobia.” The Politics of Islamophobia: Race, Power and Fantasy,
Pluto Books, 2013, pp. 21–40.