Vencer, Danica Karen C.

DMD-1A

1. Compare the structures and pathways of the autonomic system with those involved in the control
of skeletal muscle.
The somatic part of the nervous system has sensory components which convey sensations from
the eyes, the nose and other sensory organs to the brain (mainly the cerebral cortex) where most
of the impulses reach our awareness, and motor components transmitting impulses to the
skeletal muscles in the limbs and trunk permitting voluntary control of movements.
The autonomic nervous system conveys sensory impulses from the blood vessels, the heart and
all of the organs in the chest, abdomen and pelvis through nerves to other parts of the brain.
These impulses often do not reach our consciousness, but elicit largely automatic or reflex
responses through the efferent autonomic nerves, thereby eliciting appropriate reactions of the
heart, the vascular system, and all the organs of the body to variations in environmental
temperature, posture, food intake, stressful experiences and other changes to which all
individuals are exposed.

2. Explain how autonomic innervation of involuntary effectors differs from the innervation of
skeletal muscle.
Preganglionic autonomic neurons originate from the brain or spinal cord while the postganglionic
neurons originate from ganglia located outside the CNS. Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and
glands receive autonomic innervation. The involuntary effectors are somewhat independent of
their innervation and become hypersensitive when their innervation is removed. Autonomic
nerves can have either excitatory or inhibitory effects on their target organs.

3. Describe the structure and general functions of the sympathetic division of the autonomic system.
There are two kinds of neurons involved in the transmission of any signal through the sympathetic
system: pre-ganglionic and post-ganglionic. At the synapses within the ganglia, preganglionic
neurons release acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that activates nicotinic acetylcholine
receptors on postganglionic neurons. In response to this stimulus postganglionic neurons—with
two important exceptions release norepinephrine, which activates adrenergic receptors on the
peripheral target tissues.

4. Describe the structure and general functions of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic
system.
As in the sympathetic nervous system, efferent parasympathetic nerve signals are carried from
the central nervous system to their targets by a system of two neurons. The first neuron in this
pathway is referred to as the preganglionic or presynaptic neuron. Its cell body sits in the central
nervous system and its axon usually extends to synapse with the dendrites of a postganglionic
neuron somewhere else in the body. The axons of presynaptic parasympathetic neurons are
usually long, extending from the CNS into a ganglion that is either very close to or embedded in
their target organ. As a result, the postsynaptic parasympathetic nerve fibers are very short
5. List the neurotransmitters of the preganglionic and postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic
and parasympathetic systems.
All preganglionic autonomic nerve fibers are cholinergic that use ACh as a neurotransmitter) while
all postganglionic parasympathetic fibers are cholinergic. Most postganglionic sympathetic fibers
are adrenergic that use norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter).

6. Describe the structural and functional relationships between the sympathetic system and the
adrenal medulla.
The adrenal glands are located on both sides of the body in the retroperitoneum, above and
slightly medial to the kidneys. In humans, the right adrenal gland is pyramidal in shape, whereas
the left is semilunar and somewhat larger. Some preganglionic fibers innervate the adrenal
medulla, which secretes epinephrine (and some norepinephrine) into the blood in response to
stimulation.

7. Distinguish between the different types of adrenergic receptors and explain the physiological and
clinical significance of these receptors.
The two main classes of adrenergic receptor proteins are alpha and beta. Some organs have only
alpha or beta receptors; other organs such as the heart have both types of receptors. There are
two subtypes of alpha receptors a1 and a2 and two subtypes of beta receptors b1 and b2. These
subtypes can be selectively stimulated or blocked by therapeutic drugs.

8. Explain how the cholinergic receptors are categorized and describe the effects produced by
stimulation of these receptors.
Cholinergic effects of parasympathetic nerves are promoted by the drug muscarinic and inhibited
by atropine.

9. Explain the antagonistic, complementary, and cooperative effects of sympathetic and

parasympathetic innervation on different organs.
In organs with dual innervation, the effects of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions can
be antagonistic, complementary, or cooperative. The effects are antagonistic in the heart and
pupils of the eyes. The effects are complementary in the regulation of salivary gland secretion and
are cooperative in the regulation of the reproductive and urinary systems.

10. Explain how the autonomic system is controlled by the brain.

The medulla oblongata of the brain stem is the area that most directly controls the activity of the
autonomic system. It is in turn influenced by sensory input and by input from the hypothalamus.
The hypothalamus is influenced by input from the limbic system, cerebellum, and cerebrum.
These interconnections provide an autonomic component to some of the visceral responses that
accompany emotions.